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105-554: The sea was named after Robert Todd Lincoln , then United States Secretary of War , on Adolphus W. Greely 's 1881–1884 Arctic expedition into Lady Franklin Bay . Alert , the northernmost station of Canada, is the only populated place on the shore of Lincoln Sea. The body of water to the east of Lincoln Sea (east of Cape Morris Jesup) is the Wandel Sea . Because of the severe ice conditions that last year-round, oceanographic measurements of

210-413: A boreal forest have been reported from Strathcona Fiord . In 2006, University of Chicago paleontologist Neil Shubin and Academy of Natural Sciences paleontologist Ted Daeschler reported the discovery of the fossil of a Paleozoic (ca. 375 Ma) fish, named Tiktaalik roseae , in the former stream beds of Ellesmere Island. The fossil exhibits many characteristics of fish, but also indicates

315-457: A transitional creature that may be a predecessor of amphibians , reptiles , birds, and mammals , including humans. In 2011, Jason P. Downs and co-authors described the sarcopterygian Laccognathus embryi from specimens collected from the same locality that Tiktaalik was found. The ecosystems of the High Arctic are considered to be young and underdeveloped, having only emerged since

420-653: A 1909 Warner & Swasey refracting telescope with a six-inch John A. Brashear objective lens was installed. Lincoln's telescope and observatory have been restored and it was used by a local astronomy club in the early 2000s. Lincoln was also a dedicated golfer, and served as president of the Ekwanok Country Club in Manchester. His last public appearance was on May 30, 1922, at the dedication ceremony for his father's memorial in Washington, D.C. Robert Lincoln

525-661: A 42% loss in surface area. Schei and later Alfred Gabriel Nathorst described the Paleocene - Eocene (ca. 55 Ma) fossil forest in the Stenkul Fiord sediments. The Stenkul Fiord site represents a series of deltaic swamp and floodplain forests. The trees stood for at least 400 years. Individual stumps and stems of >1 m (>3 ft) diameter were abundant, and are identified as Metasequoia and possibly Glyptostrobus . Well preserved Pliocene peats containing abundant vertebrate and plant macrofossils characteristic of

630-636: A Canadian sea ice study, an area of approximately 22500 km of multi-year sea ice is drained through the Nares Strait each year. During the Northern Hemisphere winter , an area of about 225 km of ice reforms, resulting in 335 km of total sea ice drainage. Although this represents only one of the many pathways from the Arctic Ocean basin through the Canadian archipelago, "…this [total drainage]

735-542: A campaign. He served as Secretary of War in the administration of James A. Garfield , continuing under Chester A. Arthur , and as Minister to Great Britain in the Benjamin Harrison administration. Lincoln became general counsel of the Pullman Company , and after founder George Pullman died in 1897, Lincoln assumed the company's presidency. After retiring from this position in 1911, Lincoln served as chairman of

840-502: A character has appeared multiple times on film, in television programs, and in dramatic productions. Ellesmere Island Ellesmere Island ( Inuktitut : ᐅᒥᖕᒪᒃ ᓄᓇ , romanized :  Umingmak Nuna , lit.   'land of muskoxen '; French : île d'Ellesmere ) is Canada's northernmost and third largest island , and the tenth largest in the world. It comprises an area of 196,236 km (75,767 sq mi), slightly smaller than Great Britain , and

945-459: A distant relationship with his father, in part because, during his formative years, Abraham Lincoln spent months on the judicial circuit. Lincoln recalled, "During my childhood and early youth he was almost constantly away from home, attending court or making political speeches." Abraham apparently realized that his being away had a potential impact on his sons as evidenced by the following quote from his April 16, 1848, letter to his wife: "don't let

1050-513: A long & most anxious struggle and at times had hopes of saving our boy. It would have been done if it had depended only on his own marvelous pluck & patience now that the end has come, there is a great blank in our future lives & an affliction not to be measured." Historian Michael Burlingame considered Robert Todd Lincoln to be "a particularly unfortunate, even tragic figure." Lincoln himself once said, "No one wanted me for Secretary of War... For minister to England... For president of

1155-464: A massive calving in 1961–1962. Five large ice islands which resulted account for 79% of the calved material. It further decreased by 27% in thickness (13 m (43 ft)) between 1967 and 1999. A 1986 survey of Canadian ice shelves found that 48 km (19 sq mi) or 3.3 km (0.79 cu mi) of ice calved from the Milne and Ayles ice shelves between 1959 and 1974. The breakup of

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1260-588: A result of their confrontations over his Lincoln biography, in 1890 Herndon wrote to Jesse Weik , his Lincoln biography collaborator, that Robert was "a Todd and not a Lincoln ... a little bitter fellow of the pig-headed kind, silly and cold and selfish." Lincoln was general counsel of the Pullman Palace Car Company under George Pullman , and was named president after Pullman's death in 1897. According to Almont Lindsey's 1942 book, The Pullman Strike , Lincoln arranged to have Pullman quietly excused from

1365-520: A shipwreck. A bronze set of scales discovered in western Ellesmere Island has been interpreted as indicating the presence of a Norse trader in the region. The Norse artefacts date from c. 1250 to 1400 CE. Between 1400 and 1600 CE, the Little Ice Age developed and conditions for hunting became increasingly difficult, forcing the Thule to withdraw from Ellesmere and the other northern islands of

