The Sama–Bajaw languages are a well-established group of languages spoken by the Sama-Bajau peoples ( A'a sama ) of the Philippines , Indonesia , and Malaysia .
61-525: Pusô or tamu , sometimes known in Philippine English as " hanging rice ", is a Filipino rice cake made by boiling rice in a woven pouch of palm leaves. It is most commonly found in octahedral , diamond, or rectangular shapes, but it can also come in various other intricately woven complex forms. It is known under many different names throughout the Philippines with numerous variations, but it
122-514: A Dynamic Model of the evolution of Postcolonial Englishes, positioning Philippine English in Phase 3, Nativization . In 2016, Ariane Macalinga Borlongan argued in a research article that that Philippine English had met the parameters set for repositioning into Phase 4, Endonormative stabilization . Philippine laws and court decisions, with extremely rare exceptions, are written solely in English. English
183-1029: A reduplication of Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *epat ("four"). This form is still evident in old Chamorro cognate atupat . Pusô is also known by various names in different ethnic groups in the Philippines , including piyusopusó in Mindoro languages; piyoso in Maranao , Iranun and Maguindanaon ; langbay , lambay , or linambay in Waray ; bugnóy in Hiligaynon ; tam-o in Aklanon ; tamu , ta’mu , or temu in Tausug and Yakan ; sinambong , patupat or pusú in Kapampangan , Pangasinan and Ilocano ; and katumpat in Sama-Bajau . Pusô does not refer to
244-406: A whetstone ; and bayobayo , which was cylindrical-shaped like a small pestle . He also describes others that are even more intricately shaped, like cumol sin datu , shaped like a clenched fist; linalaqui , shaped like male genitalia; binabaye , shaped like breasts; sinaop , shaped like two hands clasped together; tinicod , shaped like the heel of the foot; linangbay or linambay , shaped like
305-618: A crab; binitoon , shaped like a star; bung̃an gapas , shaped like a kapok fruit; binabao or pinavican , shaped like a turtle shell; and ynamo or inamo , shaped like a monkey's head. Alonso de Méntrida in his Diccionario de la lengua Bisaya, Hiligueina y Haraya de la Isla de Panay (1618) describes six kinds of pusô among the Cebuano , Ilonggo and Karay-a people of Panay . His list repeats some of those mentioned by Sánchez. He includes poso nga linalaque , which he describes as " esquinado " ("angular"); poso nga pinaouican , shaped like
366-407: A language from the island of Mapun , formerly known as Cagayan de Sulu, is a related language and sometimes also referred to as Sinama. These classifications are rarely recognized by Sama themselves who instead classify their Sinama by the village or island it originates from. The emic classification of a Sama person's language e.g. Silumpak, Laminusa, Tabawan generally form the different dialects of
427-458: A method of cooking and packing rice. It was also prominent in religious rituals in the anitism of pre-colonial Filipinos. The smaller or more elaborate versions were a traditional part of the food offerings to the diwata spirits, a tradition the Spanish referred to as ofrendas . These traditions have been increasingly forgotten or syncretized as Filipinos converted to Christianity and Islam in
488-979: A phonological feature across numerous Philippine languages such as Karay-a , Maranao , Kapampangan , or the Abagatan (Southern) dialect of Ilocano —is absent as a separate phoneme. Many Filipinos often have distinct non-native English pronunciation, and many fall under different lectal variations (i.e. basilectal, mesolectal, acrolectal). Some Philippine languages (e.g. Ibanag , Itawis , Surigaonon , Tausug ) feature certain unique phonemes such as [dʒ] , [f] , [v] , and [z] , which are also present in English. However, Filipinos' first languages (such as Tagalog ) have generally different phonological repertoires (if not more simplified compared to English), and this leads to mis- or distinct pronunciations particularly among basilectal and to some extent mesolectal speakers. Sama-Bajau languages Grimes (2003) identifies nine Sama–Bajaw languages. The first six are spoken in
549-583: A pre-woven container and then immersed in a boiling liquid. It is commonly plain, but it can be cooked with meat or flavored with gatâ ( coconut milk ) and spices like salt or ginger. Other variants of the dish can also be sweet and can be cooked with muscovado sugar. Pusô are differentiated from other leaf-wrapped Filipino dishes like the Tagalog binalot and the Maguindanao pastil , as well as various kakanín snacks wrapped in leaves found throughout
