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107-801: Project Forecast , a 1963 Air Force study, attempted to identify future weapons trends and "certain high-priority areas for research and development (R&D), recommendations based on the greatest potential payoff for the future." The report strongly suggested that future air combat would be carried out primarily by long-range missile fire. Future "fighters" would be designed primarily for long range, high speed, and equipped with extremely large radar systems in order to detect and engage opposing fighters at beyond visual range (BVR). This made them much more like interceptors than classic fighter designs, and led to increasingly heavier and more technologically sophisticated designs – and thus costlier. The US Navy had long ago come to similar conclusions, and had been designing

214-466: A rudder . The stabilator has a sweep angle of 57°, an area of 3.94 m and a span of 2.6 m. The MiG-21 uses a tricycle type undercarriage. On most variants, the main landing gear uses tires that are 800 mm in diameter and 200 mm in width. Only the MiG-21F variants use tires with the size 660×200 mm. The wheels of the main landing gear retract into the fuselage after rotating 87° and

321-575: A "Study to Validate the Integration of Advanced Energy-Maneuverability Theory with Trade-Off Analysis". General Dynamics received $ 49,000 and Northrop $ 100,000 study contracts to design concepts that embodied Boyd's E-M theory – a small, low-drag, low-weight, pure fighter with no bomb racks; their work would lead to the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively. Although the Air Force’s F-X proponents remained hostile to

428-502: A 60,000-pound (27,200 kg) class twin-engine design with a variable-geometry wing . This would be a very expensive aircraft, too expensive to consider equipping the entire Air Force with it as its standard aircraft. For this reason a less-expensive Advanced Day Fighter (ADF) was also considered, a lightweight design in the 25,000 lb (11,300 kg) class which would out-perform the MiG-21 by 25%. Boyd used his E-M theory to argue that

535-787: A MiG-17 unit. Because the VPAF's 923rd FR was newer and less experienced, they continued to operate MiG-17s, while the arrival of the MiG-19s ( J-6 versions) from China in 1969 led to North Vietnam's only MiG-19 unit, the 925th FR. On 3 February 1972, North Vietnam commissioned its fourth and last fighter regiment created during the war with South Vietnam, the MiG-21PFM (Type 94)-equipped 927th FR. Former MiG-17 pilot Nguyen Nhat Chieu and his wingman Tran Ngoc Siu intercepted USAF F-105Ds while on CAP duty over Phuc Yen Airbase (a.k.a. Noi Bai Airbase) on 7 July 1966, shooting down one piloted by Capt. Tomes with

642-405: A MiG-21, a VPAF MiG-21MF (number 5121) from the 921st Fighter Regiment, flown by Major Phạm Tuân over Hanoi, claimed the first aerial combat kill of a B-52. The B-52 had been above Hanoi at over 30,000 feet (9,100 m) when Major Tuân launched two Atoll missiles from 2 kilometres away and claimed to have destroyed one of the bombers flying in the three-plane formation. Other sources argue that

749-616: A climbing rate of 254 meters/second, equalling the F-16's nominal capabilities in a close-quarters dogfight. The use of WEP thrust was limited to 2 minutes to reduce stress on the engines' 750 (250+250+250) flight hours lifetime since every second of super-afterburner counted as several minutes of regular power run due to extreme thermal stress. With WEP on, the MiG-21bis's R-25 engine produced a huge 10–12 meter long blowtorch exhaust, with six or seven brightly glowing rhomboid "shock diamonds" visible inside

856-494: A factor in this phenomenon. When in afterburner , the engine operates very close to its surge line and the ingestion of even a small bird can lead to an engine surge/seizure and flame out. In view of the several incidents that have occurred after the 1999 Kargil War , the modernized MiG-21 Bison seems to have at present the role of an interceptor and possibly a limited role of a fighter aircraft. On 11 December 2013, India's second-generation supersonic jet fighter, MiG-21FL

963-624: A fighter tactics instructor, in the early 1960s Colonel John Boyd and mathematician Thomas Christie developed the Energy-Maneuverability (E-M) theory of the value of aircraft specific energy maintenance as an advantage in fighter combat. Maneuverability was the means of getting “inside” an adversary’s decision-making cycle, a process Boyd called the "OODA" loop (from "Observation-Orientation-Decision-Action"). This approach emphasized an aircraft design capable of “fast transients” – quick changes in speed, altitude, and direction. A fighter that

1070-777: A fly-by-wire system similar to the one used in Dassault Mirage 2000 series. Only two prototypes were built for the ACF program, the Anglo-French SEPECAT Jaguar , and a proposed derivative of the Saab 37 Viggen named the Saab 37E Eurofighter (not to be confused with the later and unrelated Eurofighter Typhoon ). Northrop also offered their earlier design, the P-530 Cobra, which looked very similar to its YF-17. The Jaguar and Cobra were dropped by

1177-510: A million sorties and nearly 1,000 US aircraft losses, Operation Rolling Thunder came to an end on 1 November 1968. A poor air-to-air combat loss-exchange ratio against the smaller, more agile enemy MiGs during the early part of the war eventually led the US Navy to create their Navy Fighter Weapons School , also known as " TOPGUN ", at Naval Air Station Miramar , California , on 3 March 1969. The USAF quickly followed with its own version, called