1470-467: A town which was later absorbed into the city of Chicago. In 1877 he rejected President Rutherford B. Hayes ' offer to appoint him Assistant Secretary of State . He was appointed by President James Garfield as Secretary of War and served from 1881 to 1885 under Garfield and then Chester A. Arthur . During his term in office, the Cincinnati Riots of 1884 broke out over a case in which a jury gave

1575-497: A train platform in Jersey City , New Jersey . The exact date is uncertain, but it is believed to have taken place in late 1863 or early 1864, before John Wilkes Booth's assassination of President Lincoln. In a letter written in 1909 to the editor of The Century Magazine , Robert Lincoln recalled what had happened that day: The incident occurred while a group of passengers were late at night purchasing their sleeping car places from

1680-636: A verdict of manslaughter rather than murder in a case that many suspected was rigged. Forty-five people died during three days of rioting before U.S. troops dispatched by Lincoln reestablished calm. Subsequent to serving as Secretary of War, Lincoln assisted Oscar Dudley to establish the Illinois Industrial Training School for Boys (now known as Glenwood Academy) in Norwood Park in 1887, after Dudley (a Humane Society employee) "discovered more homeless, neglected and abused boys than dogs on

1785-697: Is administered as part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region in the Canadian territory of Nunavut . Ellesmere Island has three major geological regions. The Grant Land Highlands is a large belt of fold mountains which dominate the northern face of the island. It is part of the Franklinian mobile belt, a zone of Cretaceous volcanic and intrusive rock. South of this is the Greely-Hazen Plateau, a large tableland composed of sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Covering most of

1890-464: Is an order of magnitude less than the flux of sea ice out of [the] Fram Strait." A disagreement over a 200-square-kilometre section of the Lincoln Sea emerged after 1973 when Canada and Denmark signed a treaty establishing the offshore boundary north of Canada's Ellesmere Island and Danish -controlled Greenland but left portions of it undefined. From Canada's point of view, the point of focus in

1995-438: Is exceeded in this regard only by neighbouring Greenland , which extends about 60 km (37 mi) closer to the north pole. Ellesmere's northernmost point, Cape Columbia (at 83°06′41″N 69°57′13″W  /  83.11139°N 69.95361°W  / 83.11139; -69.95361  ( Cape Columbia ) ), is less than 800 km (500 mi) from the north pole, while its southern coasts at 77°N are well within

2100-727: Is located in the British Empire Range on Ellesmere Island. The most northern mountain range in the world, the Challenger Mountains , is located in the northeast region of the island. The northern lobe of the island is called Grant Land . The Arctic willow is the only woody species to grow on Ellesmere Island. In July 2007, a study noted the disappearance of habitat for waterfowl , invertebrates , and algae on Ellesmere Island. According to John Smol of Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario , and Marianne S. V. Douglas of

2205-487: Is too insignificant to be used by Greenland to help determine the international boundary. In 2022, Canada and Denmark formalized the maritime boundary between Nunavut and Greenland, including in the Lincoln Sea, and establishing a land border on Hans Island . The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Lincoln Sea as follows: On the North. Cape Columbia to Cape Morris Jesup ( Greenland ). On

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2310-549: The American Civil War , respectively. By about 1860, the focus of Arctic exploration had shifted to the North Pole . As earlier attempts at the pole via Svalbard or eastern Greenland had reached impasses, numerous expeditions came to Ellesmere Island to pursue the route through Nares Straight. The United States expedition led by Adolphus Greely in 1881 crossed the island from east to west, establishing Fort Conger in

2415-592: The Bering Strait , Pacific Ocean waters flow counterclockwise (cyclonically) along the northern shores of Canada , passing through the Lincoln Sea. Atlantic Ocean waters cyclonically flow in from and return to the Eurasian basin along the Greenland Sea continental slope. The waters of these basins converge at the Lincoln Sea, creating unique vertical temperature and salinity profiles here. Measurements detail that both

2520-596: The British Arctic Territories were transferred to Canada. Canada did little to solidify its legal possession of the islands until prompted by foreign action in 1902–03: Otto Sverdrup claimed three islands west of Ellesmere for Norway, the Alaska boundary dispute was settled against Canada's interests, and Roald Amundsen set out to sail the Northwest Passage. To establish an official government presence in

2625-548: The Court of St James's , from 1889 to 1893 under President Benjamin Harrison . Lincoln's teenage son, Abraham II "Jack", died during this time in Europe. After serving as minister, Lincoln returned to private business as a lawyer. Robert fought to preserve and protect his father's legacy, clashing with Abraham Lincoln biographer William Herndon over Herndon's statements about his father. As

2730-463: The Dorset people some time after 1300 CE. The Thule displaced the small-tool cultures, having a number of technological advantages which notably included effective weapons, kayaks and umiaks for hunting marine mammals, and sled dogs for surface transport and pursuit. The Thule also had an extensive trade network, evidenced by meteoritic iron from Greenland which was exported through Ellesmere Island to

2835-712: The Kalaallit of West Greenland, and Inuit of the archipelago are descendants of the Thule culture, which had diverged during the isolation imposed by the Little Ice Age.) Knowledge of Ellesmere persisted in the oral histories of the Inuit of Baffin Island and the Inughuit of northern Greenland, who each called it Umingmak Nuna ( Inuktitut for 'land of muskoxen '). The search for Franklin's lost expedition – also searching for