610-419: A ritual offering during the pagabo or saragunting ritual, a paganito animistic ritual to the diwata (spirit) of the fireplace. He notes that once consecrated to the diwata spirits, the " posos " are left alone and never opened. Like Sánchez, he describes different types of pusô , namely the linangang , woven with almost white coconut leaves in the shape of a small bird; and ginawig , woven into
671-400: A similar diamond-shaped variant called the ketipat or tipat is used as an offering to the rice goddess Dewi Sri . An octahedron -shaped version called atupat was also found in pre-colonial Guam , before the ancient rice cultivation in the island was replaced by corn brought by the Spanish. Philippine English Philippine English (similar and related to American English )
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#1732856153612732-464: A specific recipe, rather it is a way of packaging and serving rice. Therefore, it can actually refer to many different ways of preparing rice, ranging from plain, to savory or sweet. Regardless, all of them are woven pouches where rice is poured inside and cooked by boiling. As the rice cooks, it is prevented from spreading by the pouch, resulting in a compacted cake-like texture. It can be made with either regular white rice or glutinous rice poured into
793-480: A tumultuous period of colonial transition, Filipino leaders and elites, and the American colonial government alike began discussing the formation of a Philippine national language . The retained high ethnolinguistic diversity of the new colony was due to a low penetration of Spanish under Spain's rule. Spanish was limited to a medium of instruction for the landed elites and gentry. By the end of Spanish colonization and
854-496: A turtle; poso nga binouaya , shaped like a crocodile; poso nga ibaiba , shaped like an iba (rice basket or jar); poso nga galangan , shaped like galangan ( star fruit ); and poso nga paholan , shaped like the small piece of wood worn around the waist by fishermen to attach fishing lines on. Francisco Ignacio Alcina also described the Visayan " posos " in his Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas (1668). He described them as
915-486: Is a variety of English native to the Philippines , including those used by the media and the vast majority of educated Filipinos and English learners in the Philippines from adjacent Asian countries. English is taught in schools as one of the two official languages of the country, the other being Filipino , a standardized form of Tagalog . Due to the influx of Philippine English teachers overseas, Philippine English
976-554: Is a general absence of the schwa /ə/ ; it is instead pronounced by its respective equivalent full vowel, although the r-colored variant [ɚ] has been increasingly popular in recent years. The following consonant changes apply for many non-native speakers of the dialect: Vowels in Philippine English are pronounced according to the letter representing each, so that ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩ are generally pronounced as [a, ɛ, i, o, u] , respectively. The schwa /ə/ —although
1037-503: Is also becoming the prevalent variety of English being learned in the Far East as taught by Filipino teachers in various Asian countries such as South Korea , Japan , and Thailand among others. Due to the highly multilingual and bilingual nature of the Philippines, code-switching such as Taglish ( Tagalog -infused English) and Bislish (English infused with any of the Bisayan languages )
1098-400: Is also used in higher education , religious affairs, print and broadcast media, and business. Most well-educated Filipinos are bilingual and speak English as one of their languages. For highly technical subjects such as nursing, medicine, computing and mathematics, English is the preferred medium for textbooks and communication. Very few would prefer highly technical books in either Filipino or
1159-426: Is commonly cut into pieces and served on a plate in place of regular rice. Pusô were once culturally important among pre-Hispanic Filipinos as offerings to the diwatà spirits and as an extension of the basic skill of weaving among women. It became linked to festivities since they were commonly served during religious events, especially the more complex woven variations. It is still used in rituals in some parts of
1220-1164: Is commonly wrapped in woven leaves, the most commonly used being banana or coconut leaves. It makes them aesthetically pleasing, practical to eat, and infuses the food with the aroma of the leaves. Pusô pouches are almost always woven from coconut leaves, though they can also be made from other palm species or from pandan leaves. The coconut leaves used are freshly sprouted, usually pale yellow to light green in color and far more pliable than older leaves. These young leaves are known as lukáy in most Visayan regions ; palaspas , usbong , talbos , or ibus in Southern Luzon ; dugokan in Leyte ; ugbos in Bohol ; uyok in Masbate ; and langkóy in Bicol . There are numerous techniques by which they can be woven, which has translated into many different kinds of pusô . Weavers of pusô are traditionally known as mamumusô or manlalah in Cebuano . Pusô originated from
