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71-395: [REDACTED] Liège rebels [REDACTED] Republic of Liège (1789–1791) [REDACTED] France (from 1792) Supported by: [REDACTED] Prince-Bishops of Liège [REDACTED]   Holy Roman Empire Supported by: The Liège Revolution , sometimes known as the Happy Revolution ( French : Heureuse Révolution ; Walloon : Binamêye revolucion ), against

142-442: A council was made by the prince and the 32 crafts. These were split into 16 chambers, whose members were appointed for life, forming an electoral body. These chambers were made up of 20 nobles, patricians and 'rentiers', 10 notable merchants and 6 artisans. The commissioners of the craftsmen were themselves appointed by 28 commissioners, of whom 12 were appointed by the prince-bishop and 16 by the parishes. The third estate also included

213-546: A cure from England, France, the Netherlands, Prussia and Italy and Spa became known as the 'café de l'Europe'. Among the town's attractions were its gambling houses. The La Redoute assembly rooms opened there in 1763 as Europe's first modern casino, and in competition Spa's 'Waux-Hall' (named after Vauxhall Gardens near London) opened its doors in 1770 despite the exclusive patent banning gambling which it had initially been granted by prince-bishop John Theodore of Bavaria . In 1774

284-467: A fortified position involved in this battle. The first French occupation of Liège (1792–1793) had been full of hope for those of its inhabitants attached to Liège's independence, but the military dangers it had undergone in the meantime made Liège aware of the dangerous of isolation. Illusions of independence thus rapidly disappeared upon the second French occupation (1794–95), with the country dismembered and considered as conquered territory by France, which

355-425: A lack of money and power meant that these projects did not always succeed – the principality showed a certain lethargy and narrowness of vision at this era which prevented real progress. Velbrück's attempts to combat social problems like poverty or class inequality were many, but were unable to make a real effect on the deplorable situation. He tried to make changes in many areas, including public health, by setting up

426-616: A poor human rights record and frequent jailing and political persecution of political dissidents. Xuezhi Guo contrasts the Confucian ideal of a "humane ruler" ( renjun ) with the ideal of Chinese legalists , who he says "intended to create a truly 'enlightened ruler' ( mingjun ) who is able to effectively rule the masses and control his bureaucracy"; this ruler would be a "skillful manipulator and successful politician who uses means or 'technique' in achieving self-protection and political control". Guo quotes Benjamin I. Schwartz as describing

497-497: A single entity, though the three new departments were loyal to France, unlike the other 'départements réunis'. This action was codified in 1801 by the Concordat of 1801 between Bonaparte and pope Pius VII . Bonaparte visited Liège in 1803, on which occasion Ingres painted a portrait of him (entitled Bonaparte, First Consul ) to offer to the city. Baron Micoud d'Umons became prefect of Ourthe in 1806 and remained so until 1814 and

568-484: A state of foment and good conditions for France to take over Liège, which had been a pro-French state since the 15th century and where the Enlightenment had been spread by French publishers such as Pierre Rousseau . Hoensbroeck died on 3 June 1792 and was succeeded by François-Antoine-Marie de Méan. On 21 September 1792 France, already at war with Austria and Prussia, abolished its monarchy . The war soon spread into what

639-511: A taste for arts, letters and sciences, he set up a public academy of painting, sculpture and engraving in 1774. In 1779 he founded the " Société libre d'Émulation " and the Société littéraire de Liège , as places for Liège's intelligentsia to meet each other and foreign scholars – they became a hotbed for many later leaders of the revolution. The societies' activities included presentations of scientists', artists' and poets' works and discoveries. However,

710-424: Is entitled the prince of the city of which he is not the pastor, he is manifestly culpable of rebellion and tyranny. On his election as prince-bishop in 1772, the pro-Enlightenment François-Charles de Velbruck (1772–1784) became head of an ecclesiastical principality that had become particularly backward in its intellectual life and its scientific and literary studies. He showed himself favourable to philosophers and

781-624: Is now Belgium, including Liège. On 6 November 1792 the French general Dumouriez , inflicted a heavy defeat on the Austrians in the battle of Jemappes – he then entered Liège on 28 November, amidst popular enthusiasm, though the Flemish towns were more muted in their enthusiasm. The Liège liberals exiled by Hoensbroeck's return reentered the city with the French army and François-Antoine-Marie de Méan fled. More important than these shows of enthusiasm, however,

