Leontis ( Ancient Greek : Λεοντίς ) was a phyle (tribe) of Ancient Attica .
102-765: The phyle is shown on the base of a statue made after an anthippasia to commemorate the victory of the phyle at the mock battle. Themistocles belonged to this phyle. Two horse-men are listed as part of the Catalogus Hippeum in history who possibly belonged to this phyle, they were Euktimenos and Euthymenes, both living during the 3rd century B.C.E. The demes of Leontis were: Aethalidae , Halimus , Deiradiotae , Hecale , Eupyridae , Cettus , Colonae , Cropia , Leuconoe , Oeum , Kerameikos , Paeonidae , Peleces , Upper Potamos , Lower Potamus , Deiradiotae , Scambonidae , Sounion , Hybadae , Phrearrhii , Cholleidae . This Ancient Greece related article
204-685: A German archaeological team conducted by Carl Humann , discoverer of the Pergamon Altar . These lasted 21 months and partially revealed the theatre, the Artemis temple, the agora , the Zeus temple and the prytaneion . Excavations were resumed at the site, after an interval of almost 100 years, in 1984, by Orhan Bingöl of the University of Ankara and the Turkish Ministry of Culture . Findings from
306-551: A fitting end to his life, he made a sacrifice to the gods, then called his friends together, gave them a farewell clasp of his hand, and, as the current story goes, drank bull's blood, or as some say, took a quick poison, and so died in Magnesia, in the sixty-fifth year of his life...They say that the King, on learning the cause and the manner of his death, admired the man yet more, and continued to treat his friends and kindred with kindness. It
408-519: A fleet would allow the Athenians to finally defeat them at sea. As a result, Themistocles's motion was carried easily, although only 100 triremes were to be built. Aristides refused to countenance this; conversely Themistocles was not pleased that only 100 ships would be built. Tension between the two camps built over the winter, so that the ostracism of 482 BC became a direct contest between Themistocles and Aristides. In what has been characterized as
510-520: A friend, and joined him in exile. His friends also managed to send him many of his belongings, although up to 100 talents worth of his goods were confiscated by the Athenians. When, after a year, Themistocles returned to the king's court, he appears to have made an immediate impact, and "he attained ... very high consideration there, such as no Hellene has ever possessed before or since". Plutarch recounts that "honors he enjoyed were far beyond those paid to other foreigners; nay, he actually took part in
612-417: A large sum of gold to aid him on his way. Themistocles then fled from Greece, apparently never to return, thus effectively bringing his political career to an end. From Molossia, Themistocles apparently fled to Pydna , from where he took a ship for Asia Minor . This ship was blown off course by a storm, and ended up at Naxos , which an Athenian fleet was in the process of besieging. Desperate to avoid
714-468: A meeting at Corinth to celebrate their success, and award prizes for achievement. However, perhaps tired of the Athenians pointing out their role at Salamis, and of their demands for the Allies to march north, the Allies awarded the prize for civic achievement to Aegina. Furthermore, although the admirals all voted for Themistocles in second place, they all voted for themselves in first place, so that no-one won
816-418: A most excellent horseman, but no equal to his father in deeds or virtue. And Themistocles had two sons older than these three, Neocles and Diocles. Neocles died when he was young, bitten by a horse, and Diocles was adopted by his grandfather, Lysander. Themistocles had many daughters: Mnesiptolema, the product of his second marriage, married her step-brother Archeptolis and became priestess of Cybele ; Italia
918-415: A new institution of the democracy, which had been part of Cleisthenes' reforms, but remained so far unused. This was ' ostracism '—each Athenian citizen was required to write on a shard of pottery ( ostrakon ) the name of a politician that they wished to see exiled for a period of ten years. This may have been triggered by Miltiades' prosecution, and used by the Athenians to try to stop such power-games among
1020-510: A politician, Themistocles was a populist , having the support of lower-class Athenians, and generally being at odds with the Athenian nobility. Elected archon in 493 BC, he convinced the polis to increase the naval power of Athens, a recurring theme in his political career. During the first Persian invasion of Greece , he fought at the Battle of Marathon (490 BC), and may have been one of
1122-480: A similar tale, namely that Themistocles stayed briefly with an acquaintance (Lysitheides or Nicogenes) who was also acquainted with the Persian king, Artaxerxes I . Since there was a bounty on Themistocles's head, this acquaintance devised a plan to safely convey Themistocles to the Persian king in the type of covered wagon that the King's concubines travelled in. All three chroniclers agree that Themistocles's next move