1281-512: Is prevalent across domains from casual settings to formal situations. Filipinos were first introduced to English when the British invaded and occupied Manila and Cavite in 1762 as part of the Seven Years' War . Still, this occupation had no lasting effect on English in the country. A national variety called Philippine English evolved as a result of American colonization and was arguably one of
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#17328561536121342-596: Is spoken on Pangutaran Island, located to the west of Jolo ; and in Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi , southern Palawan Yakan is spoken in Basilan and small surrounding islands; Sakol island; and the eastern coast of Zamboanga. Yakan tends to be concentrated away from the coast. Inabaknon is spoken on Capul Island, Northern Samar Province. Capul Island is located in the San Bernardino Strait , which separates Samar from
1403-571: Is usually associated with the street food cultures of the Visayan and Moro peoples . Pusô refers to the way of cooking and serving rice on woven leaves, and thus does not refer to a specific recipe. It can actually refer to many different ways of preparing rice, ranging from plain, to savory or sweet. Regardless, all of them are woven pouches where rice is poured inside and cooked by boiling. Pusô are differentiated from other leaf-wrapped Filipino dishes like suman , binalot , and pastil , in that
1464-541: The Bicol Peninsula of Luzon . Bajau West Coast Sabah is spoken in Kota Belud , Kudat , and Tuaran which is on mutual intelligibility with Bajau East Coast of Sabah. Ethnologue lists the following population statistics for Borneo Coast Bajau. Western Austronesian languages are characterised by symmetrical voice alternations. These differ from asymmetrical voice alternations, such as active and passive, since
1525-475: The Philippine peso sign (₱, used in prices), however, are not indicated on Philippine keyboards; these are usually entered through dead keys, keyboard shortcuts or character input aids. Philippine English is a rhotic accent mainly due to the influence of Philippine languages , which are the first language of most of its speakers. Another influence is the rhotic characteristic of American English , which became
1586-475: The Philippine–American War in 1903, only 10% of the colonial population could speak Spanish. The lingering effects of Spanish amongst the general population nevertheless had notable effects on the lexical development of many Philippine languages , and even Philippine English, in the form of Hispanisms. Tagalog was selected as the basis for a national language in 1937, and has since remained so. It
1647-455: The Spanish colonial period of the Philippines . Their authors often describe numerous variants varying by shape and weaving patterns, ranging from simple geometric shapes to complex shapes imitating objects or animals. But without illustrations, it is hard to imagine what they looked like, much less how they were made. Nevertheless, they give a glimpse of how complex the traditional pusô were during
1708-465: The pamisa (Catholic prayer for the dead). It is also still a regular part of the ofrenda . Though in modern times the offering is usually to the household Catholic altar or to deceased loved ones, and not to diwata spirits. Among Muslim Filipinos , it also survives as a festive food, and is very popular during a lot of Islamic holidays. It is particularly associated with the Hari Raya celebrations at
1769-763: The reforms promulgated in Noah Webster 's 1828 Dictionary . The MM/DD/YYYY and DD/MM/YYYY date format are used in the Philippines for date notation and the 12-hour clock for time notation. There are two major English language keyboard layouts , the United States layout and the United Kingdom layout. Keyboards and keyboard software for the Philippine market universally use the US keyboard layout. Common special characters such as Ñ (used in proper nouns and Spanish loanwords) or
1830-716: The American English from which it was derived are observable. Philippine English traditionally follows American English spelling and grammar while it shares some similarity to Commonwealth English . Philippine English follows the latter when it comes to punctuation as well as date notations. For example, a comma almost never precedes the final item in an enumeration (much like the AP Stylebook and other style guides in English-language journalism generally). Philippine spelling usually follows American spellings, following