2940-546: The Northwest Passage and undertaken by Britain. The 1616 expedition of William Baffin were the first Europeans to record sighting the then-unnamed Ellesmere Island (Baffin named Jones and Smith Sounds on the island's south and southeast coasts). However, the onset of the Little Ice Age interrupted the progress of explorations for two centuries. In 1818, an ice jam in Baffin Bay broke, allowing European vessels access to

3045-615: The Old University of Chicago and studied law at the Chicago firm of Scammon , McCagg & Fuller. On January 1, 1866, Lincoln moved out of the apartment he shared with his mother and brother. He rented his own rooms in downtown Chicago to "begin to live with some degree of comfort" which he had not known when living in cramped conditions with his family. Lincoln graduated from Northwestern University with an LL.B. in 1866 and became licensed as an attorney in Chicago on February 22, 1867. He

3150-495: The Royal Geographical Society (1849–1852), Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere . The Second Grinnell expedition (1853–1855) made slightly further progress before becoming trapped in the ice. Over two winters the expedition charted both sides of Kane Basin to about 80°N, from where Elisha Kent Kane claimed to have sighted the conjectured Open Polar Sea . During this period, as the Little Ice Age abated and

3255-489: The Union Army in the closing days of the American Civil War . After the war was over, he married Mary Eunice Harlan , and they had three children together. Following completion of his law school studies in Chicago, he built a successful law practice, and became wealthy representing corporate clients. Lincoln was often spoken of as a possible candidate for national office, including the presidency, but never took steps to mount

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3360-543: The University of Alberta in Edmonton , warming conditions and evaporation have caused low water levels and changes in the chemistry of ponds and wetlands in the area. The researchers noted that "In the 1980s they often needed to wear hip waders to make their way to the ponds...while by 2006 the same areas were dry enough to burn." Ellesmere Island has a tundra climate ( Köppen ET ) and an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with

3465-477: The Ward Hunt Ice Shelf . In 1906 Robert Peary led an expedition in northern Ellesmere Island, from Cape Sheridan along the coast to the western side of Nansen Sound (93°W). During Peary's expedition, the ice shelf was continuous; it has since been estimated to have covered 8,900 km (3,400 sq mi). The ice shelf broke apart in the 20th century, presumably due to climate change . In 1880,

3570-465: The 1800s through whaling stations and trading posts, which frequently relocated. Euro-American expeditions employed Inughuit, Inuit and west Greenlander guides, hunters and labourers, gradually blending their knowledge with European technology to conduct effective exploration. British and United States Arctic expeditions had been interrupted for some years due to the priorities of the Crimean War and

3675-552: The Arctic Circle. Ellesmere has the highest and longest mountain ranges in eastern North America and is the most mountainous island in the Arctic Archipelago. It has over half of the archipelago's ice cover, with ice caps and glaciers across 40% of its surface. Its extensive coastline includes some of the world's longest fiords. To the west, Ellesmere is separated from Axel Heiberg Island by Nansen and Eureka Sounds ,

3780-532: The Arctic region. The majority of sea ice export takes place on the eastern edges of the Arctic Ocean circulation near Greenland through the Fram Strait . Sea ice export through the Canadian archipelago was originally assumed to be zero, but that is not the case. The Lincoln Sea contains very thick multi-year sea ice, and so was thought to be stationary because of the apparent lack of oceanic outlets. However, according to

3885-506: The Army until shortly before the war's conclusion. President Lincoln argued "our son is not more dear to us than the sons of other people are to their mothers." In January 1865, the First Lady gave in and President Lincoln wrote Ulysses Grant, asking if Robert could be placed on his staff. On February 11, 1865, Lincoln was commissioned as an assistant adjutant with a captain's rank. He served in

3990-701: The Ellesmere Ice Shelves has continued in the 21st century: the Ward Ice Shelf experienced a major breakup during the summer of 2002; the Ayles Ice Shelf calved entirely on 13 August 2005; the largest breakoff of the ice shelf in 25 years, it may pose a threat to the oil industry in the Beaufort Sea . The piece is 66 km (25 sq mi). In April 2008, it was discovered that the Ward Hunt shelf

4095-532: The Executive mansion for two and a half weeks because his mother had told him that "she can not possibly be ready to leave here". Lincoln also acknowledged that he was aware of the "great inconvenience" this would be to Johnson since he had become president of the United States only a short time earlier. In late April, 1865, Robert moved to the city of Chicago with his remaining family. He attended law classes at

4200-552: The Far North, the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) were sent on sovereignty patrols. A NWMP detachment sailed to the Arctic whaling stations in 1903, where they forbade whalers from killing muskox or trading skins, in order to prevent overhunting and protect the Inuit's ability to sustain themselves. In 1904 a NWMP detachment sailed to Cape Herschel at the east end of Sverdrup Pass, where they could intercept hunters accessing

4305-690: The Harvard College entrance examination in 1859, but failed fifteen out of the sixteen subjects. Subsequently, Lincoln was enrolled at Phillips Exeter Academy to prepare for college; he graduated Phillips Exeter in 1860. Admitted to Harvard, he graduated in 1864, having been elected vice-president of the Hasty Pudding Club , and was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon (Alpha chapter) fraternity. Welsh author Jan Morris wrote that Robert Lincoln, "having failed fifteen out of sixteen subjects in