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852-467: The Encyclopédie states: [Here there are] 32 artisans' colleges, who take some part in the government, and bear the ease of the city. [The Liège state shows itself] as a free republic, governed by mayors, by its senators and by other municipal magistrates. [Nevertheless] its number of churches, abbeys and monasteries considerably oppress it. On the other side, Voltaire 's criticism of Liège's government

923-574: The ancien régime in the prince-bishopric. The radical mood in Liège led to the proclamation of a republic, three years before France proclaimed itself a republic. One of the first acts of the republic was the introduction of the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of Franchimont " on 16 September 1789. The document was heavily influenced by the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of

994-601: The Lower Rhenish–Westphalian Circle . However, it proved impossible to reconcile the people's liberal aspirations with the stubborn authoritarianism of the still-exiled Hoensbroeck. Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor recaptured the Austrian Netherlands and then intervened to reestablish episcopal power in its entirety. Liège's volunteer Republican troops (singing the " Valeureux Liégeois " by Abbot Gilles-Joseph-Evrard Ramoux) were clearly unable to contain

1065-617: The Marquis of Pombal , prime minister of Portugal , used the ideas and practices of the Enlightenment not only to achieve reforms but also to enhance autocracy , crush opposition, suppress criticism, advance colonial economic exploitation, and consolidate personal control and profit. The concept of enlightened absolutism was formally described by the German historian Wilhelm Roscher in 1847 and remains controversial among scholars. Centralized control necessitated centralized systematic information on

1136-591: The Reichskammergericht at Wetzlar. In June 1787 Hoensbroeck sent 200 men and two canons to Spa to shut down Levoz's gambling house. This event, and the long trial which resulted, were the pretext for a rise in opposition to Hoensbroeck, then the outbreak of the French Revolution in July 1789 provided the final trigger for Liège's own revolution. On 18 August 1789, Jean-Nicolas Bassenge and other democrats met at

1207-466: The Russian Enlightenment . She incorporated many ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, especially Montesquieu , in her Nakaz , which was intended to revise Russian law. However, inviting the famous French philosopher Denis Diderot to her court worked out poorly. Charles III , King of Spain from 1759 to 1788, tried to rescue his empire from decay through far-reaching reforms such as weakening

1278-408: The cathédrale Saint-Lambert by the city's revolutionaries. The principality's inhabitants were given universal male suffrage for the first time and also voted in a plebiscite for the French annexation. Other historians see the revolution as occurring during the prince-bishop's absence between his departure on the night of 26–27 August 1789 and his return on 12 February 1791. In this interpretation,

1349-471: The pays de Franchimont . Jean-Nicolas Bassenge was put in charge of writing a report, which was then discussed, approved and distributed and which formed the basis on which the municipality of Liège went to the vote. According to him, the former principality of Liège had decided to split from the Holy Roman Empire and thus had no other solution available but to merge with France. In effect in 1792, it

1420-616: The Age of Enlightenment. Historians debate the actual implementation of enlightened absolutism. They distinguish between the "enlightenment" of the ruler personally, versus that of his regime. For example, Frederick the Great was tutored in the ideas of the French Enlightenment in his youth, and maintained those ideas in his private life as an adult, but in many ways was unable or unwilling to effect enlightened reforms in practice. Other rulers such as

1491-477: The Austrian army, which entered Liège on 12 January 1791. Hoensbroeck thus recovered his throne and took several reprisals, confiscating the Liège democrats' goods and properties and forcing most of them to flee to France. It was among these exiles that revolutionary France found its keenest supporters. Hoensbroeck became known by his people as 'the tyrant of Seraing' and his rigours and mistakes from 1791 to 1792 created

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1562-573: The Austrians at Fleurus . On 27 July 1794 the Austrian troops left Liège after bombarding and burning the Amercœur district. The last prince-bishop, François-Antoine-Marie de Méan , went into exile. The battle of Sprimont on 17 September at Fontin , between Esneux and Aywaille , was the last battle before the former principality was finally conquered. One of the sides of the Liège–Bastogne–Liège cycling course, La Redoute , takes its name from