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#17328485359401224-517: A single voter's name, Themistocles had set his eyes on a radical new constituency... However, he took care to ensure that he did not alienate the nobility of Athens. He began to practice law, the first person in Athens to prepare for public life in this way. His ability as attorney and arbitrator, used in the service of the common people, gained him further popularity. Themistocles probably turned 30 in 494 BC, which qualified him to become an archon,
1326-497: A unique position in which he could transfer the notion of individual portraiture, already current in the Greek world, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynast who could issue his own coins and illustrate them as he wished. Still, there is some doubt that his coins may have represented Zeus rather than himself. During his lifetime, Themistocles is known to have erected two statues to himself, one in Athens, and
1428-409: A wealth of opportunity for men like Themistocles, who previously would have had no access to power. Moreover, the new institutions of the democracy required skills that had previously been unimportant in government. Themistocles was to prove himself a master of the new system; "he could infight, he could network, he could spin... and crucially, he knew how to make himself visible." Themistocles moved to
1530-449: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Themistocles Themistocles ( / θ ə ˈ m ɪ s t ə k l iː z / ; Ancient Greek : Θεμιστοκλῆς ; c. 524 – c. 459 BC ) was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of non-aristocratic politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy . As
1632-595: Is known of his early years. Some authors report that he was unruly as a child and was consequently disowned by his father. Plutarch considers this to be false. Plutarch indicates that, on account of his mother's background, Themistocles was considered something of an outsider; furthermore the family appear to have lived in an immigrant district of Athens, Cynosarges, outside the city walls. However, in an early example of his cunning, Themistocles persuaded "well-born" children to exercise with him in Cynosarges, thus breaking down
1734-411: Is probable that in early 479 BC, Themistocles was stripped of his command; instead, Xanthippus was to command the Athenian fleet, and Aristides the land forces. Though Themistocles was no doubt politically and militarily active for the rest of the campaign, no mention of his activities in 479 BC is made in the ancient sources. In the summer of that year, after receiving an Athenian ultimatum,
1836-564: Is probable that part of his revenues continued to be handed over to the Achaemenids in exchange for the maintenance of their territorial grant. Themistocles and his son formed what some authors have called "a Greek dynasty in the Persian Empire". From a second wife, Themistocles also had a daughter named Mnesiptolema, whom he appointed as priestess of the Temple of Dindymene in Magnesia, with
1938-478: Is said by Vitruvius to have been built by the architect Hermogenes , in the Ionic style. Following a theophany of the goddess Artemis in the 3rd century B.C., the temple and the city were recognised as a place of asylia by other Greek states. The temples of the city would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire and little remains of either temple today. The site of Magnesia on
2040-480: Is still noticed by Pliny and Tacitus . Hierocles ranks it among the bishoprics of the province of Asia , and later documents seem to imply that at one time it bore the name of Maeandropolis . The existence of the town in the time of the emperors Aurelius and Gallienus is attested to by coins. A great quadrennial festival called the Leucophryna (Λευκόφρυνα) was held in the city and people from all over
2142-501: The Ceramicus , a down-market part of Athens. This move marked him out as a 'man of the people', and allowed him to interact more easily with ordinary citizens. He began building up a support base among these newly empowered citizens: [H]e wooed the poor; and they, not used to being courted, duly loved him back. Touring the taverns, the markets, the docks, canvassing where no politician had thought to canvas before, making sure never to forget
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#17328485359402244-413: The 1st century BC wrote about a statue of Themistocles visible in the forum of Magnesia. The statue also appears on a coin type of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius minted in Magnesia in the 2nd century CE. Archeptolis , son of Themistocles, became a Governor of Magnesia after his father's death c. 459 BCE . Archeptolis also minted his own silver coinage as he ruled Magnesia, and it