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4410-479: The Harvard entrance examination, got in at last and emerged an unsympathetic bore." After graduating from Harvard, Robert Lincoln enrolled at Harvard Law School . Lincoln attended Harvard Law School from September 1864 to January 1865, but left after four months in order to join the Union Army . In 1893, Harvard awarded Lincoln the honorary degree of LL.D. Mary Todd Lincoln prevented Robert Lincoln from joining

4515-645: The High Arctic ( whalers had been active in Davis Strait , about 1,000 km [620 mi] southeast of Ellesmere, since 1719). Baffin Bay was then navigable in the summers due to the presence of an ice dam in Smith Sound, which prevented Arctic drift ice from flowing south. The other channels of the archipelago remained congested with ice. That year, John Ross led the first recorded European expedition to Cape York , at which time there were reportedly only 140 Inughuit . (The Inughuit of North Greenland,

4620-420: The Inughuit. Other groups followed and by the 1870s Inuit were living on Ellesmere Island and had regular contact with those on the neighbouring islands. Contact between Inuit and Europeans or Americans was often indirect, as the Inuit happened upon shipwrecks or abandoned base camps which provided wood and metal resources. European goods were also obtained through inter-group trade. Long-term contact began in

4725-542: The June thaw. The seasonal shift in daylight is also extreme. The polar night lasts from four-and-a-half months in the north to about three months in the south. Ellesmere's Arctic marine climate is strongly affected in the north by Arctic Ocean currents and the polar vortex, while the climate of the southeastern coast is influenced by the warm Atlantic water of the West Greenland Current . Interior regions shielded by

4830-437: The Lincoln Sea dispute has been Denmark's inclusion of Beaumont Island (Greenland) (not to be confused with Beaumont Island off the west coast of Graham Land , Antarctica ) off Greenland's northwest coast in calculating the boundary. The boundary is determined in that region by an "equidistance" principle that draws the line halfway between points along each country's coastline. Canada has basically argued that Beaumont Island

4935-583: The Lincoln Sea have been all but impossible. Before the 1980s, only low-flying aircraft samplings and ground observations from ice islands could be attempted; these did not stray far from the shores of Greenland and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago due to the harsh environment. Between 1989 and 1994, the field experiments in Project Spinnaker were underway, implementing instrumentation that captured temperature and salinity profiles well into

5040-529: The Lincoln Sea undercurrent continuously flows and is a component of the boundary current system that spans between Alaska and Greenland along the northern shores of the Canadian archipelago. In May 2004 and 2005, electromagnetic measurements from helicopters revealed insights into the thickness of the sea ice in the Lincoln Sea and surrounding waters. With thicknesses ranging between 3.9 and 4.2 m, multi-year ice dominates south of 84°N. First-year ice , with thicknesses ranging between 0.9 and 2.2 m, denotes

5145-411: The Northwest Passage and to establish claims to the Far North – involved more than forty expeditions to the High Arctic over two decades, and represented the peak period of Euro-American Arctic exploration. Edward Augustus Inglefield led an 1852 expedition which surveyed the coastlines of Baffin Bay and Smith Sound, being stopped by ice in Nares Strait. He named Ellesmere Island for the president of

5250-454: The Pacific and Eurasian Ocean water profiles are clearly offset from one another, an important facet of the hydrography of the Lincoln Sea. The Lincoln Sea has been found to contain water with three distinct properties. The first concerns the water in the inner part of the Lincoln Sea shelf, where the temperature and salinity profiles increase from the surface to the seafloor. The second involves

5355-574: The Pleistocene epoch (>2.6 Ma ) established the overall features of the island. Additional uplift occurred due to isostatic rebound following the last glacial period. Land features were then shaped by erosion from glacial ice, meltwaters, and scouring by sea ice. It is believed that each of the pre-contact peoples who migrated through the High Arctic approached Ellesmere Island from the south and west. They were able to travel along Ellesmere's coasts or overland to Nares Strait, and some of them crossed

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5460-729: The Pullman Company; they wanted Abraham Lincoln's son." Nevertheless, he accepted the appointments and was very well-paid, becoming a millionaire lawyer and businessman, fond of the pleasures of the wealthy conservative Victorian gentlemen of his social circle. Lincoln is considered to have had little in common with his father personally or politically, not being humorous or unpretentious, but rather cold, stuffy, and aloof. Fanny Seward , daughter of secretary of state William H. Seward , described him, however, as "ready and easy in conversation having, I fancy, considerable humor in his disposition...agreeable, good-natured, and intelligent". Lincoln

5565-475: The South. Cape Columbia through Northeastern shore of Ellesmere Island to Cape Sheridan to Cape Bryant (Greenland) through Greenland to Cape Morris Jesup. Robert Todd Lincoln Robert Todd Lincoln (August 1, 1843 – July 26, 1926) was an American lawyer and businessman. The eldest son of President Abraham Lincoln and Mary Todd Lincoln , he was the only one of their four children to survive past

5670-468: The archipelago. The Thule who remained in northern Greenland became isolated, specialized at hunting a diminishing number of game animals, and lost the ability to make boats. Thus, the waters around Ellesmere were not navigated again until the arrival of large European vessels after 1800. Much of the initial phase of European exploration of the North American Arctic was centred on a search for