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1284-584: A salvo from Tran's UB-16-57 / S-5M unguided rocket-equipped MiG-21, while flight leader Nguyen was unable to establish a lock on another, wildly-evading F-105 with his R-3S AAM; this was the first instance of a VPAF MiG-21 shooting down a piloted enemy aircraft in the Vietnam War. Although 13 of North Vietnam's flying aces attained their status while flying the MiG-21 (cf. three in the MiG-17), many VPAF pilots preferred

1391-439: A series of aircraft dedicated to this role. Notable among these was the well named Douglas F6D Missileer , a long endurance but slow and unmaneuverable design equipped with very powerful missiles and radar for fleet defense. The US Air Force had similar designs, but these had been dedicated to the interceptor role, where the large size of its targets allowed reasonable radar performance. As radar equipment improved, in particular

1498-617: A serious acquisition program. First, four North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) members – Belgium , Denmark , the Netherlands , and Norway – were looking to replace their F-104G fighter-bomber variants of the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter interceptor; furthermore, they were seeking an aircraft that their own aerospace industries could manufacture under license, as they had the F-104G. In early 1974, they reached an agreement with

1605-604: A single aircraft. It was a lightweight fighter, achieving Mach 2 with a relatively low-powered afterburning turbojet , and is thus comparable to the American Lockheed F-104 Starfighter and Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter and the French Dassault Mirage III . Its basic layout was used for numerous other Soviet designs; delta-winged aircraft included the Su-9 interceptor and fast E-150 prototype from

1712-445: A way of amortizing the high overhead. They often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems. Research from 2000 has shown that firms with a persistent R&D strategy outperform those with an irregular or no R&D investment program. Research and development are very difficult to manage, since

1819-632: Is a supersonic jet fighter and interceptor aircraft , designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the Soviet Union . Its nicknames include: " Balalaika ", because its planform resembles the stringed musical instrument of the same name; " Ołówek ", Polish for "pencil", due to the shape of its fuselage , and " Én Bạc ", meaning "silver swallow ", in Vietnamese . Approximately 60 countries across four continents have flown

1926-653: Is appealing to bidders because they could gain technologies from acquisition targets. Therefore, firms may gain R&;D profit that co-moves with takeover waves, causing risks to the company which engages in R&D activity. Global R&D management is the discipline of designing and leading R&D processes globally, across cultural and lingual settings, and the transfer of knowledge across international corporate networks. Former President Barack Obama requested $ 147.696 billion for research and development in FY 2012, 21% of which

2033-476: Is followed by textiles (19%), digital (18%), and aerospace (15%). Other sectors allocate less than 10% of their total investment to R&D. While 17% of the world’s top R&D investors are based in the European Union, they accounted for only 1% of acquisitions involving EU-based companies between 2013 and 2023. In 2015, research and development constituted an average 2.2% of the global GDP according to

2140-627: Is lower than the EU average of 18%. In 2022, 67% of enterprises in the same region deployed at least one sophisticated digital technology, and 69% EU firms did the same. As of 2023, European enterprises account for 18% of the world's top 2 500 R&D corporations, but just 10% of new entrants, compared to 45% in the United States and 32% in China. As of 2024, the electronics sector leads in R&D investment, with 28% of its total investment dedicated to it. This

2247-404: Is necessary as well due to the fierce competition and the evolving preferences of consumers. Without an R&D program, a firm must rely on strategic alliances , acquisitions , and networks to tap into the innovations of others. A system driven by marketing is one that puts the customer needs first, and produces goods that are known to sell. Market research is carried out, which establishes

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2354-479: Is not intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk and an uncertain return on investment . R&D is crucial for acquiring larger shares of the market through new products. R&D&I represents R&D with innovation. New product design and development is often a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In a global industrial landscape that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and range of products. This

2461-596: Is remarkable, and usually gains a reputation for being a high technology company such as engineering company Ericsson 24.9%, or biotech company Allergan , which tops the spending table with 43.4% investment. Such companies are often seen as credit risks because their spending ratios are so unusual. Generally such firms prosper only in markets whose customers have extreme high technology needs, like certain prescription drugs or special chemicals, scientific instruments , and safety-critical systems in medicine, aeronautics or military weapons . The extreme needs justify

2568-535: Is said to have perished in the explosion of a B-52 hit by his own missiles, having approached the target too closely. In this case, the Vietnamese version appears to be erroneous: while one MiG-21 kill was claimed by Phantoms that night (this may have been Thieu's MiG), no B-52s were lost for any reason on the date of the claimed kill. On 3 January 1968, a single MiG-21 pilot, Ha Van Chuc, entered battle with 36 American planes and claimed one F-105 Thunderchief. During

2675-404: Is superior in its ability to gain or lose energy while out-turning an opponent can initiate and control any engagement opportunity; a fast transient capability allows the pilot to stay inside a hard-turning opponent when on the offensive or to force an overshoot of an opponent when on the defensive. These parameters called for a small, lightweight aircraft – which would minimize drag and increase

2782-565: Is the largest operator of MiG-21s. In 1961, the Indian Air Force (IAF) opted to purchase the MiG-21 over several other Western competitors. As part of the deal, the Soviet Union offered India full transfer of technology and rights for local assembly. In 1964, the MiG-21 became the first supersonic fighter jet to enter service with the IAF. Due to limited induction numbers and lack of pilot training,