1633-499: The Church and its monasteries, promoting science and university research, facilitating trade and commerce, modernizing agriculture and avoiding wars. The centralization of power in Madrid angered the local nobility, and challenged the traditional autonomy of cities, and so resistance grew steadily. Consequently, Spain relapsed after his death. Emperor Joseph II , ruler of Austria 1780–1790,

1704-540: The Citizen introduced in August 1789 but contained several important differences: Enlightened despot Philosophers Works Enlightened absolutism , also called enlightened despotism , refers to the conduct and policies of European absolute monarchs during the 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment , espousing them to enhance their power. The concept originated during

1775-465: The Enlightenment period in the 18th and into the early 19th centuries. An enlightened absolutist is a non- democratic or authoritarian leader who exercises their political power based upon the principles of the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs distinguished themselves from ordinary rulers by claiming to rule for their subjects' well-being. John Stuart Mill stated that despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians, provided

1846-455: The Hôpital général Saint-Léonard to receive and assist the needy, a free midwifery course and establishments to deal with disease. He systematically gave the last rites to those condemned to death. At the start of his reign, Velbrück sought to put more equality into the tax system, thinking that all taxation had only one purpose, the public good – he failed to push this through, due to opposition from

1917-590: The Liège Revolution and ordered the re-imposition of the ancien régime in the principality. Meanwhile, the insurgent nature of the Revolution was such that the principality was abolished and a republic created, two years before France did likewise. The Estates of the former principality prepared a constitution, including equal taxation for all, the election of deputies by the people and freedom of work. A 'Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de Franchimont'

1988-597: The Liège Revolution was a counterpart to the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands , which was crushed. Even so, this interpretation carries a contradiction – the Liège Revolution and French Revolution both aimed to ask deeply egalitarian questions about the political and social order, whereas the Brabant Revolution hinged on contesting and rejecting the egalitarian reforms of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor . The Liège Revolution led to France's annexation of

2059-499: The Ruling of 1684 put in place by Maximilian Henry of Bavaria , in principle the prince-bishop of Liège had to govern the principality in agreement with the three estates – the first estate (upper clergy and canons of the cathédrale Saint-Lambert ), the noble estate (15 families, intended to represent the whole countryside), and the third estate (representing the middle classes and artisans organised by 32 crafts). The election of mayors and

2130-400: The age of 18. By voter numbers, elections in the former principality of Liège seem to have been freer and more important than in the Austrian Netherlands . In the city of Liège 9700 voters registered, representing 50% of the effective foreseeable electorate. There were 40 'no' votes, 748 votes for a conditional merger, 1548 for a merger pure and simple, and the others for a merger with some of

2201-437: The city of Liège itself, comparable in size to the populations of Antwerp and Ghent and only slightly smaller than that of Brussels . The young population was particularly large, a factor in the later revolution. The principality's middle classes violently opposed Hoensbroeck's regime, criticising his system as unrepresentative and parasitic, particularly in exempting the nobility and upper clergy from taxation. In 1787, one of

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2272-448: The clergy and nobility, having no sympathy for the liberal aspirations of the third estate or for his people's sufferings. He made himself highly unpopular and the principality's inhabitants nicknamed him 'the tyrant of Seraing ' after the prince-bishops' summer residence. The principality was also undergoing a strong demographic change. Its population increased by about 60 per cent between 1700 and 1785, to 600,000. This included 60,000 in

2343-537: The conditions. Notable features are the massive 'yes' vote and the considerable electoral participation, when participation was not compulsory. Even so, it must be remembered that many opponents of the move preferred to abstain from the vote. This was compared to 3,000 voters in Mons and 2,000 in Ghent during the elections in the former Austrian Netherlands. It could be said that Liège's 1793 elections were representative of opinion in

2414-450: The end be their improvement. Enlightened absolutists' beliefs about royal power were typically similar to those of regular despots, both recognizing that they were destined to rule. Enlightened rulers may have played a part in the abolition of serfdom in Europe. The enlightened despotism of Emperor Joseph II of the Holy Roman Empire is summarized as "Everything for the people, nothing by

