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137-558: Timelapse of the Future: A Journey to the End of Time is a 2019 short epic documentary film created by American astronomy -themed musician and filmmaker John D. Boswell , made as a follow-up to his other short film Timelapse of the Entire Universe . Running at 29 minutes, it is a flowmotion —a combination of a hyper-lapse , time-lapse , and regular shots—of the universe from 2019 to

274-500: A TV special , a few films from the studio have added theatrical shorts as well. Warner Bros. often includes old shorts from its considerable library, connected only thematically, on the DVD releases of classic WB movies. From 2010–2012, Warner Bros. also released new Looney Tunes shorts before family films. Shorts International and Magnolia Pictures organize an annual release of Academy Award -nominated short films in theatres across

411-426: A black hole . The most massive neutron star detected so far, PSR J0952–0607 , is estimated to be 2.35 ± 0.17  M ☉ . Newly formed neutron stars may have surface temperatures of ten million K or more. However, since neutron stars generate no new heat through fusion, they inexorably cool down after their formation. Consequently, a given neutron star reaches a surface temperature of one million K when it

548-404: A gamma-ray burst occurs, Phobos becoming a ring system , whereas Saturn's rings disappear. Antarctica then melts in the year 43,343,155, followed by a significant asteroid impact in the year 70,606,131, and the formation of a supercontinent in the year 153,793,159. The Sun 's luminosity increases in the year 427,821,025, causing plants to die in the year 833,270,413, followed by life as

685-480: A low budget or no budget at all. They are usually funded by one or more film grants, nonprofit organizations , sponsors , or personal funds. Short films are generally used for industry experience and as a platform to showcase talent to secure funding for future projects from private investors, a production company , or film studios . They can also be released with feature films, and can also be included as bonus features on some home video releases. All films in

822-405: A 120 beats per minute rhythm , increasing as the time evolves to "highlight the accelerating rate of [the time-lapse]." The music's timing is also taken into consideration, saying that "It was important to me to have moments where the music, visuals, and sound effects could breathe, and the viewer could take in what they have seen." The line between sound design and music is blurred throughout

959-641: A Nation . By the 1920s, a ticket purchased a varied program including a feature and several supporting works from categories such as second feature , short comedy, 4–10 minute cartoon, travelogue , and newsreel. Short comedies were especially common, and typically came in a serial or series (such as the Our Gang movies, or the many outings of Charlie Chaplin 's Little Tramp character). Animated cartoons came principally as short subjects. Virtually all major film production companies had units assigned to develop and produce shorts, and many companies, especially in

1096-477: A certain confidence level. The temperature inside a newly formed neutron star is from around 10 to 10   kelvin . However, the huge number of neutrinos it emits carries away so much energy that the temperature of an isolated neutron star falls within a few years to around 10  kelvin . At this lower temperature, most of the light generated by a neutron star is in X-rays. Some researchers have proposed

1233-471: A commercial category. The year 1938 proved to be a turning point in the history of film comedies. Hal Roach , for example, had discontinued all short-subject production except Our Gang , which he finally sold to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1938. The Vitaphone studio, owned by Warner Bros. , discontinued its own line of two-reel comedies in 1938; Educational Pictures did as much that same year, owing to its president Earle W. Hammons unsuccessfully entering

1370-546: A complete destruction of the companion through ablation or collision. The study of neutron star systems is central to gravitational wave astronomy. The merger of binary neutron stars produces gravitational waves and may be associated with kilonovae and short-duration gamma-ray bursts . In 2017, the LIGO and Virgo interferometer sites observed GW170817 , the first direct detection of gravitational waves from such an event. Prior to this, indirect evidence for gravitational waves

1507-497: A custom short-form version of my original piece to fit the song, which is hauntingly beautiful, as is the rest of her EP of the same name. Thanks to Noah and her team for making me a part of this." Timelapse of the Future won the 2020 Webby Awards as the People's of Voice winner and Webby winner in the 'Science & Education General Video' category, with the 5-word speech being "Thanks

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1644-405: A far stronger magnetic field. However, this simple explanation does not fully explain magnetic field strengths of neutron stars. The gravitational field at a neutron star's surface is about 2 × 10 times stronger than on Earth , at around 2.0 × 10  m/s . Such a strong gravitational field acts as a gravitational lens and bends the radiation emitted by the neutron star such that parts of

1781-411: A gently rising pressure versus energy density while a stiff one would have a sharper rise in pressure. In neutron stars, nuclear physicists are still testing whether the equation of state should be stiff or soft, and sometimes it changes within individual equations of state depending on the phase transitions within the model. This is referred to as the equation of state stiffening or softening, depending on

1918-422: A mass of about 1.4  M ☉ . Stars that collapse into neutron stars have a total mass of between 10 and 25 solar masses ( M ☉ ), or possibly more for those that are especially rich in elements heavier than hydrogen and helium . Once formed, neutron stars no longer actively generate heat and cool over time, but they may still evolve further through collisions or accretion . Most of

2055-404: A massive supergiant star . It results from the supernova explosion of a massive star —combined with gravitational collapse —that compresses the core past white dwarf star density to that of atomic nuclei . Surpassed only by black holes , neutron stars are the second smallest and densest known class of stellar objects. Neutron stars have a radius on the order of 10 kilometers (6 mi) and

2192-465: A me or a you or my mom or my dad. And there's something really terrifying, but also comforting about that, when you think about how much fear and how much hatred there is in the world, and that will also end. For me, it really put into perspective how shortly lived our moments here as humans are. Situations from when I was younger started entering my head that I wanted to apologize for. There were people I wanted to reach out to that I hadn't checked in on in

2329-629: A million, billion, trillion," making it his second and third Webby Award since his first for remixing quotes from Fred Rogers on PBS . Many viewers were reported to be triggered with existential crisis due to the film pace to the end of time being fast, and the representation of the size of humanity . A lot of these effects were seen in the comments section . Examples of results include comments saying: "If you see my comment saying 189 years ago,[...] it's because I'm dead by now," "Why are we still here? Just to suffer?" etc. An anonymous writer wrote: "In all those years watching videos on YouTube, never has

2466-426: A mood, a sense of being present at an alien time and place. [...] The intensity and variety of the events, the interplay with the music all combined made it difficult to not get muddied into a sonic mess. It took very careful tweaking and sound selection to make it work[,] I recall spending a couple days just on a 10-second span of sound and music. The method of time in the film is "a lot more thought and trickery" from