2889-446: Is the set of innovative activities undertaken by corporations or governments in developing new services or products. R&D constitutes the first stage of development of a potential new service or the production process. Although R&D activities may differ across businesses, the primary goal of an R&D department is to develop new products and services. R&D differs from the vast majority of corporate activities in that it

2996-763: The Dissimilar Air Combat Training (sometimes referred to as Red Flag ) program at Nellis Air Force Base , Nevada . These two programs employed the subsonic Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and supersonic F-5 Tiger II , as well as the Mach 2.4-capable USAF Convair F-106 Delta Dart , to mimick the MiG-21. The culmination of the air struggle over Vietnam in early 1972 was 10 May, when VPAF aircraft completed 64 sorties, resulting in 15 air battles. The VPAF claimed 7 F-4s were shot down (the U.S. confirmed five F-4s were lost. ) The F-4s, in turn, managed to destroy two MiG-21s, three MiG-17s and one MiG-19. On 11 May, two MiG-21s, playing

3103-447: The Europe 2020 strategy which will run from 2014 to 2020, a multidisciplinary effort to provide safe, economically feasible, environmentally sound and socially acceptable solutions along the entire value chain of human activities. Firms that have embraced advanced digital technology devote a greater proportion of their investment efforts to R&D. Firms who engaged in digitisation during

3210-668: The MiG-29 would the Soviet Union ultimately replace the MiG-21 as a maneuvering dogfighter to counter new American air superiority types. The MiG-21 was exported widely and remains in use. The aircraft's simple controls, engine, weapons, and avionics were typical of Soviet-era military designs. The use of a tail with the delta wing aids stability and control at the extremes of the flight envelope , enhancing safety for lower-skilled pilots; this, in turn, enhanced its marketability in exports to developing countries with limited training programs and restricted pilot pools. While technologically inferior to

3317-611: The Office of Chief Scientist In the 1980s to 1992, the Chief scientist of Israel significantly expanded R&D subsidies in the Israeli industrial sector. Israel invested in the creation of clusters of startups in the high-tech sector as well as venture capital investments. In 1993, Israel initiated the Yozma program , which led to the doubling of value of Israel's 10 new venture capital funds in 3 years. In

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3424-605: The Pakistan Air Force shot down an Indian MiG-21 and captured its pilot . The MiG-21's debris had fallen in Pakistani-administered Kashmir. The pilot was later returned to India. The Indonesian Air Force purchased 22 MiG-21s. In 1962, 20 MiG-21F-13s and MiG-21Us were received during Operation Trikora in the Western New Guinea conflict. Indonesian MiG-21s never fought in any dogfights. Right after

3531-606: The UNESCO Institute for Statistics . By 2018, research and development constituted an average 1.79% of the global GDP according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics . Countries agreed in 2015 to monitor their progress in raising research intensity (SDG 9.5.1), as well as researcher density (SDG 9.5.2), as part of their commitment to reaching the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. However, this undertaking has not spurred an increase in reporting of data. On

3638-574: The rules of engagement in Vietnam precluded long-range missile attacks in most instances, as visual identification was normally required. Under these conditions, combat invariably closed to short ranges where maneuverability and short-range air-to-air weapons became critical, even for dedicated interceptors like the Convair F-102 Delta Dagger . Based on his experiences in the Korean War and as

3745-520: The thrust-to-weight ratio – but a larger, higher- lift wing to minimize wing loading – which tends to reduce top speed while increasing payload, and can lower range (which can be compensated for by increased fuel in the larger wing). The need for new air superiority fighters led the USAF to initiate two concept development studies in 1965: the Fighter Experimental (F-X) project originally envisioned

3852-450: The "bait", brought four F-4s to 2 MiG-21s circling at low altitude. The MiGs quickly stormed the Phantoms and 3 missiles shot down two F-4s. On 13 May, a MiG-21 unit intercepted a group of F-4s and a second pair of MiGs made a missile attack before being hit by two F-4s. On 18 May, VPAF aircraft made 26 sorties, eight of which resulted in combat, downing four F-4s without any VPAF losses. Over

3959-531: The ACF winner in May 1975, but the decision was advanced to the beginning of the year, and accelerated testing. ACF also raised the stakes for GD and Northrop because it brought in further competitors intent on securing the lucrative order that was touted at the time as "the arms deal of the century". These included the Dassault-Breguet Mirage F1 E (E for Europe) powered by a Snecma M53 engine and utilizing

4066-558: The ADF effort was essentially ignored in favour of an all-out effort to develop a superior F-X, which would emerge as the F-15 Eagle . Boyd was unimpressed with the resulting weight growth in the F-15, and the shelving of the ADF. In the late 1960s he gathered a group of like-minded innovators that became known as the "Lightweight Fighter Mafia". In 1969, this " Fighter Mafia " was able to secure funds for

4173-469: The Atoll missiles failed to hit their mark, but as it was disengaging, a B-52 from a three-bomber cell in front of his target took a hit from a surface-to-air missile (SAM), exploding in mid-air: this may have caused Tuân to think his missiles destroyed the target he had been aiming for. The Vietnamese claimed another kill on 28 December 1972 by a MiG-21 from the 921st FR, this time flown by Vu Xuan Thieu. Thieu