1891-523: The Philippines to become a choice destination for foreign companies wishing to establish call centers and other outsourcing . English proficiency sustains a major call center industry and in 2005, America Online had 1,000 people in what used to be the US Air Force's Clark Air Base in Angeles City answering ninety percent of their global e-mail inquiries. Citibank does its global ATM programming in
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1952-520: The Philippines today, though the rituals themselves have been mostly Christianized. Similarly, it remained culturally important to Muslim Filipinos , where it became symbolic of the Hari Raya feast. Pusô is related to similar dishes in other rice-farming Austronesian cultures, most notably the Indonesian ketupat , although the latter is restricted to diamond shapes and is woven differently. A very similar octahedron -shaped version called atupat
2013-461: The Philippines, like suman and morón . These dishes all use leaves that are simply wrapped around the food and folded or tied. They are not woven into complex patterns unlike pusô . Leaf-weaving is an ancient art in the Philippines and is used to make various traditional handicrafts like baskets, hats, mats, toys, sidings, and even religious decorations (both in ancient anitism and in modern Christian Palm Sunday celebrations). Food, as well,
2074-603: The Sulu region of the southern Philippines. Indonesian Bajau is spoken mainly in Sulawesi and West Coast Bajau in Sabah , Borneo. Several dialects of the languages can be identified. Blust (2006) states that lexical evidence indicates that Sama–Bajaw originated in the Barito region of southeast Borneo, although not from any established group of Barito languages . Ethnologue has followed, calling
2135-560: The UV construction is said to be basic. This has led people to analyse the languages as syntactically ergative . This analysis has been proposed for Sama Southern, Yakan, Sama Bangingi’, and Sama Pangutaran. These languages are said to have Philippine-type voice systems. West Coast Bajau, however, is said to have an Indonesian-type voice system because there are two transitive voices; a true passive construction ( -in- ) and an applicative suffix ( -an ). This makes West Coast Bajau more similar to
2196-546: The United Kingdom) may speak in a non-rhotic accent unless taught otherwise. Native and well-educated speakers (also called acrolectal speakers ) may also feature flapping and vowel sounds resembling the California vowel shift due to the influence of Hollywood movies and call center culture mostly pegged towards the American market. For non-native speakers, Philippine English phonological features are heavily dependent on
2257-517: The World Englishes framework of linguist Braj Kachru , is a recognized variety of English with its distinct lexical, phonological, and grammatical features (with considerable variations across socioeconomic groups and level of education being predictors of English proficiency in the Philippines). As the English language became highly embedded in Philippine society, it was only a matter of time before
2318-588: The country, and Procter & Gamble has over 400 employees in Makati , a central Manila neighborhood, doing back office work for their Asian operations including finance, accounting, human resources and payments processing. An influx of foreign students, principally from South Korea , has also led to growth in the number of English language learning centers, especially in Metro Manila , Baguio , Metro Cebu and Metro Bacolod . In 2003, Edgar W. Schneider defined
2379-463: The diamond or triangular-shaped variants. Ketupat are also woven differently, the leaf base and the loose leaf strands do not exit at the same point, as in most Filipino puso . They are also popularly associated with Eid al-Fitr like the tamu of Muslim Filipinos. Ketupat somewhat resemble the tamu pinad version among Muslim Filipinos the most, which are shaped like a flattened diamond, although they are also woven differently. In Hindu Bali ,
2440-575: The dominant language, and by the ratification into the current Philippine Constitution in 1987 , both Filipino and English were declared co-official languages, while removing Spanish as an official language. In 2020, the Philippines was ranked 27th worldwide (among 100 countries ranked) in the EF English Proficiency Index . In the same report, it was ranked 2nd in Asia next only to Singapore . Today Philippine English, as formally called based on
2501-507: The earliest native Filipino food described by the Spaniards when they arrived in the Philippines. The first recorded mention of rice cooked in leaves is by Antonio Pigafetta who wrote in 1525 of a Visayan meal of rice and millet wrapped in leaves served with roast fish. There are six main accounts of pusô among Visayans published in Vocabularios (dictionaries) of Spanish priests during