2603-576: A neutron star classification system using Roman numerals (not to be confused with the Yerkes luminosity classes for non-degenerate stars) to sort neutron stars by their mass and cooling rates: type I for neutron stars with low mass and cooling rates, type II for neutron stars with higher mass and cooling rates, and a proposed type III for neutron stars with even higher mass, approaching 2  M ☉ , and with higher cooling rates and possibly candidates for exotic stars . The magnetic field strength on

2740-539: A pulsar or a part of a binary system. Slow-rotating and non-accreting neutron stars are difficult to detect, due to the absence of electromagnetic radiation; however, since the Hubble Space Telescope 's detection of RX J1856.5−3754 in the 1990s, a few nearby neutron stars that appear to emit only thermal radiation have been detected. Neutron stars in binary systems can undergo accretion, in which case they emit large amounts of X-rays . During this process, matter

2877-440: A regular series in 1946 and lasted until 1956. By and large, however, the movies' one-reel subject of choice was the animated cartoon, produced by Walt Disney , Warner Bros. , MGM, Paramount , Walter Lantz , Columbia, and Terrytoons . One of the movies' oldest short-subject formats was the adventure serial , first established in 1912. A serial generally ran for 12 to 15 chapters, 15 to 20 minutes each. Every episode ended with

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3014-449: A short along with each of its feature films during its initial theatrical run since 1995 (producing shorts permanently since 2001). Since Disney acquired Pixar in 2006, Disney has also produced animated shorts since 2007 with the Goofy short How to Hook Up Your Home Theater and produced a series of live-action ones featuring The Muppets for viewing on YouTube as viral videos to promote

3151-443: A solid "crust". This crust is extremely hard and very smooth (with maximum surface irregularities on the order of millimeters or less), due to the extreme gravitational field. Proceeding inward, one encounters nuclei with ever-increasing numbers of neutrons; such nuclei would decay quickly on Earth, but are kept stable by tremendous pressures. As this process continues at increasing depths, the neutron drip becomes overwhelming, and

3288-575: A source of power and slow down their time to survive the end of the universe . However, if protons are unstable, they begin to decay , and atoms disintegrate , erasing all the remaining degenerate matter in the universe. With protons having completely decayed, the Black Hole Era begins. The universe contains "zombie galaxies" of black holes and light particles lounging around. Finally, binary black holes might come to life, releasing massive amounts of energy as gravitational waves when merging. In

3425-462: A sphere 305 m in diameter, about the size of the Arecibo Telescope . In popular scientific writing, neutron stars are sometimes described as macroscopic atomic nuclei . Indeed, both states are composed of nucleons , and they share a similar density to within an order of magnitude. However, in other respects, neutron stars and atomic nuclei are quite different. A nucleus is held together by

3562-448: A spherically symmetric, time invariant metric. With a given equation of state, solving the equation leads to observables such as the mass and radius. There are many codes that numerically solve the TOV equation for a given equation of state to find the mass-radius relation and other observables for that equation of state. The following differential equations can be solved numerically to find

3699-476: A tiny fraction of its parent's radius (sharply reducing its moment of inertia ), a neutron star is formed with very high rotation speed and then, over a very long period, it slows. Neutron stars are known that have rotation periods from about 1.4 ms to 30 s. The neutron star's density also gives it very high surface gravity , with typical values ranging from 10 to 10  m/s (more than 10 times that of Earth ). One measure of such immense gravity

3836-452: A ton of stuff into the first few minutes. Everything from the present day to the death of the earth would've occurred in one minute instead of three to four. That would've made it really hard to breathe. But then you have to apply that same rule to the rest of the video, and ensure you've got enough stuff in there to fill the time. It's a balance. In Timelapse of the Future , the time per frame reduces to approximately 0.5 months per frame (film

3973-559: A video moved so much with me to the point that I'm speechless at the end, unable to understand the existential emptiness that it caused in me. It's a terrifying feeling, a mixture of emotions, as if the entropy finally won and you no longer know what you're feeling." Philosophy essayist Oshan Jarow on his publication Musing Mind said that the film "reminds us how improbable our sentience is, how improbable our capacities for feeling & intelligence are. Insane. Meaningless." When asked, Boswell said: I find it comforting. It's beautiful in

4110-521: A way that the Big Bang was started from nothing and then at the end it's going to be nothing all over again . There's an arc to it that I find really poetic. I don't fear the nothingness . If that's really the way it is, then so be it. I think it puts everything in your life into perspective. It really is about the journey, not the destination. And we're just here to live our moment in the sun as best as we can and enjoy it. We live in this moment when it's not

4247-509: A weight of approximately 3 billion tonnes, the same weight as a 0.5-cubic-kilometer chunk of the Earth (a cube with edges of about 800 meters) from Earth's surface. As a star's core collapses, its rotation rate increases due to conservation of angular momentum , so newly formed neutron stars typically rotate at up to several hundred times per second. Some neutron stars emit beams of electromagnetic radiation that make them detectable as pulsars, and

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4384-441: A while. There were wrongs that I felt needed to be made right. I realized I needed to appreciate the current moment more, and to let the ones I love know I love them. The message that what we have right now is what matters. Nothing else. Boswell, who became the director of the music video, went to his Instagram account, saying: "She captured this subject more elegantly in 3 minutes than I could in 30. We worked together on creating

4521-615: A whole in the year 2,952,729,059, as oceans evaporate. The Sun then expands and becomes a red giant — destroying Earth in the process — before dying as a white dwarf in the year 7,650,412,497. Other stars then slowly die, making the universe end in a whimper . The last red dwarfs die in the year 100,000,000,000,000. With stars having completely run out of fuel, the Degenerate Era begins. The universe contains pulsars , black holes , and brown dwarfs , barely lit up by white dwarfs. Over time, gravity ejects most cosmic remnants into

4658-426: Is 24 fps ) at the beginning, increasing as it evolves. It uses the calculation: 12/24 = 0.5 , in which: 12 = months, 24 = frames rate, and 0.5 = months. The first known tweet regarding the film was a tweet on July 21, 2018, about Pangea Ultima , an event featured on the film. The first tweet explicitly mentioning the production of the film was posted on October 10, as well as another tweet indirectly mentioning