4280-671: The B-52. The first aerial victory was scored on 18 December 1972 by tail gunner Staff Sgt Samuel Turner, who was awarded the Silver Star . The second took place on 24 December 1972, when A1C Albert E. Moore downed a MiG-21 over the Thai Nguyen railroad yards. Both actions occurred during Operation Linebacker II , also known as the Christmas Bombings . These air-to-air kills were not confirmed by VPAF. The biggest threat to North Vietnam during

4387-711: The F-X design was far too heavy, and this led to new requirements for a smaller F-X in the 40,000-pound (18,100 kg) class. However, the appearance of the Mach-3 -capable MiG-25 in July 1967 led to serious concerns within the Defense Department that the Soviets had developed a super fighter capable of outrunning anything the US fielded, while its huge wing would make it highly maneuverable. In response,

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4494-655: The IAF MiG-21 played a limited role in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 . However, the IAF gained valuable experience while operating the MiG-21 for defensive sorties during the war. The positive feedback from IAF pilots during the 1965 war prompted India to place more orders for the fighter jet and also invest heavily in building the MiG-21's maintenance infrastructure and pilot training programs. Since 1963, India has introduced more than 1,200 MiG fighters into its air force. As of 2024, 40 MiG-21s are known to be in operation in

4601-580: The IAF. At its peak, IAF operated 400 MiG-21s in 19 squadrons. In 2023, the IAF announced that it would replace its MiG-21 Bisons with indigenously built Tejas fighter jet. The plane has been plagued by safety problems. Since 1970 more than 170 Indian pilots and 40 civilians have been killed in MiG-21 accidents, thus the unofficial nickname "flying coffin". Over half of the 840 aircraft built between 1966 and 1984 were lost to crashes. At least 14 MiG-21s crashed between 2010 and 2013. Poor maintenance and quality of replacement parts has been considered to be

4708-503: The LWF program would be redirected to a multirole fighter design in the new Air Combat Fighter (ACF) competition. ACF would not be a pure fighter, but more of a fighter-bomber , which essentially ended opposition from the F-X group. Finally, the U.S. Congress was seeking to achieve greater commonality in fighter procurements by the Air Force and Navy. In August 1974, Congress redirected funds for

4815-475: The Lightweight Fighter (LWF). The Request for Proposals (RFP) was issued 6 January 1972, and called for a 20,000 lb (9,100 kg) class fighter with a good turn rate, acceleration and range, and optimized for combat at speeds of Mach 0.6–1.6 and altitudes of 30,000–40,000 ft (9,150–12,200 m). This was the region in which the USAF expected most future air combat to occur, based on studies of

4922-449: The MFPG early on, leaving two European and the two U.S. LWF designs as candidates. On 11 September 1974, the U.S. Air Force confirmed firm plans to place an order for of the winning ACF design sufficient to equip five tactical fighter wings. The flight test program revealed that the YF-16 had superior acceleration, climb rates, endurance, and (except around Mach 0.7) turn rates. Another advantage

5029-498: The MiG bureau, while the successful mass-produced frontline fighter Su-7 and Mikoyan's I-75 experimental interceptor combined a similar fuselage shape with swept-back wings. However, the characteristic layout with the shock cone and front air intake did not see widespread use outside the USSR and ultimately proved to have limited development potential, mainly due to the small available space for

5136-448: The MiG-17 because the high wing loading of the MiG-21 made it relatively less maneuverable and the lighter framed canopy of the MiG-17 gave better visibility. However, this is not the impression British author Roger Boniface got when he interviewed Pham Ngoc Lan and ace Nguyễn Nhật Chiêu (who scored victories flying both the MiG-17 and MiG-21). Pham Ngoc Lan told Boniface that "The MiG-21

5243-429: The MiG-21, and it still serves many nations seven decades after its maiden flight. It set aviation records, becoming the most-produced supersonic jet aircraft in aviation history , the most-produced combat aircraft since the Korean War and, previously, the longest production run of any combat aircraft. The MiG-21 jet fighter was a continuation of Soviet jet fighters, starting with the subsonic MiG-15 and MiG-17 , and

5350-490: The MiG-21SM, but at the cost of worsening all other performance figures, such as a lower service ceiling and slower time to altitude. The delta wing, while excellent for a fast-climbing interceptor, meant any form of turning combat led to a rapid loss of speed. However, the light loading of the aircraft could mean that a climb rate of 235 m/s (46,250 ft/min) was possible with a combat-loaded MiG-21bis, not far short of

5457-650: The MiGs in ambush battle stations to make "one pass, then haul ass" attacks. The MiGs made fast and often accurate attacks against US formations from several directions (usually the MiG-17s performed head-on attacks and the MiG-21s attacked from the rear). After shooting down a few American planes and forcing some of the F-105s to drop their bombs prematurely, the MiGs did not wait for retaliation but disengaged rapidly. These "guerrilla warfare in

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5564-472: The MiGs. But in confrontations with the lighter MiG-21, F-4s began to suffer losses. From May to December 1966, the USAF lost 47 aircraft, destroying only 12 VPAF fighters in return. From April 1965 to November 1968, over 268 air battles occurred over the skies of North Vietnam. North Vietnam claimed 244 downed U.S. aircraft while admitting to the loss of 85 MiGs. Of 46 air battles between F-4s and MiG-21s, losses amounted to 27 F-4 Phantoms and 20 MiG-21s. After