2485-657: The end of the annexation. After Napoleon's defeat by the Sixth Coalition , the Coalition powers decided at the Congress of Vienna to award Ourthe to the Kingdom of the Netherlands . According to Hervé Hasquin , the Liège Revolution mirrored the French Revolution or even formed part of it. Both revolutions began in 1789 and in Hasquin's interpretation the Liège Revolution continued after

2556-448: The establishment of a constitutional monarchy, as emerges from a text by Jean-Nicolas Bassenge , a future revolutionary: Inhabitants of Liége, you are a free people! A people is free when it only obeys the laws that it gives itself by the consent of all the individuals of which it is composed or by [the consent] of those representatives elected and authorised by them – so a people is only free when sovereignty, legislative power, resides in

2627-648: The features of "a truly Legalist 'enlightened ruler ' ": He must be anything but an arbitrary despot if one means by a despot a tyrant who follows all his impulses, whims and passions. Once the systems which maintain the entire structure are in place, he must not interfere with their operation. He may use the entire system as a means to the achievement of his national and international ambitions, but to do so he must not disrupt its impersonal workings. He must at all times be able to maintain an iron wall between his private life and public role. Concubines, friends, flatterers and charismatic saints must have no influence whatsoever on

2698-407: The government was hostile, and the philosophers fought against its censorship. The British government generally ignored the Enlightenment's leaders. Frederick the Great , who ruled Prussia 1740–1786, was an enthusiast for French ideas (he ridiculed German culture and was unaware of the remarkable advances it was undergoing ). Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government,

2769-456: The hands of the rebels. The Prince-Bishop , César-Constantin-François de Hoensbroeck , was brought back from his Summer Palace in Seraing to ratify the nomination of the new officials and to abolish the unpopular Règlement de 1684 . Several days later, de Hoensbroeck fled to the city of Trier in modern Germany. The Holy Roman Empire condemned the Liège revolution and demanded the restoration of

2840-535: The hôtel de ville, demanding the magistrates' dismissal and their replacement with the popular mayors Jacques-Joseph Fabry and Jean-Remy de Chestret . The citadel of Sainte-Walburge fell to the insurgents and Hoensbroeck was dragged from his summer palace at Seraing to ratify the election of the new aediles and to abolish the 1684 ruling. However, this was only a ruse and some days later the prince-bishop fled to Trier in Germany. The Holy Roman Empire 's tribunal condemned

2911-415: The middle class's leaders, Fabry, proposed the abolition of indirect taxation affecting the middle classes and the poor, proposing instead that a tax on financiers' fortunes be set up. He also denounced the mismanagement of the city, a quarter of whose revenues were used to pay off debt. Moreover, the middle classes opposed the third estate's submission to the prince-bishop. Their political programme proposed

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2982-669: The middle classes, who appropriated common land. All classes were also disgusted by the export of grain, which worsened the famine in the principality – in 1787–1788 75% of the principality's grain was exported. Under the rule of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor , the Austrian Netherlands which bordered Liège underwent several reforms seeking to weaken the clergy's control on the state. In 1781 an edict of tolerance ended Catholicism's status as state religion and allowed Protestants and Jews to worship freely and work in civil service and government posts. In 1782 an imperial ordnance suppressing "useless religious congregations" (i.e. contemplative orders)

3053-487: The nation. A major renovation was the collection, use and interpretation of numerical and statistical data, ranging from trade statistics, harvest reports, death notices to population censuses. Starting in the 1760s, officials in France and Germany began increasingly to rely on quantitative data for systematic planning, especially regarding long-term economic growth. It combined the utilitarian agenda of "enlightened absolutism" with

3124-551: The new ideas being developed in economics. In Germany and France, the trend was especially strong in Cameralism and Physiocracy . Government responses to the Age of Enlightenment varied widely. In several nations with powerful rulers, called "enlightened despots" by historians, leaders of the Enlightenment were welcomed at Court and helped design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states. In France

3195-472: The new ideas of the era. He acted as an enlightened despot like his contemporaries Frederick II of Prussia , Catherine II of Russia and Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor . Like them, he did not lack for ideas, giving his imprimatur to philosophical writers banned from publication in France such as the Journal encyclopédique , on the condition that one copy of each book be deposited in Liège library. To encourage