5775-428: The blessed fellows forget Father". One such example that gives insight into Robert's childhood in general was related by Joseph Humphreys, who had taken a train to Lexington, Kentucky, in 1847: "there were two lively youngsters on board who kept the whole train in a turmoil, and their long-legged father, instead of spanking the brats, looked pleased as Punch and aided and abetted the older one in mischief". Lincoln took

5880-575: The board until 1924. In Lincoln's later years, he resided at homes in Washington, D.C., and Manchester, Vermont ; the Manchester home, Hildene , was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977. In 1922, he took part in the dedication ceremonies for the Lincoln Memorial . Lincoln died at Hildene in July 1926, at age 82, and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery . Robert Todd Lincoln

5985-470: The central-east side of the island, and the Northern Ellesmere icefields (24,400 km (9,400 sq mi)). The northwest coast of Ellesmere Island was covered by a massive, 500 km (310 mi) long ice shelf until the 20th century. The Ellesmere Ice Shelf shrank by 90 per cent in the 20th century due to warming trends in the Arctic, particularly in the 1930s and 1940s, a period when

6090-498: The city streets." From 1884 to 1912, Lincoln's name was mentioned in varying degrees of seriousness as a candidate for the Republican presidential or vice-presidential nomination. He repeatedly disavowed any interest in running and stated he would not accept nomination for either position. His likeness was included in an 1888 set of "Presidential Possibilities" cards. Lincoln served as the U.S. minister to Great Britain, formally to

6195-448: The conductor who stood on the station platform at the entrance of the car. The platform was about the height of the car floor, and there was of course a narrow space between the platform and the car body. There was some crowding, and I happened to be pressed by it against the car body while waiting my turn. In this situation the train began to move, and by the motion I was twisted off my feet, and had dropped somewhat, with feet downward, into

6300-550: The continental margins of the Arctic Ocean basin, narrow boundary currents are hypothesized to house intense large-scale advection that is critical in the general circulation of Arctic waters. One of these boundary currents resides along the sloping edge of the Lincoln Sea shelf, between the base and the shelf break at approximately 1600 m. The current's strength is 5–6 cm/s, according to long-term measurements. Assuming an undercurrent with an average strength of 4 cm/s and dimensions of 50 km in length and 1000 m in depth,

6405-1066: The cooler climate of Mount Pleasant, during the 1880s the family would summer at the Harlan home there. The Harlan-Lincoln home, built in 1876, still stands today. Donated by Mary Harlan Lincoln to Iowa Wesleyan College in 1907, it now serves as a museum containing a collection of artifacts from the Lincoln family and from Abraham Lincoln's presidency. Of Robert's children, Jessie Harlan Lincoln Beckwith had two children, but neither Mary Lincoln Beckwith ("Peggy") nor Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith had children of their own. Robert's other daughter, Mary Todd Lincoln ("Mamie") married Charles Bradford Isham in 1891. They had one son, Lincoln Isham, who married Leahalma Correa in 1919, but died without children. The last person acknowledged and known to be of Lincoln lineage, Robert's grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, died in 1985. In 1871, Lincoln's only surviving brother, Tad, died at age 18, leaving his mother devastated. Lincoln

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6510-431: The day their inhabitants left. From these sites and artefacts, archaeologists have been able to construct a history of these cultures. However, the research is incomplete and only a small proportion of the details of excavations have been published. The Arctic small tool tradition peoples ( a.k.a. Paleo-Eskimos ) in the High Arctic had small populations organized as hunting bands, spread from Axel Heiberg Island to

6615-647: The editor of the Chicago Times and shortly, the embarrassment Robert had hoped to avoid came to the forefront, with his motives and character being publicly questioned. Bellevue's director, who at Mary's commitment trial assured the jury she would benefit from treatment at his facility, now declared her well enough to go to Springfield to live with her sister. Her commitment and subsequent events alienated Lincoln from his mother, and they did not possibly reconcile until shortly before her unexpected death. From 1876 to 1877 Lincoln served as Town Supervisor of South Chicago,

6720-525: The government amended the Northwest Game Act to prohibit the killing of muskoxen except for Native inhabitants who otherwise faced starvation. In 1920, the government learned that Inughuit from Greenland had been annually visiting Ellesmere Island for polar bear and muskox hunting – in violation of Canadian law – selling the skins at Knud Rasmussen 's trading post at Qaanaaq , formerly known as Thule. The Danish government stated that North Greenland

6825-546: The head of the family, he felt that it was his duty to protect her, although he did wish that she would have "every liberty and privilege" restored to her as soon as she was better. On May 20, 1875, she arrived at Bellevue Place , a private, upscale sanitarium in the Fox River Valley. Three months after she started living there, Mary Lincoln was able to escape from Bellevue Place. She smuggled letters to her lawyer, James B. Bradwell , and his wife, Myra . Mary also wrote to

6930-612: The heart of the Lincoln Sea. Taken just east of where the North American continent intersects the Lomonosov Ridge , these observations revealed the oceanographic features and current formations within and surrounding the Lincoln Sea. Along the continental margins of the Arctic Ocean basin, narrow boundary currents are hypothesized to house intense large-scale advection that is critical in the general circulation of Arctic waters. From

7035-461: The hunting of marine mammals became more feasible again, Aboriginal peoples began to return to Ellesmere Island. The most well-known of these migrations in both Inuit and European accounts is the journey of Qitlaq, who led a group of Inuit families from Baffin Island to northwestern Greenland, via Ellesmere Island, in the 1850s. This journey reestablished contact between Inuit who had been separated for two centuries and reintroduced vital technologies to