5671-473: The Navy’s VFAX program to a new Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) program that would essentially be a navalized variant of ACF. These requirements meshed relatively well, but the timing of the procurement was driven by the timeframe needs of the four allies, who had formed a "Multinational Fighter Program Group" (MFPG) and were pressing for a U.S. decision by December 1974. The U.S. Air Force had planned to announce

5778-787: The Secretary for the decision were the YF-16's lower operating costs; greater range; and maneuver performance that was "significantly better" than that of the YF-17, especially at near-supersonic and supersonic speeds. However, in the Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) competition, the Navy announced on 2 May 1975 that it selected the YF-17 as the basis for what would become the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet . Research and development Research and development ( R&D or R+D )

5885-964: The Soviet forces. Moscow constructed single-seaters for export, and Tbilisi manufactured two-seaters both for export and the USSR, though there were exceptions. The MiG-21R and MiG-21bis for export and for the USSR were built in Gorky, 17 single-seaters were built in Tbilisi (MiG-21 and MiG-21F), the MiG-21MF was first constructed in Moscow and then Gorky, and the MiG-21U was built in Moscow as well as in Tbilisi. A total of 194 MiG-21F-13s were built under licence in Czechoslovakia , and Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. of India built 657 MiG-21FL, MiG-21M and MiG-21bis (of which 225 were bis) Due to

5992-414: The U.S. that if the USAF placed orders for the aircraft winning the LWF flyoff, they would consider ordering it as well. Secondly, while the USAF was not particularly interested in a complementary air superiority fighter competing with F-X, it did need to begin replacing its F-4 and Republic F-105 Thunderchief fighter-bombers. In April 1974, U.S. Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger announced that

6099-452: The U.S.-backed anti-communist forces took over the government, 13 Indonesian MiG-21s were delivered to the U.S. in exchange for T-33, UH-34D, and later, F-5 and OV-10 aircraft. All remaining MiG-21s were grounded and retired due to a lack of spare parts and the withdrawal of Soviet maintenance support. The MiGs were added to the 4477th Test and Evaluation Squadron ("Red Eagles"), a USAF aggressor squadron at Tonopah Test Range. The MiG-21

6206-399: The Vietnam, Six-Day , and Indo-Pakistani wars. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a production version was $ 3 million. Five manufacturers – Boeing , General Dynamics , Lockheed , Northrop , and Vought – submitted proposals. The Vought V-1100 and the Lockheed CL-1200-2 Lancer were eliminated in March 1972. Though the Boeing Model 908-909 was initially most favored, it

6313-413: The West, due to the lack of available information, early details of the MiG-21 often were confused with those of similar Soviet fighters of the era. In one instance, Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1960–1961 listed the "Fishbed" as a Sukhoi design and used an illustration of the Su-9 'Fishpot' . The MiG-21 was the first successful Soviet aircraft combining fighter and interceptor characteristics in

6420-421: The ailerons there are small wing fences . The fuselage is semi-monocoque with an elliptical profile and a maximum width of 1.24 m (4 ft 1 in). The air flow to the engine is regulated by an inlet cone in the air intake. On early model MiG-21s, the cone has three positions. For speeds up to Mach 1.5, the cone is fully retracted to the maximum aft position. For speeds between Mach 1.5 and Mach 1.9

6527-404: The air" tactics generally proved successful during the war. In December 1966, the MiG-21 pilots of the 921st FR downed 14 F-105 Thunderchiefs without any losses. The USAF and the US Navy had high expectations of the F-4 Phantom, assuming that their massive firepower, best available on-board radar, highest speed and acceleration properties, coupled with new tactics, would provide an advantage over

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6634-433: The best measures, because they are continuously maintained, public and reflect risk. In the United States, a typical ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3.5% of revenues; this measure is called " R&D intensity ". A high technology company, such as a computer manufacturer, might spend 7% or a pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co. 14.1% or Novartis 15.1%. Anything over 15%

6741-446: The canopy and below the pilot's eyeline. The cabin is pressurized and air-conditioned. On variants prior to the MiG-21PFM, the cabin canopy is hinged at the front. When ejecting, the SK-1 ejection seat connects with the canopy to provide a windbreak from the high-speed airflow encountered during high-speed ejections. After ejection, the canopy opens to allow the pilot to parachute to the ground. However, ejecting at low altitudes can cause

6848-432: The canopy to take too long to separate, sometimes resulting in pilot death. The minimum height for ejection in level flight was 110 m. Starting with the MiG-21PFM, a new ejection seat proved to be very reliable and did not need the canopy to protect the pilot which had never been fully satisfactory. The canopy is hinged on the right side of the cockpit. On the underside of the aircraft, there are three air brakes, two at

6955-402: The center of gravity. The Chinese variants somewhat improved the internal fuel tank layout (as did the second generation of Soviet variants), and also carried significantly larger external fuel tanks to counter this issue. Additionally, when more than half the fuel was used up, violent maneuvers prevented fuel from flowing into the engine , thereby causing it to shut down in flight. This increased

7062-431: The concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program, the ADP concept (revamped and renamed as the "F-XX") gained civilian political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard , who favored the idea of competitive prototyping . As a result, in May 1971 the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member. Two of its six proposals would be funded, one being