4795-522: Is a gravitational wave observatory, and NICER , which is an X-ray telescope. NICER's observations of pulsars in binary systems, from which the pulsar mass and radius can be estimated, can constrain the neutron star equation of state. A 2021 measurement of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 was able to constrain the radius of a 1.4 solar mass neutron star to 12.33 +0.76 −0.8 km with 95% confidence. These mass-radius constraints, combined with chiral effective field theory calculations, tightens constraints on

4932-466: Is based on the current assumed maximum mass of neutron stars (~2 solar masses) and the minimum black hole mass (~5 solar masses). Recently, some objects have been discovered that fall in that mass gap from gravitational wave detections. If the true maximum mass of neutron stars was known, it would help characterize compact objects in that mass range as either neutron stars or black holes. There are three more properties of neutron stars that are dependent on

5069-473: Is between one thousand and one million years old. Older and even-cooler neutron stars are still easy to discover. For example, the well-studied neutron star, RX J1856.5−3754 , has an average surface temperature of about 434,000 K. For comparison, the Sun has an effective surface temperature of 5,780 K. Neutron star material is remarkably dense : a normal-sized matchbox containing neutron-star material would have

5206-483: Is deposited on the surface of the stars, forming "hotspots" that can be sporadically identified as X-ray pulsar systems. Additionally, such accretions are able to "recycle" old pulsars, causing them to gain mass and rotate extremely quickly, forming millisecond pulsars . Furthermore, binary systems such as these continue to evolve , with many companions eventually becoming compact objects such as white dwarfs or neutron stars themselves, though other possibilities include

5343-487: Is inspired by Timelapse of the Future. The music video is a refreshed art installation-like version of Timelapse of the Future, similar to the draft version tweeted by Boswell in 2018 , with some points omitted to fit the song's duration, and with some points shuffled to fit the lyrics. Some of the videos on the other songs on the EP of the same name also used imageries from Boswell. Via her Instagram account, she states: "I had

5480-488: Is made by volunteers from Amara and YouTube . Boswell, like several of his films, was supported by computer scientist Juan Benet, thus having his company Protocol Labs , an open-source R&D lab, credited. He also clarified that the video/film is in no way entirely and meant to be scientifically accurate, and that "It's guaranteed you're going to have to do a lot of speculation anyway, so I'm not too concerned about scientific accuracy when it's impossible to predict

5617-451: Is no way to replicate the material on earth in laboratories, which is how equations of state for other things like ideal gases are tested. The closest neutron star is many parsecs away, meaning there is no feasible way to study it directly. While it is known neutron stars should be similar to a degenerate gas , it cannot be modeled strictly like one (as white dwarfs are) because of the extreme gravity. General relativity must be considered for

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5754-516: Is not by itself sufficient to hold up an object beyond 0.7  M ☉ and repulsive nuclear forces increasingly contribute to supporting more massive neutron stars. If the remnant star has a mass exceeding the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit , which ranges from 2.2–2.9 M ☉ , the combination of degeneracy pressure and nuclear forces is insufficient to support the neutron star, causing it to collapse and form

5891-429: Is not near 0.6/2 = 0.3, −30%. Current understanding of the structure of neutron stars is defined by existing mathematical models, but it might be possible to infer some details through studies of neutron-star oscillations . Asteroseismology , a study applied to ordinary stars, can reveal the inner structure of neutron stars by analyzing observed spectra of stellar oscillations. Current models indicate that matter at

6028-477: Is only theoretical. Different equations of state lead to different values of observable quantities. While the equation of state is only directly relating the density and pressure, it also leads to calculating observables like the speed of sound, mass, radius, and Love numbers . Because the equation of state is unknown, there are many proposed ones, such as FPS, UU, APR, L, and SLy, and it is an active area of research. Different factors can be considered when creating

6165-451: Is released in the supernova explosion from which it forms (from the law of mass–energy equivalence, E = mc ). The energy comes from the gravitational binding energy of a neutron star. Hence, the gravitational force of a typical neutron star is huge. If an object were to fall from a height of one meter on a neutron star 12 kilometers in radius, it would reach the ground at around 1,400 kilometers per second. However, even before impact,

6302-416: Is that for the correct equation of state, every neutron star that could possibly exist would lie along that curve. This is one of the ways equations of state can be constrained by astronomical observations. To create these curves, one must solve the TOV equations for different central densities. For each central density, you numerically solve the mass and pressure equations until the pressure goes to zero, which

6439-467: Is that of "flux freezing", or conservation of the original magnetic flux during the formation of the neutron star. If an object has a certain magnetic flux over its surface area, and that area shrinks to a smaller area, but the magnetic flux is conserved, then the magnetic field would correspondingly increase. Likewise, a collapsing star begins with a much larger surface area than the resulting neutron star, and conservation of magnetic flux would result in

6576-456: Is the fact that neutron stars have an escape velocity of over half the speed of light . The neutron star's gravity accelerates infalling matter to tremendous speed, and tidal forces near the surface can cause spaghettification . The equation of state of neutron stars is not currently known. This is because neutron stars are the second most dense known object in the universe, only less dense than black holes. The extreme density means there

6713-429: Is the outside of the star. Each solution gives a corresponding mass and radius for that central density. Mass-radius curves determine what the maximum mass is for a given equation of state. Through most of the mass-radius curve, each radius corresponds to a unique mass value. At a certain point, the curve will reach a maximum and start going back down, leading to repeated mass values for different radii. This maximum point

6850-451: Is to deform the star due to tidal forces , typically important in binary systems. While these properties depend on the material of the star and therefore on the equation of state, there is a relation between these three quantities that is independent of the equation of state. This relation assumes slowly and uniformly rotating stars and uses general relativity to derive the relation. While this relation would not be able to add constraints to

6987-470: Is very important when it comes to constraining the equation of state. Oppenheimer and Volkoff came up with the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit using a degenerate gas equation of state with the TOV equations that was ~0.7 Solar masses. Since the neutron stars that have been observed are more massive than that, that maximum mass was discarded. The most recent massive neutron star that was observed

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7124-406: Is what is known as the maximum mass. Beyond that mass, the star will no longer be stable, i.e. no longer be able to hold itself up against the force of gravity, and would collapse into a black hole. Since each equation of state leads to a different mass-radius curve, they also lead to a unique maximum mass value. The maximum mass value is unknown as long as the equation of state remains unknown. This