7140-468: The interior of Ellesmere. While the fur trade was brought under control, American exploration parties to the Far North had acted with autonomy and intensively hunted terrestrial mammals to sustain their expeditions. Peary's parties had heavily hunted muskoxen on Ellesmere and had nearly brought the extinction of caribou in northern Greenland; the Crocker Land Expedition (1913–1916) also extensively hunted muskoxen. In response to these and other trespasses,

7245-427: The interior. At Lake Hazen, Peary's expedition recorded daytime temperatures of −53 °C (−64 °F) in February 1900, and a Defence Research Board party recorded temperatures as low as −56.2 °C (−69.2 °F) in the winter of 1957–58. Nonetheless, there are archaeological remains of winter dwellings of both Independence and Thule cultures in the interior. A paleolimnological study of algae in

7350-465: The island's high mountain ranges experience distinctive quasi-continental microclimates . The highest precipitation is on the northern coast, averaging 80 to 100 mm (3.1 to 3.9 in). On the south side of the Grant Land mountains, only 20 mm (0.79 in) reaches the Hazen Plateau. The average number of snow-free days varies from 45 days on the north coast to 77 days in the Eureka–Tanquary corridor. Winters are considerably colder in

7455-425: The island's interior and their winter dwellings were skin tents, suggesting a need for mobility to follow the herds. There is evidence at Lake Hazen of a trade network c.  1500–1000 BCE , including soapstone lamps from Greenland and incised lance heads from cultures to the south. The Thule moved into the High Arctic at the time of a warming trend, c. 1000 CE. Their major population centre

7560-699: The island, the coastal sedimentary plateau is a succession of highly eroded sedimentary peaks which are part of the Franklinian Shield with an extension of the Canadian Shield (Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks) in the island's southeastern corner. In addition, there are syntectonic clastics which comprise the Ellesmere Island Volcanics of the Sverdrup Basin Magmatic Province . A period of uplift and faulting prior to

7665-455: The largest ice islands (the 520 km (200 sq mi) T1 and the 780 km (300 sq mi) T2 ice islands) were formed leaving the separate Alfred Ernest , Ayles, Milne, Ward Hunt, and Markham Ice Shelves. The Ward Hunt Ice Shelf , the largest remaining section of thick (>10 m, >30 ft ) landfast sea ice along the northern coastline of Ellesmere Island, lost almost 600 km (230 sq mi) of ice in

7770-518: The last weeks of the American Civil War on General Grant's staff, a status which meant, in all likelihood, he would not be involved in actual combat. He was present at Appomattox when Robert E. Lee surrendered. He resigned his commission on June 12, 1865, and returned to civilian life. Lincoln was once saved from possible serious injury or death by Edwin Booth , whose brother, John Wilkes Booth , assassinated Robert's father . This event took place on

7875-641: The latter of which narrows to 13 km (8.1 mi). Devon Island is to the south across Jones Sound ; at the west end of the sound, they are separated by North Kent Island and two channels which narrow to 4 and 10 km (2.5 and 6.2 mi). Greenland is to the east across Nares Strait ; the strait narrows to 46 km (29 mi) at Cape Isabella on Smith Sound and further north narrows to 19 km (12 mi) at Robeson Channel . These channels and straits typically freeze over in winter, though winds and currents leave pockets of open water (temporary leads and persistent polynyas ) in Nares Strait. To

7980-804: The major air systems strengthen towards their annual peak in winter, the Arctic and Atlantic air masses collide in autumn to produce severe storms at Ellesmere. The storm season peaks in October and persists until the sea freezes. The polar vortex strengthens during the polar night and gives rise to easterly winds which are major hazards for populations, especially given the very low temperatures. January winds have been recorded at 104 km/h (65 mph) with gusts to 130–145 km/h (81–90 mph) at Fort Conger and 65–80 km/h (40–50 mph) at Lake Hazen. Very cold temperatures continue until April and no month passes without experiencing freezing temperatures. Snowfall begins in late August and does not melt until

8085-548: The north of Ellesmere is the Arctic Ocean , with Lincoln Sea to the northeast. More than one-fifth of the island is protected as Quttinirpaaq National Park (formerly Ellesmere Island National Park Reserve), which includes seven fjords and a variety of glaciers , as well as Lake Hazen , North America's largest lake north of the Arctic Circle . Barbeau Peak , the highest mountain in Nunavut (2,616 m [8,583 ft])

8190-715: The northern extremity of Greenland, where the Independence ;I culture was active from 2700 BCE. On Ellesmere, they chiefly hunted in the Eureka Upland and the Hazen Plateau. Six different small-tool cultures have been identified at the Smith Sound region: Independence I, Independence I / Saqqaq , Pre-Dorset , Saqqaq, early Dorset, and late Dorset. They chiefly hunted muskoxen : more than three-quarters of their known archeological sites on Ellesmere are located in