7169-411: The cone moves to the middle position. For speeds higher than Mach 1.9 the cone moves to the maximum forward position. On the later model MiG-21PF, the intake cone moves to a position based on the actual speed. The cone position for a given speed is calculated by the UVD-2M system using air pressures from in front and behind the compressor of the engine. On both sides of the nose, there are gills to supply

7276-553: The context of commerce , "research and development" normally refers to future-oriented, longer-term activities in science or technology , using similar techniques to scientific research but directed toward desired outcomes and with broad forecasts of commercial yield. Statistics on organizations devoted to "R&D" may express the state of an industry , the degree of competition or the lure of progress . Some common measures include: budgets , numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications . Bank ratios are one of

7383-526: The contrary, a total of 99 countries reported data on domestic investment in research in 2015 but only 69 countries in 2018. Similarly, 59 countries recorded the number of researchers (in full-time equivalents) in 2018, down from 90 countries in 2015. UNESCO Institute for Statistics is the global custodian of these R&D data; data can be freely obtained from the UIS database . Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 ( Russian : Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-21 ; NATO reporting name : Fishbed )

7490-484: The course of the air war, between 3 April 1965 and 8 January 1973, each side would ultimately claim favorable kill ratios. In 1972, the number of air battles between American and Vietnamese planes stood at 201. The VPAF lost 54 MiGs (including 36 MiG-21s and one MiG-21US) and claimed 90 U.S. aircraft shot down, including 74 F-4 fighters and two RF-4C reconnaissance jets (MiG-21s shot down 67 enemy aircraft while MiG-17s shot down 11 and MiG-19s downed another 12 ). One MiG-21

7597-411: The defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, "higher R&D spending does not guarantee more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share". Research is the most risky financing area because both the development of an invention and its successful realization carries uncertainty including the profitability of

7704-634: The end of the war. According to one Western military analyst, the MiG-21FLs had clearly "won" the much anticipated air combat between the MiG-21FL and the F-104A Starfighter. Because of the performance of India's MiG-21s, several nations, including Iraq , approached India for MiG-21 pilot training. By the early 1970s, more than 120 Iraqi pilots were being trained by the Indian Air Force. One MiG-21

7811-458: The engine with more air while on the ground and during takeoff . In the first variant of the MiG-21, the pitot tube is attached to the bottom of the nose. After the MiG-21P variant, this tube is attached to the top of the air intake. Later versions shifted the pitot tube attachment point 15 degrees to the right, as seen from the cockpit, and had an emergency pitot head on the right side, just ahead of

7918-412: The engine would increase by 2.5% and the compression ratio would thus increase, with a rise in exhaust temperature. The limit of operation is 2 minutes for both practice and actual wartime use, as further use causes the engine to overheat. The fuel consumption increased by 50% over the rate in full afterburner. Use of this temporary power gave the MiG-21bis slightly better than 1:1 thrust-to-weight ratio and

8025-477: The exhaust. The Russians gave the emergency power setting its "diamond regime" name, never used in India. Given a skilled pilot and capable missiles, it could give a good account of itself against contemporary fighters. Its G-limits were increased from +7Gs in initial variants to +8.5Gs in the latest variants. It was replaced by the newer variable-geometry MiG-23 and MiG-27 for ground support duties. However, not until

8132-401: The front and one at the rear. The front air brakes have an area of 0.76 m , and a deflection angle of 35°. The rear air brake has an area of 0.47 m and a deflection angle of 40°. The rear air brake is blocked if the airplane carries an external fuel tank. Behind the air brakes are the bays for the main landing gear . On the underside of the airplane, just behind the trailing edge of

8239-445: The high risk of failure and consequently high gross margins from 60% to 90% of revenues. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, because so many individual projects yield no exploitable product. Most industrial companies get 40% revenues only. On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and repackage advanced technologies as

8346-576: The introduction of Doppler radar systems, fighters gained similar range performance against smaller targets. By the early 1960s, even before the release of Forecast, both the Air Force and Navy expected to use the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark (then still in development as the TFX) and McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II for their long- and medium-range needs. The perception of a declining need for close-in " dogfighting " capabilities resulted in

8453-782: The invention. One way entrepreneurs can reduce these uncertainties is to buy the licence for a franchise, so that the know-how is already incorporated in the licence. In general, it has been found that there is a positive correlation between the research and development and firm productivity across all sectors, but that this positive correlation is much stronger in high-tech firms than in low-tech firms. In research done by Francesco Crespi and Cristiano Antonelli, high-tech firms were found to have "virtuous" Matthew effects while low-tech firms experienced "vicious" Matthew effects, meaning that high-tech firms were awarded subsidies on merit while low-tech firms most often were given subsidies based on name recognition, even if not put to good use. While

8560-503: The late 1990s, Israel was second only to the US in private equity as a share of the general economy. The high tech sector in Israel, known as Silicon Wadi , which earned Israel the nickname - Start-up Nation , was ranked the 4th leading startup ecosystem in the world by Startup genome with a value of $ 253billion in 2023. Europe is lagging behind in R&D investments from the past two decades. The target of 3% of gross domestic product (GDP)

8667-538: The mass production, the aircraft was very cheap: the MiG-21MF, for example, was cheaper than the BMP-1 The F-4 Phantom 's cost was several times higher than MiG-21. The MiG-21 has a delta wing . The sweep angle on the leading edge is 57° with a TsAGI S-12 airfoil . The angle of incidence is 0° while the dihedral angle is −2°. On the trailing edge there are ailerons with an area of 1.18 m , and flaps with an area of 1.87 m . In front of