7261-562: The Miami Herald referenced The Guerilla Film Makers Pocketbook by Chris Jones on the film. Michael Nielsen said: on Twitter "Gorgeous. We're in a golden age of explanation," adding "I always find this... odd, and must admit anticipation of that reaction is making me increasingly hesitant to post things like this." It has also been featured on futuretimeline.net. Psychedelia magazine Psysociety recommends it, leaning towards visuals and sound design. Publication La Boite Verte said that

7398-401: The 2011 movie of the same name . In 2009 the horror short film, No Through Road, that would go viral was released, creating analog horror. The short film would spark 3 sequels, creating No Through Road (web series) DreamWorks Animation often produces a short sequel to include in the special edition video releases of major features, and are typical of a sufficient length to be broadcast as

7535-482: The Milky Way , and at a minimum several hundred million, a figure obtained by estimating the number of stars that have undergone supernova explosions. However, many of them have existed for a long period of time and have cooled down considerably. These stars radiate very little electromagnetic radiation; most neutron stars that have been detected occur only in certain situations in which they do radiate, such as if they are

7672-431: The album / LP , The Arrow of Time , to be his album with "unique sonic and musical challenges." He stated that the idea behind the theme is to "feel huge, open, at times lonely and eerie — in short, to reflect the future of the universe itself," and that he "also wanted to convey some sense of melancholy, as this story foretells the fate of our species in a pretty somber way." The soundtrack's first track, "Sun Mother," uses

7809-484: The end of time , with the lapse rate doubling every five seconds. The film consists of self-made and fair use footage from films, the Internet , and speeches by scientists, using current knowledge and combining different hypotheses. Boswell spent six months on production, beginning in mid-2018, with several months of research prior. It was initially conceived as an art installation without dialogue, but later changed due to

7946-481: The silent and very early sound era, produced mostly or only short subjects. In the 1930s, the distribution system changed in many countries, owing to the Great Depression . Instead of the cinema owner assembling a program of their own choice, the studios sold a package centered on a main and supporting feature, a cartoon and little else. With the rise of the double feature , two- reel shorts went into decline as

8083-444: The strong interaction , whereas a neutron star is held together by gravity . The density of a nucleus is uniform, while neutron stars are predicted to consist of multiple layers with varying compositions and densities. Because equations of state for neutron stars lead to different observables, such as different mass-radius relations, there are many astronomical constraints on equations of state. These come mostly from LIGO , which

8220-499: The sublime of the unimaginable, with all the wonder and terror that might provoke." The Long Now Foundation writer Ahmed Kabil says that "The effect of [the Sun's] demise coming so early in the video is unsettling, akin to Hitchcock killing off Janet Leigh 's character less than a third of the way through Psycho ." Filmmaker Eugene Lee Yang said that it is "a breathtakingly brilliant education video that has rendered my perpetual existential crisis shook to its core." A writer from

8357-460: The tidal force would cause spaghettification , breaking any sort of an ordinary object into a stream of material. Because of the enormous gravity, time dilation between a neutron star and Earth is significant. For example, eight years could pass on the surface of a neutron star, yet ten years would have passed on Earth, not including the time-dilation effect of the star's very rapid rotation. Neutron star relativistic equations of state describe

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8494-465: The 1920s into the 1970s when confined to two 35 mm reels or less, and featurettes for a film of three or four reels. " Short " was an abbreviation for either term. The increasingly rare industry term "short subject" carries more of an assumption that the film is shown as part of a presentation along with a feature film. Short films are often screened at local, national, or international film festivals and made by independent filmmakers with either

8631-507: The 1960s before exiting the short film business in 1969 (by which point the shorts had been in televised reruns for years ). MGM continued Tom and Jerry (first with a series of poorly-received Eastern European shorts by Gene Deitch , then a better-received run by Warner Bros. alumnus Chuck Jones ) until 1967, and Woody Woodpecker lasted to 1972; the creative team behind MGM's 1940s and 1950s cartoons formed Hanna-Barbera Productions in 1957, mainly focusing on television. The Pink Panther

8768-482: The US, UK, Canada and Mexico throughout February and March. Shorts are occasionally broadcast as filler when a feature film or other work does not fit the standard broadcast schedule. ShortsTV was the first television channel dedicated to short films. However, short films generally rely on film festival exhibition to reach an audience. Such movies can also be distributed via the Internet . Certain websites which encourage

8905-415: The basic models for these objects imply that they are composed almost entirely of neutrons , as the extreme pressure causes the electrons and protons present in normal matter to combine into additional neutrons. These stars are partially supported against further collapse by neutron degeneracy pressure , just as white dwarfs are supported against collapse by electron degeneracy pressure . However, this

9042-452: The beginning of cinema were very short , sometimes running only a minute or less. It was not until the 1910s when films started to get longer than about ten minutes. The first set of films were presented in 1894 and it was through Thomas Edison 's device called a kinetoscope . It was made for individual viewing only. Comedy short films were produced in large numbers compared to lengthy features such as D. W. Griffith 's 1915 The Birth of

9179-502: The concentration of free neutrons increases rapidly. After a supernova explosion of a supergiant star, neutron stars are born from the remnants. A neutron star is composed mostly of neutrons (neutral particles) and contains a small fraction of protons (positively charged particles) and electrons (negatively charged particles), as well as nuclei. In the extreme density of a neutron star, many neutrons are free neutrons, meaning they are not bound in atomic nuclei and move freely within

9316-482: The context], in the part where we talk about the creation of baby universes, it is logical to think that a fertile universe would be one in which there was a civilization intelligent enough or advanced enough to be able to create a new universe to escape from and, in that case, the phrase would make sense." Singer and actress Noah Cyrus released the music video for the song The End of Everything in collaboration with Boswell on May 19, 2020, in which she states that it

9453-519: The core has been exhausted, the core must be supported by degeneracy pressure alone. Further deposits of mass from shell burning cause the core to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit . Electron-degeneracy pressure is overcome, and the core collapses further, causing temperatures to rise to over 5 × 10  K (5 billion K). At these temperatures, photodisintegration (the breakdown of iron nuclei into alpha particles due to high-energy gamma rays) occurs. As

9590-415: The creation of the neutrons, resulting in a supernova and leaving behind a neutron star. However, if the remnant has a mass greater than about 3  M ☉ , it instead becomes a black hole. As the core of a massive star is compressed during a Type II supernova or a Type Ib or Type Ic supernova, and collapses into a neutron star, it retains most of its angular momentum . Because it has only