2346-452: The Allied army marched to Thermopylae. Themistocles himself took command of the Athenian contingent of the fleet and went to Artemisium. When the Persian fleet finally arrived at Artemisium after a significant delay, Eurybiades, who both Herodotus and Plutarch suggest was not the most inspiring commander, wished to sail away without fighting. At this point Themistocles accepted a large bribe from
2448-592: The Allied camp from Aegina. Aristides had been recalled from exile along with the other ostracised Athenians on the order of Themistocles, so that Athens might be united against the Persians. Aristides told Themistocles that the Persian fleet had encircled the Allies, which greatly pleased Themistocles, as he now knew that the Persians had walked into his trap. The Allied commanders seem to have taken this news rather uncomplainingly, and Holland therefore suggests that they were party to Themistocles's ruse all along. Either way,
2550-530: The Allies prepared for battle, and Themistocles delivered a speech to the marines before they embarked on the ships. In the ensuing battle , the cramped conditions in the Straits hindered the much larger Persian navy, which became disarrayed, and the Allies took advantage to win a famous victory. Salamis was the turning point in the second Persian invasion, and indeed the Greco-Persian Wars in general. While
2652-454: The Athenians were thus able to return to their city, which had been burnt and razed by the Persians, for the winter. For the Athenians, and Themistocles personally, the winter would be a testing one. The Peloponnesians refused to countenance marching north of the Isthmus to fight the Persian army; the Athenians tried to shame them into doing so, with no success. During the winter, the Allies held
2754-474: The Athenians would be greatest, and lords of all. Then Aristides came before the people and said of the deed which Themistocles purposed to do, that none other could be more advantageous, and none more unjust. On hearing this, the Athenians ordained that Themistocles cease from his purpose. However, as happened to many prominent individuals in the Athenian democracy, Themistocles's fellow citizens grew jealous of his success, and possibly tired of his boasting. It
2856-538: The Battle of Salamis, it is probably not an exaggeration to say, as Plutarch does, that Themistocles, "...is thought to have been the man most instrumental in achieving the salvation of Hellas." The Allied victory at Salamis ended the immediate threat to Greece, and Xerxes now returned to Asia with part of the army, leaving his general Mardonius to attempt to complete the conquest. Mardonius wintered in Boeotia and Thessaly, and
2958-442: The Greek fleet was wintering at Pagasae : Themistocles once declared to the people [of Athens] that he had devised a certain measure which could not be revealed to them, though it would be helpful and salutary for the city, and they ordered that Aristides alone should hear what it was and pass judgment on it. So Themistocles told Aristides that his purpose was to burn the naval station of the confederate Hellenes, for that in this way
3060-439: The Greek world gathered there. Magnesia contained a temple of Dindymene , the mother of the gods ; the wife or daughter of Themistocles was said to have been a priestess of that divinity. Strabo later noted the temple no longer existed, the town having been transferred to another place. The change in the site of the town alluded to by Strabo, is not noticed by other contemporary authors, however some suggest that Magnesia
3162-465: The Greeks to survive the coming onslaught required a Greek navy that could hope to face up to the Persian navy, and he therefore attempted to persuade the Athenians to build such a fleet. Aristides, as champion of the zeugites (the upper, 'hoplite-class') vigorously opposed such a policy. In 483 BC, a massive new seam of silver was found in the Athenian mines of Laurion . Themistocles proposed that
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3264-564: The Ionians, thereby sowing dissension in the Persian ranks. In the aftermath of Thermopylae, Boeotia fell to the Persians, who then began to advance on Athens. The Peloponnesian Allies prepared to now defend the Isthmus of Corinth , thus abandoning Athens to the Persians. From Artemisium, the Allied fleet sailed to the island of Salamis , where the Athenian ships helped with the final evacuation of Athens. The Peloponnesian contingents wanted to sail to
3366-709: The King's hunts and in his household diversions". Themistocles advised the king on his dealings with the Greeks, although it seems that for a long period, the king was distracted by events elsewhere in the empire, and thus Themistocles "lived on for a long time without concern". He was made governor of the district of Magnesia on the Maeander River in Asia Minor , and assigned the revenues of three cities: Magnesia (about 50 talents per year—"for bread"); Myus ("for opson "); and Lampsacus ("for wine"). According to Plutarch , Neanthes of Cyzicus and Phanias reported two more,