8774-734: The more advanced fighters it often faced, low production and maintenance costs made it a favorite of nations buying Eastern Bloc military hardware. Several Russian, Israeli and Romanian firms have begun to offer upgrade packages to MiG-21 operators, designed to bring the aircraft up to a modern standard, with greatly upgraded avionics and armaments. A total of 10,645 aircraft were built in the USSR. They were produced in three factories: AZ 30 (3,203 aircraft) in Moscow (also known as MMZ Znamya Truda ), GAZ 21 (5,765 aircraft) in Gorky , and TAZ 31 (1,678 aircraft) in Tbilisi . Generally, Gorky built single-seaters for

8881-409: The needs of consumers and the potential niche market of a new product. If the development is technology driven, R&D is directed toward developing products to meet the unmet needs. In general, research and development activities are conducted by specialized units or centers belonging to a company, or can be out-sourced to a contract research organization, universities , or state agencies. In

8988-637: The original decision to not install internal cannons in the Phantom. However, real-world experience in the Vietnam War revealed some shortcomings in American fighter capabilities, as early generation Soviet jet fighters proved to be more of a challenge than expected for U.S. designs. Although U.S. pilots had achieved favorable kill-to-loss ratios, combat had revealed that air-to-air missiles (AAM) of this era were significantly less reliable than anticipated. Furthermore,

9095-473: The pandemic report spending a big portion of their expenditure in 2020 on software, data, IT infrastructure, and website operations. A 2021/2022 survey found that one in every seven enterprises in the Central, Eastern and South Eastern regions (14%) may be classed as active innovators — that is, firms that spent heavily in research and development and developed a new product, process, or service — however this figure

9202-449: The performance of the later F-16A . MiG-21's Tumansky R-25 jet engine's specialty was the addition of a second fuel pump in the afterburning stage. Activating the ЧР (rus. "чрезвычайный режим" - emergency mode)(Emergency Power Rating, EPR in India) booster feature allows the engine to develop 97.4 kilonewtons (21,896 lbf) of thrust under 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) of altitude. The rpm of

9309-544: The radar. Like many aircraft designed as interceptors, the MiG-21 had a short range. This was exacerbated by the poor placement of the internal fuel tanks ahead of the centre of gravity. As the internal fuel was consumed, the center of gravity would shift rearward beyond acceptable parameters. This had the effect of making the plane statically unstable to the point of being difficult to control, resulting in an endurance of only 45 minutes in clean condition. This can be somewhat countered by carrying fuel in external tanks closer to

9416-534: The risk of tank implosions (MiG-21 had tanks pressurized with air from the engine's compressor), a problem inherited from the MiG-15 , MiG-17 and MiG-19 . The short endurance and low fuel capacity of the MiG-21F, PF, PFM, S/SM and M/MF variants—though each had a somewhat greater fuel capacity than its predecessor—led to the development of the MT and SMT variants. These had an increased range of 250 km (155 mi) compared to

9523-417: The shock absorbers retract into the wing. The nose gear retracts forward into the fuselage under the radar. The nose wheel can be lowered manually by simply unlocking its hatch from inside the cockpit. Thus, landing with undercarriage locked in the up position due to an internal failure was not a major issue, with a number of such successful landings on the nosewheel and ventral fuel tank or the airbrake. India

9630-490: The strength of the correlation between R&D spending and productivity in low-tech industries is less than in high-tech industries, studies have been done showing non-trivial carryover effects to other parts of the marketplace by low-tech R&D. Business R&D is risky for at least two reasons. The first source of risks comes from R&D nature, where R&D project could fail without residual values. The second source of risks comes from takeover risks, which means R&D

9737-462: The supersonic MiG-19 . A number of experimental Mach 2 Soviet designs were based on nose intakes with either swept-back wings , such as the Sukhoi Su-7 , or tailed deltas , of which the MiG-21 would be the most successful. Development of what would become the MiG-21 began in the early 1950s when Mikoyan OKB finished a preliminary design study for a prototype designated Ye-1 in 1954. This project

9844-544: The war had always been the Strategic Air Command 's B-52 bombers. Hanoi 's MiG-17 and MiG-19 interceptors could not deal with the B-52s at their flying altitude. In the summer of 1972, the VPAF was directed to train 12 MiG-21 pilots for the specific mission of shooting the B-52 bombers, with two-thirds of the pilots specifically trained in night attacks. On 26 December 1972, just two days after tail gunner Albert Moore downed

9951-750: The war, the MiG-21s played a crucial role in giving the IAF air superiority over vital points and areas in the western theater of the conflict. The 1971 war witnessed the first supersonic air combat in the subcontinent when an Indian MiG-21FL claimed a PAF F-104A Starfighter with its GSh-23 twin-barrelled 23 mm cannon. By the time the hostilities came to an end, the IAF MiG-21FLs had claimed four PAF F-104As , two PAF Shenyang F-6s , one PAF North American F-86 Sabre and one PAF Lockheed C-130 Hercules . But only two kills were confirmed (both F-104As). Two more F-104s were critically damaged by MiG-21 fighters. Pakistan decommissioned all F-104s shortly after