9727-410: The crust cause starquakes , observed as extremely luminous millisecond hard gamma ray bursts. The fireball is trapped by the magnetic field, and comes in and out of view when the star rotates, which is observed as a periodic soft gamma repeater (SGR) emission with a period of 5–8 seconds and which lasts for a few minutes. The origins of the strong magnetic field are as yet unclear. One hypothesis

9864-502: The crust to an estimated 6 × 10 or 8 × 10  kg/m deeper inside. Pressure increases accordingly, from about 3.2 × 10  Pa at the inner crust to 1.6 × 10  Pa in the center. A neutron star is so dense that one teaspoon (5 milliliters ) of its material would have a mass over 5.5 × 10  kg , about 900 times the mass of the Great Pyramid of Giza . The entire mass of the Earth at neutron star density would fit into

10001-470: The discovery of pulsars by Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish in 1967 was the first observational suggestion that neutron stars exist. The fastest-spinning neutron star known is PSR J1748−2446ad , rotating at a rate of 716 times per second or 43,000 revolutions per minute , giving a linear (tangential) speed at the surface on the order of 0.24 c (i.e., nearly a quarter the speed of light ). There are thought to be around one billion neutron stars in

10138-502: The early days of the universe, where it's this completely homogenous fireball. And we're not at the end of the universe where it's this completely icy cold void with nothing in it. We're in this Goldilocks moment. If we play our cards right, we potentially have trillions of years to live this moment and appreciate it as much as we can. On August 31, 2019, Boswell released a teaser for his next project, web series Life Beyond , which discovers extraterrestrial life and human's location in

10275-467: The equation of state but can also be astronomically observed: the moment of inertia , the quadrupole moment , and the Love number . The moment of inertia of a neutron star describes how fast the star can rotate at a fixed spin momentum. The quadrupole moment of a neutron star specifies how much that star is deformed out of its spherical shape. The Love number of the neutron star represents how easy or difficult it

10412-447: The equation of state such as phase transitions. Another aspect of the equation of state is whether it is a soft or stiff equation of state. This relates to how much pressure there is at a certain energy density, and often corresponds to phase transitions. When the material is about to go through a phase transition, the pressure will tend to increase until it shifts into a more comfortable state of matter. A soft equation of state would have

10549-430: The equation of state, since it is independent of the equation of state, it does have other applications. If one of these three quantities can be measured for a particular neutron star, this relation can be used to find the other two. In addition, this relation can be used to break the degeneracies in detections by gravitational wave detectors of the quadrupole moment and spin, allowing the average spin to be determined within

10686-481: The evaporation of the last black hole, life, as we know it, is only possible for one thousandth of a billion billion billionth billion billion billionth billion billion billionth of a percent. This track list still does not include the hidden track posted on Boswell's Patreon. All music is composed by John Boswell Short film In the United States, short films were generally termed short subjects from

10823-399: The exotic states that may be found at the cores of neutron stars are types of QCD matter . At the extreme densities at the centers of neutron stars, neutrons become disrupted giving rise to a sea of quarks. This matter's equation of state is governed by the laws of quantum chromodynamics and since QCD matter cannot be produced in any laboratory on Earth, most of the current knowledge about it

10960-402: The experience. From the onset, the [year] counter [in the video] acts as a metronome driving the first piece of music. In many places, the deep rumbles of black holes take the place of synth bass lines , creating a symbiotic bond between the music and the visuals. I often didn't distinguish between whether I was sound designing or composing; it all came from the same place — the need to create

11097-406: The feature-film field. With these major comedy producers out of the running, Columbia Pictures actually expanded its own operations and launched a second two-reel-comedy unit in 1938. Columbia and RKO Radio Pictures kept making two-reel comedies into the 1950s. Theater managers found it easier and more convenient to fit shorter, one-reel (10-minute) subjects into their double-feature programs. In

11234-434: The film's ending eight days later. The first teaser was posted on Boswell's Patreon and Vimeo on February 1, 2019, followed by an announcement on his Patreon, mentioning the film "my most ambitious release yet." A photo of a scene in the film was leaked on Boswell's Twitter on March 15, followed by a 70-second teaser the next day. The film was released on Boswell's YouTube channel Melodysheep on March 20, 17:15 UTC , with

11371-417: The film: a picture of an animated black hole. The screenshot differs from the final result absolutely: the extremely huge years numbers expressed with powers, no moving counter, and texts directly on the frame, instead of on the lower hard matte ; There is not much statements about production of the film, other than that "Creating it required months of research into physical cosmology , where speculations about

11508-462: The freezing interstellar space . Notably, neutron stars may collide and make superluminous supernovae . Extraterrestrial life might live around aging white dwarfs, which someday die and become black dwarfs . At some point, the supermassive black hole at the center of each galaxy will suck up all degenerate matter that fails to escape it, a similar process to the fate of the Sun. Theories predict that civilizations could utilize black holes as

11645-499: The future, both short-term and long-term ." Writing the concept first involved research and then constructing the timeline which is "the scaffolding around which the visuals and music would be built." After writing, he then broke down the timeline to several, appropriate sequences. Via Long Now Foundation , he then further explained: My original plan was to make something more like an art installation piece where there wouldn't be so much talking and facts; it would basically just be

11782-493: The future." In the film, he also disclosed, "We may not know [the future] for certain." Boswell stated to have used several stock audio on Spitfire Audio , Komplete , 8dio, and Omnisphere as well rather than solely original soundtrack composed using Ableton Live ; synths played using the Yamaha CS-80 and Moog Sub 37 . Piano tunes were played by a Gulbransen upright , an instrument he repeatedly uses. He considers

11919-429: The gravitational constant, p ( r ) {\displaystyle p(r)}  is the pressure, ϵ ( r ) {\displaystyle \epsilon (r)}  is the energy density (found from the equation of state), and c {\displaystyle c}  is the speed of light. Using the TOV equations and an equation of state, a mass-radius curve can be found. The idea

12056-506: The gravitational wave signal that can be applied to LIGO detections. For example, the LIGO detection of the binary neutron star merger GW170817 provided limits on the tidal deformability of the two neutron stars which dramatically reduced the family of allowed equations of state. Future gravitational wave signals with next generation detectors like Cosmic Explorer can impose further constraints. When nuclear physicists are trying to understand