8295-771: The northern part of the island. The Greely expedition found fossil forests on Ellesmere Island in the late 1880s. Stenkul Fiord was first explored in 1902 by Per Schei, a member of Otto Sverdrup 's 2nd Norwegian Polar Expedition. The Ellesmere Ice Shelf was documented by the British Arctic Expedition of 1875–76, in which Lieutenant Pelham Aldrich 's party went from Cape Sheridan ( 82°28′N 061°30′W  /  82.467°N 61.500°W  / 82.467; -61.500  ( Cape Sheridan ) ) west to Cape Alert ( 82°16′N 85°33′W  /  82.267°N 85.550°W  / 82.267; -85.550  ( Cape Alert (Ellesmere Island) ) ), including

8400-443: The occurrence to Colonel Adam Badeau , a fellow officer who happened to be a friend of Edwin Booth's. Badeau sent a letter to Booth, complimenting the actor for his heroism. Before receiving the letter, Booth had been unaware that the man whose life he had saved on the train platform was the president's son. The knowledge of whom he had saved that day was said to have been of some comfort to Booth following his brother's assassination of

8505-419: The open space, and was personally helpless, when my coat collar was vigorously seized and I was quickly pulled up and out to a secure footing on the platform. Upon turning to thank my rescuer I saw it was Edwin Booth, whose face was of course well known to me, and I expressed my gratitude to him, and in doing so, called him by name. Months afterwards, while serving on Grant's US Army staff, Robert Lincoln recalled

8610-471: The planet (the most northerly point of land on Earth is the nearby Kaffeklubben Island of Greenland). The Arctic Cordillera mountain system covers much of Ellesmere Island, making it the most mountainous in the Arctic Archipelago. More than one-fifth of the island is protected as Quttinirpaaq National Park . In 2021, the population of Ellesmere Island was recorded at 144. There are three settlements: Alert , Eureka , and Grise Fiord . Ellesmere Island

8715-470: The president. Grant also sent Booth a letter of gratitude for his action. On the night his father was assassinated, Robert had turned down an invitation to accompany the Lincolns to Ford's Theatre due to fatigue after spending much of his recent time in a covered wagon at the battlefront. Ten days later, Robert Lincoln wrote President Andrew Johnson requesting that he and his family be allowed to stay in

8820-474: The refreezing of the Lincoln Polynya ice. These helicopter measurements concur with satellite-based radar imagery as well as ground-based electromagnetic observations. Drifting buoys have exposed a southward drift of sea ice toward Ellesmere Island and Nares Strait . It has been concluded that shear in the Lincoln Sea narrow boundary current plays an important role in shifting and thus removing sea ice from

8925-485: The rest of the archipelago and to the North American mainland. More than fifty Norse artefacts have been found in Thule archeological sites on the Bache Peninsula , including pieces of chain mail. It is uncertain if Ellesmere Island was directly visited by Norse Greenlanders who sailed from the south or if the items were traded through a network of middlemen. It is also possible the items may have been taken from

9030-492: The sediments of shallow ponds on Cape Herschel (which faces Smith Sound on Ellesmere's eastern coast ) found that the ponds had been permanent and relatively stable for several millennia until experiencing ecological changes associated with warming, beginning around 1850 and accelerating in the early 2000s. During the 23-year study period, an ecological threshold was crossed as several of the study ponds had completely desiccated while others had very reduced water levels. In addition,

9135-423: The strait to populate Greenland. The archaeological record of past Arctic cultures is quite complete, as artefacts deteriorate very slowly. Items exposed to the cold, dry winds become naturally freeze-dried while items that become buried are preserved in the permafrost. Artefacts are in a similar condition to when they were left or lost, and settlements abandoned thousands of years ago can be seen much as they were

9240-578: The subpoena issued for him to testify in the 1895 conspiracy trials of the American Railway Union 's leaders (during the 1894 Pullman Strike ). Pullman hid from the deputy marshal sent to his office with the subpoena and then appeared with Lincoln to meet privately with Judge Grosscup after the jury had been dismissed. In 1911, Lincoln became chairman of the Pullman Company board, a position he held until 1924. A serious nonprofessional astronomer , Lincoln had an observatory built at Hildene, and

9345-455: The teenage years and also the only to outlive both parents. Robert Lincoln became a business lawyer and company president, and served as both United States Secretary of War (1881–1885) and the U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain (1889–1893). Lincoln was born in Springfield, Illinois , and graduated from Harvard College . He then served on the staff of General Ulysses S. Grant as a captain in

9450-700: The temperature being cold year-round. Two semi-permanent air systems dominate the weather: the high-pressure northern polar vortex and a low-pressure area which forms in different sites between Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea. Prevailing winds on Ellesmere are northwesterly, cold, and of low humidity due to ice cover over the Arctic Ocean. Seasonal shifts on Ellesmere are sudden and striking: winters are long and harsh, summers short and relatively abundant, with spring and autumn being brief intervals of transition. Fog regularly occurs near open water in September. While

9555-602: The total length of the island is 830 km (520 mi). Lying within the Arctic Archipelago , Ellesmere Island is considered part of the Queen Elizabeth Islands . Cape Columbia at 83°06′41″N 069°57′13″W  /  83.11139°N 69.95361°W  / 83.11139; -69.95361  ( Cape Columbia ) is the most northerly point of land in Canada and one of the most northern points of land on

9660-402: The transport delivered over the slope of the Lincoln Sea shelf would be 2 Sverdrups , where 1 Sverdrup equals 10^6 m^3/s. Measurements reveal that this undercurrent shares comparable features to that found in the Beaufort Sea , whose boundary currents are responsible for large-scale advection within the Arctic circulation. Because of this mutual oceanographic behavior, it has been determined that