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2562-449: The end of Ramadan . Pusô can be made in many different shapes using a wide variety of techniques. Some ethnic groups have numerous traditional variants, while in other ethnic groups, it is restricted to one or two. A lot of the techniques are also shared across ethnic groups and may be known under different names, indicating shared origins or cultural exchange between the groups in pre-colonial Philippines. Leaf-wrapped dishes are one of
2623-543: The fastest to develop in the postcolonial world. Its origins as an English language spoken by a large segment of the Philippine population can be traced to the American introduction of public education , taught in the English medium of instruction. This was marked by the arrival of the Thomasites in 1901, immediately during re-colonization after the Philippine Revolution in the late 19th century up to early 1900. After
2684-588: The following location information for various Sama languages. Northern Sama is located in western Mindanao , the Sulu archipelago northeast of Jolo , Zamboanga coast peninsula and islands, and Basilan island. Central Sama is located in: Southern Sama is located in Tawi-Tawi Island Province (in Tawi-Tawi, Simunul , Sibutu , and other major islands) and East Kalimantan ( Berau ) Pangutaran Sama
2745-507: The following locations of Sabah , Malaysia ( Ethnologue ). Indonesian Bajau is widely distributed throughout Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara . It is also located throughout Maluku Utara Province in the Bacan Islands , Obi Islands , Kayoa , and Sula Islands , which are located to the southwest of Halmahera Island ( Ethnologue ). Mapun is spoken on Cagayan de Sulu ( Mapun ) island, Tawi-Tawi , Philippines. Ethnologue provides
2806-444: The forest to cut wood in his Historia general, sacro-profana, politica y natural de las Islas del poniente llamadas Filipinas (1751). He praised the way it kept the rice fresh longer. He also mentions how the pusô is cooked with meat inside in large cauldrons called baon . Though he does not name them, he also describes numerous variations of the weaving patterns, ranging from round, square, or rectangular-shaped. He also remarks upon
2867-483: The language was indigenized to the point that it became differentiated from English varieties found in the United States, United Kingdom, or elsewhere. This, along with the formal introduction of the World Englishes (WE) framework to English language scholars in the Philippines, opened the floodgates to research on this new emerging English, which has since been branded as such as Philippine English. The abundant supply of English speakers and competitive labor costs enabled
2928-578: The last few centuries. Rituals involving pusô in the past in Cebuano religion include harang sa mga kalag (ritual preventing the deceased from affecting the living); sagangsang (ritual for tubâ palm wine gatherers); damit (pre-harvest ritual); buhat silang (a thanksgiving post-harvest ritual); tigpo (ritual asking for forgiveness from spirits of the dead); and balangkisaw (ritual asking for forgiveness from water spirits). Nevertheless, it still survives in some (Christianized) rituals today, like in
2989-437: The latter use leaves that are simply wrapped around the food and folded or tied. Pusô , in contrast, uses intricate woven leaves as the pouch. Pusô is traditionally prepared as a way to pack rice for journeys and is eaten held in the hands while standing, usually paired with meat or seafood cooked on skewers ( inihaw or satti ). It is still eaten this way from street food peddlers ( pungkò-pungkò ). In seated dining, it
3050-582: The longstanding standard in the archipelago since Americans introduced the language in public education. This is contrary to the majority of Commonwealth English varieties spoken in neighboring countries such as Malaysia or Singapore . The only exception to this rule is the word Marlboro , which is frequently read as Malboro . Therefore, /r/ phonemes are pronounced in all positions. However, some children of Overseas Filipinos who are educated in Commonwealth countries (such as Australia, New Zealand, or
3111-399: The modern Waray name for pusô derived from the "crab" version that Sánchez described three centuries earlier. He describes it as being a " bolsa de figura de corazon " ("heart-shaped pouch") used to cook rice or rice in coconut milk. Puso is related to similar dishes in other rice-farming Austronesian cultures, like the Indonesian ketupat , although the latter refers strictly to