12193-519: The hero or heroine trapped in a life-threatening situation; audiences would have to return the following week to see the outcome. These "chapter plays" remained popular through the 1950s, although both Columbia and Republic Pictures were now making them as cheaply as possible, reusing action highlights from older serials and connecting them with a few new scenes showing identically dressed actors. Even after Republic quit making serials in 1955 and Columbia stopped in 1956, faithful audiences supported them and

12330-573: The historic Rodina Film Centre , St. Petersburg , Russia , on November 3 on 6:30 pm MSK , participating in The World of Knowledge International Film Festival . A hosted presentation at the Treefort Music Fest — specifically at its sister event Hackfort Fest— was supposed to take place on March 28, 2020, but was postponed to either September 23 or 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic . The soundtrack

12467-497: The history of the universe." Boswell's Patrons also get to view a making-of of the film, as well as a bonus track. It gets generally positive reviews by viewers, and is promoted by the SETI Institute . Its second episode, "The Museum of Alien Life," was released on October 7, 2020. The theme is said to revolve around "mak[ing] contact with intelligent life, surviving the end of the universe, the physics of alien life, and more." In

12604-406: The humble role of humanity in the history of the universe,'" however, it is also criticized by IAC researcher Jonay González Hernández via El País for taking the confusing phrase by Sean Carroll "universes that have no intelligent life are infertile ," in which Hernández states that "A universe in which there would be life of any of these types would be a fertile universe. But if we [look at

12741-432: The likelihood of their equation of state, it is good to compare with these constraints to see if it predicts neutron stars of these masses and radii. There is also recent work on constraining the equation of state with the speed of sound through hydrodynamics. The Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff (TOV) equation can be used to describe a neutron star. The equation is a solution to Einstein's equations from general relativity for

12878-448: The live-action field, humorist Robert Benchley had been making short comedies since the dawn of sound; his various series for Fox, Vitaphone, MGM, and Paramount ran from 1928 to 1944. MGM's Pete Smith Specialties had been a standard "added attraction" in moviehouse programming since 1935 and lasted through 1955. RKO's Flicker Flashbacks revivals of silent films ran from 1943 to 1956, and Warner Bros. ' Joe McDoakes comedies became

13015-490: The music "complements [the breathtaking visuals] for a grandiose cosmic power." Kevin Pang on G/O Media 's digital publication The Takeout says, "I found the existential questions conjured frightening, but also sobering and breathtaking and beautiful. It has the ability to make viewers hold two opposing thoughts simultaneously—that everything is beautiful and none of it means a damn thing." The film has also been similarized with

13152-424: The neutron star equation of state because Newtonian gravity is no longer sufficient in those conditions. Effects such as quantum chromodynamics (QCD) , superconductivity , and superfluidity must also be considered. At the extraordinarily high densities of neutron stars, ordinary matter is squeezed to nuclear densities. Specifically, the matter ranges from nuclei embedded in a sea of electrons at low densities in

13289-478: The neutron star equation of state. Equation of state constraints from LIGO gravitational wave detections start with nuclear and atomic physics researchers, who work to propose theoretical equations of state (such as FPS, UU, APR, L, SLy, and others). The proposed equations of state can then be passed onto astrophysics researchers who run simulations of binary neutron star mergers . From these simulations, researchers can extract gravitational waveforms , thus studying

13426-1047: The neutron star observables: d p d r = − G ϵ ( r ) M ( r ) c 2 r 2 ( 1 + p ( r ) ϵ ( r ) ) ( 1 + 4 π r 3 p ( r ) M ( r ) c 2 ) ( 1 − 2 G M ( r ) c 2 r ) {\displaystyle {\frac {dp}{dr}}=-{\frac {G\epsilon (r)M(r)}{c^{2}r^{2}}}\left(1+{\frac {p(r)}{\epsilon (r)}}\right)\left(1+{\frac {4\pi r^{3}p(r)}{M(r)c^{2}}}\right)\left(1-{\frac {2GM(r)}{c^{2}r}}\right)} d M d r = 4 π c 2 r 2 ϵ ( r ) {\displaystyle {\frac {dM}{dr}}={\frac {4\pi }{c^{2}}}r^{2}\epsilon (r)} where G {\displaystyle G}  is

13563-526: The next level. So I spent another six months really digging into the VFX of it all, and the research, and figuring out how to build the flow of it and the structure and how to make it work. And I am glad I did. There's just so much to say, and so much I had to leave out. But it came together really well and I am pretty stoked about how it turned out. Like his other films, animating and editing uses Cinema 4D , Octane Render , and Adobe After Effects . Closed captioning

13700-403: The normally invisible rear surface become visible. If the radius of the neutron star is 3 GM / c or less, then the photons may be trapped in an orbit , thus making the whole surface of that neutron star visible from a single vantage point, along with destabilizing photon orbits at or below the 1 radius distance of the star. A fraction of the mass of a star that collapses to form a neutron star

13837-458: The novel Evolution by Stephen Baxter , as well as the novels of the Xeelee Sequence , with the comment: "All these works repeatedly lead readers to the limits of imagination – how one can imagine that superstrings or entire galaxies are used as weapons? And that's exactly how I feel about this video." Scientists think that "the [film] is well done and sends a message 'very powerful about

13974-419: The oldest film festivals dedicated to short films are Clermont-Ferrand International Short Film Festival , France (since 1979), Tampere Film Festival , Finland (since 1969) and International Short Film Festival Oberhausen , Germany (since 1954). All of them are still considered the most important short film festival in the world to date. Neutron star A neutron star is the collapsed core of

14111-487: The outer crust, to increasingly neutron-rich structures in the inner crust, to the extremely neutron-rich uniform matter in the outer core, and possibly exotic states of matter at high densities in the inner core. Understanding the nature of the matter present in the various layers of neutron stars, and the phase transitions that occur at the boundaries of the layers is a major unsolved problem in fundamental physics. The neutron star equation of state encodes information about

14248-462: The periodicity of pulsars. The neutron stars known as magnetars have the strongest magnetic fields, in the range of 10 to 10  T , and have become the widely accepted hypothesis for neutron star types soft gamma repeaters (SGRs) and anomalous X-ray pulsars (AXPs). The magnetic energy density of a 10  T field is extreme, greatly exceeding the mass-energy density of ordinary matter. Fields of this strength are able to polarize