9765-409: The water covering the outer part of the shelf, including the slope; the waters here hold attributes similar to those in the Canadian basin and thus not unlike those from the Pacific. The third includes the waters north of the shelf's slope. These waters protrude into the Arctic basin's large-scale circulation, and so their characteristics appear to change over to those found in the Eurasian basin. Along

9870-526: The western side of Ellesmere. In addition to intercepting illegal hunting and fur-trading, the RCMP conducted patrols and encouraged the Inuit to maintain their traditional lifestyle. The posts were closed in the mid-1930s, after the sovereignty issues had been settled. Ellesmere Island is the northernmost island of the Arctic Archipelago in Canada's Far North and one of the world's northernmost land masses . It

9975-442: The wetlands surrounding the ponds were severely affected and dried vegetation could be easily burned. Large portions of Ellesmere Island are covered with glaciers and ice, with Manson Icefield (6,200 km (2,400 sq mi)) and Sydkap (3,700 km (1,400 sq mi)) in the south; Prince of Wales Icefield (20,700 km (8,000 sq mi)) and Agassiz Ice Cap (21,500 km (8,300 sq mi)) along

10080-407: Was a "no man's land" outside their administration and Rasmussen, as the de facto sole authority, refused to stop the trade which the Inughuit needed to support themselves. In response, Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) detachments were established on Ellesmere Island at Craig Harbour in 1922 and at Bache Post in 1926, positioned to guard the coastal and overland routes to the hunting grounds on

10185-580: Was a personage, made his own history, independently of his great father, and should have his own place 'in the sun'". Lincoln's body was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in a sarcophagus designed by the sculptor James Earle Fraser . He is buried together with his wife, Mary, and their son, Abraham II ("Jack"), who had died in London, England, of sepsis in 1890 at the age of 16. Weeks after Jack's death, Robert wrote to his cousin Charles Edwards, "We had

10290-456: Was already concerned about what he thought were his mother's compulsive and extravagant spending, hallucinations, and eccentric behaviors. Fearing that she was a danger to herself, he arranged to have her committed to a psychiatric hospital in Batavia, Illinois , in 1875. With his mother in the hospital, he was left with control of her finances, although he used his own money to pay for her care. As

10395-563: Was born in Springfield, Illinois , on August 1, 1843, to Abraham Lincoln and Mary Todd Lincoln . He had three younger brothers, Edward , William , and Tad . By the time Lincoln was born, his father had become a well-known member of the Whig political party and had previously served as a member of the Illinois state legislature for four terms. He was named after his maternal grandfather, Robert Smith Todd . Some commentators believe that Lincoln had

10500-427: Was certified to practice law four days later on February 26, 1867. On September 24, 1868, Lincoln married Mary Eunice Harlan , daughter of Senator James Harlan and Ann Eliza Peck of Mount Pleasant, Iowa . They had three children, two daughters and one son: Mary "Mamie" Lincoln, Abraham "Jack" Lincoln II, and Jessie Harlan Lincoln. Robert, Mary, and the children would often leave their hot city life behind for

10605-475: Was coincidentally either present or nearby when three presidential assassinations occurred. Lincoln himself recognized these coincidences. He is said to have refused a later presidential invitation with the comment, "No, I'm not going, and they'd better not ask me, because there is a certain fatality about presidential functions when I am present." Robert Todd Lincoln died in his sleep at Hildene , his Vermont home, on July 26, 1926, at age 82. The cause of death

10710-503: Was fractured, with dozens of deep, multi-faceted cracks and in September 2008 the Markham shelf (50 km (19 sq mi)) completely broke off to become floating sea ice . A 2018 study measured a 5.9% reduction in area amongst 1,773 glaciers in Northern Ellesmere island in the 16-year period 1999–2015 based on satellite data. In the same period, 19 out of 27 ice tongues disintegrated to their grounding lines and ice shelves suffered

10815-705: Was given by his physician as a " cerebral hemorrhage induced by arteriosclerosis ". His body was stored in the receiving vault at Dellwood Cemetery from July 1926 until March 1928 when arrangements were made to inter his remains at Arlington National Cemetery . Robert had long expressed his intention to be buried in the Lincoln Tomb with his family at the Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield. Two weeks after his death, his widow Mary Harlan Lincoln wrote to her husband's niece of an inspired thought: "...[O]ur darling

10920-629: Was the Smith Sound area (on both the Ellesmere and Greenland sides) due to its proximity to polynyas and its position on transportation routes. From settlements at Smith Sound, the Thule sent summer hunting parties to harvest marine mammals in Nansen Strait. Their summer camps are evidenced by tent rings as far north as Archer Fiord, with clusters of stone dwellings around Lady Franklin Bay and at Lake Hazen which suggest semi-permanent occupations. The Thule genetically and culturally completely replaced

11025-541: Was the last surviving member of the Garfield and Arthur Cabinets, and the last-surviving witness of Lee's surrender at Appomattox. The Lincoln Sea , a body of water in the Arctic Ocean between Canada and Greenland , was named after then Secretary of War Lincoln on Adolphus Greely 's 1881–1884 Arctic expedition . Lincoln's last surviving descendant, Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, died December 24, 1985. With him, Abraham Lincoln's family died out. Robert Todd Lincoln as

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