10058-470: The wing are attachment points for two JATO rockets. The front section of the fuselage ends at former #28. The rear section of the fuselage starts at former #28a and is removable for engine maintenance. The empennage of the MiG-21 consists of a vertical stabilizer , a stabilator and a small fin on the bottom of the tail to improve yaw control. The vertical stabilizer has a sweep angle of 60° and an area of 5.32 m (on earlier version 3.8 m ) and

10165-619: Was always confident of a kill over an F-4 Phantom when flying a MiG-21." Although the MiG-21 lacked the long-range radar, missiles, and heavy bomb load of its contemporary multi-mission U.S. fighters, its RP-21 Sapfir radar helped make it a challenging adversary in the hands of experienced pilots, especially when used in high-speed hit-and-run attacks under GCI control. MiG-21 intercepts of Republic F-105 Thunderchief strike groups were effective in downing US aircraft or forcing them to jettison their bomb loads. The VPAF flew their interceptors with guidance from ground controllers, who positioned

10272-485: Was decommissioned after being in service for 50 years. The Indian Air Force plans to decommission all MiG-21s by 2025. The expansion of the IAF MiG-21 fleet marked a developing India-Soviet Union military partnership, which enabled India to field a formidable air force to counter Chinese and Pakistani threats. The capabilities of the MiG-21 were put to the test during the Bangladesh Liberation War . During

10379-542: Was designed for very short ground-controlled interception (GCI) missions. It became renowned for this type of mission in the skies over North Vietnam . The first MiG-21s arrived directly from the Soviet Union by ship in April 1966. After being unloaded and assembled they were given to the Vietnam People's Air Force 's (VPAF) oldest fighter unit, the 921st Fighter Regiment (921st FR), which had been created on 3 February 1964 as

10486-471: Was destined to fund basic research. According to National Science Foundation in U.S., in 2015, R&D expenditures performed by federal government and local governments are 54 and 0.6 billions of dollars. The federal research and development budget for fiscal year 2020 was $ 156 billion, 41.4% of which was for the Department of Defense ( DOD ). DOD's total research, development, test, and evaluation budget

10593-513: Was followed by the first flights of the Northrop’s YF-17 prototypes, which were achieved on 9 June and 21 August 1974, respectively. The fly-off commenced in 1974 as both prototypes were delivered. The YF-16s would complete 330 sorties during the flyoff, accumulating a total of 417 flight hours; the YF-17s would accomplish 268 sorties. Three factors would converge to turn the LWF into

10700-519: Was meant to be reached by 2020, but the current amount is below this target. This also causes a digital divide among countries since only a few EU Member States have R&D spending. Research and innovation in Europe are financially supported by the programme Horizon 2020 , which is open to participation worldwide. A notable example is the European environmental research and innovation policy , based on

10807-400: Was much faster, and it had two Atoll missiles which were very accurate and reliable when fired between 1,000 and 1,200 yards." And Chiêu asserted that "... for me personally, I preferred the MiG-21 because it was superior in all specifications in climb, speed and armament. The Atoll missile was very accurate and I scored four kills with the Atoll. ... In general combat conditions, I

10914-538: Was quite similar in technology and appearance to the cheaper General Dynamics Model 401-16B. Since one of the goals of the program was to validate emerging technologies, Secretary of the Air Force Robert Seamans chose to select the General Dynamics and Northrop entries. The first YF-16 had its official maiden flight on 2 February 1974. The second YF-16 prototype first flew on 9 May 1974. This

11021-503: Was roughly $ 108.5 billion. Israel is the world leader in spending on R&D as a percentage of GDP as of 2022, spending 6.02%. According to CSIS, During the 1970s and 1980s Israel initially built up Israel's research infrastructure through various programs, often in the defence industry. In 1984, a law for Encouragement of Research and Development in Industry encouraged the commercial sector to invest in R&D in Israel as well as empowered

11128-457: Was shot down by a Pakistani soldier using a shoulder-fired MANPADS missile during the Kargil war. On 10 August 1999, two MiG-21FLs of the Indian Air Force intercepted and shot down a Pakistani Bréguet 1150 Atlantic maritime patrol aircraft with an R-60 missile after it allegedly entered Indian airspace for surveillance, killing all on board. During the 2019 Jammu and Kashmir airstrikes ,

11235-421: Was shot down on 21 February 1972 by a USAF F-4 Phantom based at Udorn RTAFB , Thailand and piloted by Major Lodge with 1st Lt Roger Locher as his weapon systems officer (WSO). This was claimed as the first-ever USAF MiG kill at night, and the first in four years at that time. Two MiG-21s were claimed shot down by USAF Boeing B-52 Stratofortress tail gunners ; the only confirmed air-to-air kills ever made by

11342-512: Was the fact that the YF-16 – unlike the YF-17 – employed the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine, which was the same powerplant used by the F-15; such commonality would lower the unit costs of the engines for both programs. On 13 January 1975, Secretary of the Air Force John L. McLucas announced that the YF-16 had been selected as the winner of the ACF competition. The chief reasons given by

11449-608: Was very quickly reworked when it was determined that the planned engine was underpowered; the redesign led to the second prototype, the Ye-2. Both these and other early prototypes featured swept wings. The first prototype with the delta wings found on production variants was the Ye-4. It made its maiden flight on 16 June 1955 and its first public appearance during the Soviet Aviation Day display at Moscow's Tushino airfield in July 1956. In

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