14385-503: The pleasure of working with him on this as well. I've never been more inspired to go and write a song based on a visual." In an interview with NPR , she said: Th[e film] hit my heart so heav[ily]. My mom is my best friend and I immediately started thinking about her when I watched this. My time with her and my family is so limited — and with everybody on this earth. The mountains that I look at outside of my window from my view, they're going to explode and obliterate and there's not going to be

14522-436: The plot points were noted as mere speculations. The film inspired a song and music video by Noah Cyrus . The film opens and closes with a quote by Helen Keller : "Everything has its wonders, even darkness and silence. And I learn, whatever state I may be in, therein to be content." The Anthropocene era begins. Following natural events, humans land on Mars , and Earth's magnetic field flips. Comet Hale-Bopp returns in

14659-480: The possibility of a multiverse and evolution between universes. However, if escaping the universe is impossible, entropy will destroy the remaining black holes. The last black hole evaporates in the year 15 untrigintillion (15 × 10), making the universe become "nothing but a sea of photons gradually tending towards the same temperature as the expansion of the universe cools them towards absolute zero " according to Brian Cox . During this time, everything in

14796-461: The predecessor Timelapse of the Entire Universe , where every second is 22 million years, and that every frame is approximately 958,000 years, thus having 13.8 billion years in nearly 10 minutes. Boswell chose a different methodology in Timelapse of the Future, saying that: It could have been every three seconds, and the video would have been over in fifteen minutes. But then you're really cramming

14933-514: The premiere being a paid ad -free viewing available on his Patreon nine hours earlier. The film screened at event venue 393, New York City on May 2, using the multi-monitor format but the year counter invisible; his Patrons offered free tickets. Another screening in the Exploratorium , San Francisco , on July 25 at 9:30 pm PT took place, with the last screening in dubbing by Atomic Studio project with voice-over of Andrey Lysenko taking place in

15070-521: The previous behavior. Since it is unknown what neutron stars are made of, there is room for different phases of matter to be explored within the equation of state. Neutron stars have overall densities of 3.7 × 10 to 5.9 × 10  kg/m ( 2.6 × 10 to 4.1 × 10 times the density of the Sun), which is comparable to the approximate density of an atomic nucleus of 3 × 10  kg/m . The density increases with depth, varying from about 1 × 10  kg/m at

15207-908: The relation of radius vs. mass for various models. The most likely radii for a given neutron star mass are bracketed by models AP4 (smallest radius) and MS2 (largest radius). E B is the ratio of gravitational binding energy mass equivalent to the observed neutron star gravitational mass of M kilograms with radius R meters, E B = 0.60 β 1 − β 2 {\displaystyle E_{\text{B}}={\frac {0.60\,\beta }{1-{\frac {\beta }{2}}}}} β   = G M / R c 2 {\displaystyle \beta \ =G\,M/R\,{c}^{2}} Given current values and star masses "M" commonly reported as multiples of one solar mass, M x = M M ⊙ {\displaystyle M_{x}={\frac {M}{M_{\odot }}}} then

15344-417: The relationship between the equation of state and gravitational waves emitted by binary neutron star mergers. Using these relations, one can constrain the neutron star equation of state when gravitational waves from binary neutron star mergers are observed. Past numerical relativity simulations of binary neutron star mergers have found relationships between the equation of state and frequency dependent peaks of

15481-542: The relativistic fractional binding energy of a neutron star is E B = 886.0 M x R [ in meters ] − 738.3 M x {\displaystyle E_{\text{B}}={\frac {886.0\,M_{x}}{R_{\left[{\text{in meters}}\right]}-738.3\,M_{x}}}} A 2  M ☉ neutron star would not be more compact than 10,970 meters radius (AP4 model). Its mass fraction gravitational binding energy would then be 0.187, −18.7% (exothermic). This

15618-429: The structure of a neutron star and thus tells us how matter behaves at the extreme densities found inside neutron stars. Constraints on the neutron star equation of state would then provide constraints on how the strong force of the standard model works, which would have profound implications for nuclear and atomic physics. This makes neutron stars natural laboratories for probing fundamental physics. For example,

15755-421: The studios re-released older serials through the mid-1960s. The 1964 revival of Columbia's Batman serial resulted in a media frenzy, spurring a new Batman TV series and a wave of Batman merchandise. With the rise of television , the commercial live-action short was virtually dead; most studios canceled their live-action series in 1956. Only The Three Stooges continued making two-reel comedies; their last

15892-904: The submission of user-created short films, such as YouTube and Vimeo , have attracted large communities of artists and viewers. Sites like Omeleto, FILMSshort, Short of the Week, Short Films Matter, Short Central and some apps showcase curated shorts. Short films are a typical first stage for new filmmakers, but professional actors and crews often still choose to create short films as an alternative form of expression. Amateur filmmaking has grown in popularity as equipment has become more accessible. The lower production costs of short films often mean that short films can cover alternative subject matter as compared to higher budget feature films. Similarly, unconventional filmmaking techniques such as Pixilation or narratives that are told without dialogue, are more often seen in short films than features. Tropfest claims to be

16029-419: The surface of a neutron star is composed of ordinary atomic nuclei crushed into a solid lattice with a sea of electrons flowing through the gaps between them. It is possible that the nuclei at the surface are iron , due to iron's high binding energy per nucleon. It is also possible that heavy elements, such as iron, simply sink beneath the surface, leaving only light nuclei like helium and hydrogen . If

16166-477: The surface of neutron stars ranges from c.   10 to 10   tesla (T). These are orders of magnitude higher than in any other object: for comparison, a continuous 16 T field has been achieved in the laboratory and is sufficient to levitate a living frog due to diamagnetic levitation . Variations in magnetic field strengths are most likely the main factor that allows different types of neutron stars to be distinguished by their spectra, and explains

16303-427: The surface temperature exceeds 10  kelvins (as in the case of a young pulsar), the surface should be fluid instead of the solid phase that might exist in cooler neutron stars (temperature < 10  kelvins ). The "atmosphere" of a neutron star is hypothesized to be at most several micrometers thick, and its dynamics are fully controlled by the neutron star's magnetic field. Below the atmosphere one encounters

16440-428: The temperature of the core continues to rise, electrons and protons combine to form neutrons via electron capture , releasing a flood of neutrinos . When densities reach a nuclear density of 4 × 10  kg/m , a combination of strong force repulsion and neutron degeneracy pressure halts the contraction. The contracting outer envelope of the star is halted and rapidly flung outwards by a flux of neutrinos produced in