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#17328561536123172-467: The pre-Hispanic period, although some of these forms have now been lost. Fray Mateo Sánchez, a Jesuit priest stationed in Dagami, Leyte , is the first to describe pusô by name (as " poso ") in his Vocabulario de la lengua Bisaya (1615–1617). He describes it as being made by women. He also lists fourteen types of pusô . They include tambong , which was flat and rectangular; binairan , brick-shaped like
3233-497: The regional language. Movies and TV shows in English are usually not dubbed in most cable channels except a few such as Tagalized Movie Channel . Because English is part of the curricula from primary to secondary education , many Filipinos write and speak in fluent Philippine English, although there might be differences in pronunciation . Most schools in the Philippines , however, are staffed by teachers who are speakers of Philippine English and hence notable differences from
3294-466: The resulting group 'Greater Barito'. Pallesen (1985:18) classifies the Sama–Bajaw languages as follows. The Ethnologue divides Sinama into seven languages based on mutual intelligibility . The seven Sinama languages are Northern Sinama, Central Sinama, Southern Sinama, Sinama Pangutaran from the island of Pangutaran off of Jolo island, Mapun, Bajau West Coast of Sabah and Bajau Indonesia. Jama Mapun,
3355-465: The seven Sinama or Bajau languages. Together, West Coast Bajau, Indonesian Bajau, and Mapun comprise a Borneo Coast Bajaw branch in Ethnologue . The following is a list of Sama-Bajaw dialects. Locations and demographics are from Palleson (1985) and Ethnologue (individual languages with separately assigned ISO codes highlighted in bold ). West Coast Bajau ( Borneo Coast Bajau ) is distributed in
3416-593: The shape of a large hen. Another ceremony that uses pusô described by Alcina is the pagbutas , which was done after a burial ceremony of the dead. The relatives and friends of the deceased would weave a pusô and tie them all together in a large plate of water. The daitan shaman would then cut each pusô away while praying, signifying the separation of the living from the recently departed. Juan Jose Delgado, another Jesuit priest stationed in Guiguan (modern Guiuan ), Samar, writes about taking pusô with him on trips to
3477-577: The skill in weaving even among children who make the pouches, likening their creations to the Gordian knot . In the late 19th and early 20th century Vocabularias , there are only brief mentions of pusô . Juan Félix de la Encarnacion in 1885 describes pusô as a kind of pouch filled with rice. Although he does also mention pinaoican and pinapagan as separate dishes. Antonio Sanchez de la Rosa in his Diccionario español-bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte (1914) lists pusô under lambay and langbay ,
3538-411: The speaker's mother tongue, although foreign languages such as Spanish also influenced many Filipinos on the way of pronouncing English words. This is why approximations are very common, along with hypercorrections and hyperforeignisms . The most distinguishable feature of Philippine English is a lack of fricative consonants, including /f/ , /v/ , /θ/ , /ð/ , /z/ , and often /ʒ/ . Another feature
3599-679: The voices can be considered equally transitive. Hence, the terms actor voice and undergoer voice are sometimes used. The voice construction is signalled through morphological marking on the verb. Western Austronesian languages are typically subdivided into Philippine-type and Indonesian-type languages on the basis of the voice system: The voice alternations in Sama–Bajaw languages have some characteristics of Philippine-type languages and some characteristics of Indonesian-type languages. Miller (2014) says that there are three main voice alternations in Sama-Bajaw: In many Philippine languages,
3660-460: Was also found in pre-colonial Guam , before the ancient rice cultivation in the island was replaced by corn brought by the Spanish. Pusô (also spelled puso , poso , or pusó ) literally means "heart" in Cebuano , due to its resemblance to a heart with the two loose ends of the coconut leaf emerging at the top resembling the aorta and the venae cavae . Its other most common name, patupat , originally means "four-cornered [rectangle or cube]",
3721-482: Was re-labelled as Pilipino in 1959, and Filipino in 1987. With the successful establishment of American-style public education with English as a consequential medium, more than 20% of the Philippine population was reported to be able to understand and speak English just before the turn of the mid-20th century. This meteoric growth was sustained post-World War II, much further through Philippine mass media (e.g., newsprint, radio, television), where English also became
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