3266-407: The nobles also began opposing the prince-bishop and upper clergy, since they had been practically cut off from power. Revolutionary proclamations began to circulate, including under the titles: On the eve of the revolution both town and country dwellers were suffering from an economic crisis. The price of bread was rising and the cities saw high unemployment. In Verviers , where 25% of the population

3337-471: The people". Enlightened absolutism is the theme of an essay by Frederick the Great , who ruled Prussia from 1740 to 1786, defending this system of government. When the prominent French Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire fell out of favor in France , he eagerly accepted Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. He believed that an enlightened monarchy was the only real way for society to advance. Frederick

3408-401: The physical sciences, to provide its students with useful objectives for their critical judgement. He also planned to build a large public library. Velbruck was succeeded as prince bishop in 1784 by César-Constantin-François de Hoensbroeck , hostile to any reform, whose authoritarian rule fanned the flames of revolution. He tried to roll back Velbruck's reforms and reestablish the privileges of

3479-422: The power to govern through a social contract in lieu of any other governments. The monarchs of enlightened absolutism strengthened their authority by improving the lives of their subjects. The monarch’s taking responsibility for his subjects precluded their political participation. The difference between an absolutist and an enlightened absolutist is based on a broad analysis of the degree to which they embraced

3550-411: The prince-bishop's temporary return – he sees a second phase with the entry of French revolutionary troops into Liège in 1792, and a third phase in 1794 with the French's second return. In this interpretation the Liège Revolution only ended in 1795 with the disappearance of the principality and its annexation by France. During this phase the Revolution had several extreme episodes, such as the demolition of

3621-547: The principality, meaning that its inhabitants took no part in the Brabant Revolution or the United States of Belgium . Republic of Li%C3%A8ge On 18 August 1789, Jean-Nicolas Bassenge and other democrats arrived at the Hôtel de Ville of Liège. They demanded the dismissal of current magistrates in favour of two popular burgomasters : Jacques-Joseph Fabry and Jean-Remy de Chestret . The citadel of Saint Walburge fell into

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3692-506: The principality, though this derived as much from the historic circumstances of the conflicts between the Ancien Régime and the Republic as it did to Liège's marked Francophilia. The 1789 Liège revolution explains the disagreement between the inhabitants of Liège and their French occupiers and the differences in the treatment of its inhabitants by the French. The Brabant Revolution was against

3763-408: The privileged orders. Velbrück also reformed education, making it accessible to all, regardless of gender or class, but setting up free charity schools for poor children and the 'Plan d'Education pour la Jeunesse du Pays de Liège', an education plan for the principality. He wanted to radically change the recently suppressed Jesuit schools' educational methods, orienting their teaching towards maths and

3834-521: The reforming despotism of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor , where that in Liège and that in France itself were both aimed at profoundly modifying the social and political system of the Ancien Régime . In March the French army was beaten at Neerwinden . The Austrians then reinstated the prince-bishop, but this restoration was to prove short-lived. On 26 June 1794 the French Republican troops defeated

3905-485: The reforms and partly to the authoritarian fashion in which they had been imposed. Yet in the Principality of Liège these reforms were much discussed, with its middle classes wanting the same. In the 18th century, especially from 1750 onwards, the spa-town of Spa saw great success as a travel destination, seeing princes and crowned heads arrive there every season. High-class ' bobelins ' came to its twenty springs seeking

3976-620: The reigning prince-bishop of Liège , started on 18 August 1789 and lasted until the destruction of the Republic of Liège and re-establishment of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège by Austrian forces in 1791. The Liège Revolution was concurrent with the French Revolution and its effects were long-lasting and eventually led to the abolition of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and its final annexation by French revolutionary forces in 1795. Since

4047-420: The representatives of the principality's 'bonnes villes', elected by 567 electors. Formed by the mayors of all these cities, they were almost completely obedient to the prince-bishop and the first estate and had completely lost the partial power they had from the 14th to 17th centuries. The lower clergy, minor nobility, industrial middle classes, workers and peasants had a very limited part in public affairs, whilst

4118-574: The two gambling houses stopped competing and merged, participating in Spa's naming as the Café de l'Europe in 1781. A third house was built in 1785, founded by the nobleman Noel-Joseph Levoz , putting privilege in question again. This arrival caused political discussions then criticism of the Ancien Régime. Levoz accused his competitors' privileges as illegal and took the affair before the Tribunal des XXII and then before