16577-497: The third episode, "In Search of Giants," it will deal with "making contact with intelligent life, intergalactic civilizations, and surviving the end of the universe." The film has caused several parody or similar videos/films to be posted on YouTube. One of the tracks in the soundtrack, "Ether," is used in Kevin James 's satirical comedy short film CouchX. The title of a science fiction video game, Out There: Oceans of Time ,

16714-458: The timeline and some chill music and meditative imagery of black holes that would just span for like 10 minutes at a time, and you'd get this abstract impression of how long the future is going to be, and how much emptiness there is. But the more I dug into it, the more I found there's so much to talk about, and so much to say, that it would be foolish to waste this opportunity. I had a draft of this [in summer 2018], and felt it needed to be taken to

16851-466: The ultimate fate of the universe are legion, and often contradictory." He stated that he was inspired, "years ago," by the idea of the Sun nearing its death in five billion years, asking: "What happens after that? What happens not in 5 billion years, but 5 trillion? The answers are out there, but they are piecemeal and not strung together in a compelling way. So I took the opportunity to create something unique that highlights our collective predictions about

16988-465: The universe , in a slowburn and nonlinear narrative technique, filled with science-fictitious imageries while holding its scientific genre . Its first episode, "The Dawn," was released on November 21, 17:00 UTC, with Boswell's Patrons getting an early look nine hours earlier. It was then revealed that the web series is a spin-off to Timelapse of the Future , in which Boswell described it as "a more optimistic perspective of human life and our place in

17125-430: The universe decays to nothing, making the universe end in the year one googol (10). When this happens, time no longer has any value (it "becomes meaningless"). After the short credits, a text appears that says "For Ash," the name of Boswell's son, who was born on January 1, 2019. Production of the film started in mid-2018. On October 9, 2018, Boswell posted on his Twitter account an image of an early experiment of

17262-431: The vacuum to the point that the vacuum becomes birefringent . Photons can merge or split in two, and virtual particle-antiparticle pairs are produced. The field changes electron energy levels and atoms are forced into thin cylinders. Unlike in an ordinary pulsar, magnetar spin-down can be directly powered by its magnetic field, and the magnetic field is strong enough to stress the crust to the point of fracture. Fractures of

17399-558: The video was released, and is thus also categorized as viral . The film reached 10 thousand views on March 29, and the 10 million views point on May 21 as reported by Boswell. As of December 29, 2022, the film has 88,054,235 views, with 2.8 million likes. Based on the number of views the film has received, Social Blade estimated revenues of US$ 40,600 to US$ 324,500. Aeon says that the film "impressively translat[es] theoretical physics and astronomically vast scales of time and space into 29 breathtaking minutes, [...] tak[ing] us [...] into

17536-448: The weight of the subject matter. The film's soundtrack combines original music with stock audio ; the former was later released in an album titled The Arrow of Time . Timelapse of the Future was released on Boswell's YouTube channel melodysheep and screened on several venues; it also won the 2020 Webby Awards . The film became viral , garnering millions of views and generally positive reviews for its audiovisual craft, though some of

17673-463: The world's largest short film festival. Tropfest now takes place in Australia (its birthplace), Arabia, the US and elsewhere. Originating in 1993, Tropfest is often credited as being at least partially responsible for the recent popularity of short films internationally. Also Couch Fest Films , part of Shnit Worldwide Filmfestival, claimed to be the world's largest single-day short film festival. Among

17810-476: The year 159 novemdecillion (159 × 10), Hawking radiation finally makes the first black holes die. As they explode, they light back interstellar darkness. The universe then expands further by dark energy , which, if it persists at that time as it is now, will cause the universe to expand forever, making it colder, darker, and emptier. Theories predict that civilizations, including humans , could create virtual or real-life universes of their own, looking at

17947-585: The year 3357, followed by extreme sea-level rise , an asteroid impact , and Antares going supernova . The Sahara becomes tropical in the year 14,811, constellations beginning to wander, Voyager 1 passing Gliese 445 in the year 38,874, and the Interglacial Period ending. In the year 97,583, supervolcano Yellowstone erupts, followed by the Apollo 11 footprints fading in the year 968,657, Betelgeuse going supernova, and stone monuments eroding. Next,

18084-445: Was PSR J0952-0607 which was 2.35 ± 0.17 solar masses. Any equation of state with a mass less than that would not predict that star and thus is much less likely to be correct. An interesting phenomenon in this area of astrophysics relating to the maximum mass of neutron stars is what is called the "mass gap". The mass gap refers to a range of masses from roughly 2-5 solar masses where very few compact objects were observed. This range

18221-550: Was inferred by studying the gravity radiated from the orbital decay of a different type of (unmerged) binary neutron system, the Hulse–Taylor pulsar . Any main-sequence star with an initial mass of greater than 8  M ☉ (eight times the mass of the Sun ) has the potential to become a neutron star. As the star evolves away from the main sequence, stellar nucleosynthesis produces an iron-rich core. When all nuclear fuel in

18358-417: Was inspired by one of the soundtrack's songs, "Oceans of Time". The title of the soundtrack album , The Arrow of Time , is taken from a narration in the film by Brian Cox: The arrow of time creates a bright window in the universe's adolescence , during which life is possible. But its a window that doesn't stay open for long. As a fraction of the lifespan of the universe, as measured from its beginning to

18495-423: Was mainly released on Boswell's Bandcamp (as it is his hub), but also on Amazon for sale, Last.fm , SoundCloud (select tracks), Google Play Music , Spotify , etc. A hidden track was published only for his Patrons. The film received generally positive reviews online, by regular viewers, YouTubers , experts, and critics. Analytics company Social Blade reported high rise in viewership and subscription as

18632-432: Was released in 1959. Short films had become a medium for student, independent, and specialty work. Cartoon shorts had a longer life, due in part to the implementation of lower-cost limited animation techniques and the rise of television animation , which allowed shorts to have both theatrical runs and a syndication afterlife. Warner Bros. , one of the most prolific of the golden era, underwent several reorganizations in

18769-426: Was the last regular theatrical cartoon short series, having begun in 1964 (and thus having spent its entire existence in the limited animation era) and ended in 1980. By the 1960s, the market for animated shorts had largely shifted to television, with existing theatrical shorts being syndicated to television. A few animated shorts continue within the mainstream commercial distribution. For instance, Pixar has screened

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