4189-453: The whole nation. The head clerk of the nation, its head and not its master, is the organ of the national will. A member of sovereignty when he makes laws, he is only delegated to execute them. He has them promulgated when all consent – but he is only the organ and not the interpreter – he cannot publish or change them – he cannot even put them into execution beyond the prescribed norms. For their part, despite benefitting from their tax exemption,

4260-431: The working classes' position was unenviable, with high poverty and unemployment causing rising support for political changes and social justice. 18th century philosophers were far from unanimous in their opinion of the Principality of Liège. Some saw in the functioning of its state all the characteristics of a republic, while others saw the bishop's power as that of a tyrant. The chevalier de Jaucourt 's account of Liège in

4331-452: Was also adopted on 16 September 1789 – though largely inspired by France's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (voted into law 20 days earlier), it did contain some significant differences: From November 1789 to April 1790 the Prussians occupied the city of Liège and other major towns in the principality, having been put in charge of mediating between the revolutionaries and

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4402-403: Was an enthusiast of French ideas. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit." Enlightened absolutists held that royal power emanated not from divine right but from a social contract whereby a despot was entrusted with

4473-417: Was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit". He wrote an essay on "Benevolent Despotism" defending this system of government. Empress Catherine II of Russia sponsored

4544-485: Was executed and quartered. Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman , prime minister and de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia (an absolute monarchy ) has been described as a modern-day enlightened despot. Since assuming power as crown prince in 2017, he has enacted widespread reforms which have reduced the power of Wahhabi clergy and religious police in a theocratic kingdom. However, Saudi Arabia remains an authoritarian state, with

4615-443: Was out of work, the situation had become a catastrophe. In the countryside, the clergy and peasant communities engaged in lawsuits with each other for not paying their tithes to maintain churches, schools and cemeteries – J. Lejeune states that 10% to 11% of labour output was given in tithes to the chapters and abbeys of Liège and Huy . The peasants also sought redress against the nobility, who required maintenance money, and against

4686-611: Was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out, and his regime became a comedy of errors. In some countries the initiative came not from rulers but from senior officials such as the Marquis of Pombal , who was Joseph I of Portugal 's Secretary of State. For a brief period in Denmark Johann Friedrich Struensee attempted to govern in terms of Enlightenment principles. After issuing 1,069 decrees in 13 months covering many major reforms, his enemies overthrew him, and he

4757-445: Was promulgated, reasserting state control over the church. The clergy could now no longer criticise the state and bishops had to take a civil oath. Joseph also allowed civil marriage and divorce and abolished heresy as a crime, establishing liberty of conscience and allowing his subjects to attend non-Catholic schools. The emperor's own subjects did not like these reforms and began the Brabant Revolution in 1787, partly in opposition to

4828-475: Was sharp, writing in the Idée républicaines par un membre d’un corps, critique du Contrat social about Notker of Liège , the principality's founder : It is an insult to reason and law to pronounce the words "civil and ecclesiastical government". When our bishop, made to serve not to be served, made to support the poor not devour their livelihood, made to catechise and not to dominate, ventures, in times of anarchy,

4899-433: Was the effective contribution the French now gained for the first time from the population and its leaders, such as the establishment of a new assembly by universal suffrage. The French presence allowed political societies to re-form – these included the société des amis de la Liberté . Even if these Liège societies played a major role in getting Liège to vote for annexation by France, the initiative for that move belonged to

4970-562: Was then at the height of the Reign of Terror . That second occupation ended in the rapid integration of the principality's Walloon territories into France itself, which lasted from 1795 until 1814. In 1795, the National Convention decreed Liège's annexation following a vote for such action by the inhabitants of Liége, splitting it into three departments called Ourthe , Meuse-Inférieure and Sambre-et-Meuse . This meant Liége disappeared as

5041-459: Was unthinkable that the principality remain independent. The revolutionaries no longer wanted the Ancien Régime and its split from the Duchy of Brabant was not yet complete – if Liège wanted to avoid being crushed by the Austrians, uniting with France was her only option. The report also gave the conditions on which the municipality voted for a merger. The elections were open to all men who had reached

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