3468-454: The Maeander was once identified with the modern Güzelhisar ; since then the ruins of a temple to Artemis were found at Inck-bazar , and the latter is considered a more likely site. A further important monument in Magnesia was the stadium in the south-western part of the city with a length of 185,90 meters. The first excavations at the archaeological site were performed during 1891 and 1893 by
3570-527: The Peloponnesians finally agreed to assemble an army and march to confront Mardonius, who had reoccupied Athens in June. At the decisive Battle of Plataea , the Allies destroyed the Persian army, while apparently on the same day, the Allied navy destroyed the remnants of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mycale . These twin victories completed the Allied triumph, and ended the Persian threat to Greece. Whatever
3672-460: The Peloponnesians were planning to evacuate that very night, and that to gain victory all the Persians needed to do was to block the straits. In performing this subterfuge, Themistocles seems to have been trying to lure the Persian fleet into the Straits. The message also had a secondary purpose: In the event of an Allied defeat, the Athenians might receive some degree of mercy from Xerxes (having indicated their readiness to submit). At any rate, this
3774-466: The Persians, and the Persian navy had arrived off the coast of Salamis, the Allied navy remained in the Straits. Themistocles appears to have been aiming to fight a battle that would cripple the Persian navy, and thus guarantee the security of the Peloponnesus. To bring about this battle, Themistocles used a cunning mix of subterfuge and misinformation, psychologically exploiting Xerxes' desire to finish
3876-603: The Spartans again levelled accusations of Themistocles's complicity in Pausanias's treason. They demanded that he be tried by the 'Congress of Greeks', rather than in Athens, although it seems that in the end he was actually summoned to Athens to stand trial. Perhaps realising he had little hope of surviving this trial, Themistocles fled, first to Kerkyra , and thence to Admetus , king of Molossia . Themistocles's flight probably only served to convince his accusers of his guilt, and he
3978-453: The Spartans. There, he assured them that no building work was on-going, and urged them to send emissaries to Athens to see for themselves. By the time the ambassadors arrived, the Athenians had finished building, and then detained the Spartan ambassadors when they complained about the presence of the fortifications. By delaying in this manner, Themistocles gave the Athenians enough time to fortify
4080-492: The affection of the beautiful Stesilaus of Ceos, and were passionate beyond all moderation." During the decade, Themistocles continued to advocate the expansion of Athenian naval power. The Athenians were certainly aware throughout this period that the Persian interest in Greece had not ended; Darius' son and successor, Xerxes I , had continued the preparations for the invasion of Greece. Themistocles seems to have realised that for
4182-426: The aftermath, the other noble ( eupatrid ) families of Athens rejected Cleisthenes, electing Isagoras as archon , with the support of Cleomenes. On a personal level, Cleisthenes wanted to return to Athens; however, he also probably wanted to prevent Athens becoming a Spartan client state. Outmaneuvering the other nobles, he proposed to the Athenian people a radical program in which political power would be invested in
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4284-495: The alleged treasonous plot of 478 BC of their own general Pausanias . Themistocles thus fled from southern Greece. Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC) temporarily gave him sanctuary at Pydna before he traveled to Asia Minor , where he entered the service of the Persian king Artaxerxes I (reigned 465–424 BC). He was made governor of Magnesia , and lived there for the rest of his life. Themistocles died in 459 BC, probably of natural causes. His reputation
4386-480: The allies could muster in the narrow Vale of Tempe , on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes' advance. A force of 10,000 hoplites was dispatched under the command of the Spartan polemarch Euenetus and Themistocles to the Vale of Tempe, which they believed the Persian army would have to pass through. However, once there, Alexander I of Macedon warned them that the vale could be bypassed in several ways and that
4488-532: The army of Xerxes was overwhelmingly large, and the Greeks retreated. Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont. Themistocles now developed a second strategy. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae . This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites , despite
4590-408: The battle did not end the Persian invasion, it effectively ensured that all Greece would not be conquered, and allowed the Allies to go on the offensive in 479 BC. A number of historians believe that Salamis is one of the most significant battles in human history. Since Themistocles's long-standing advocacy of Athenian naval power enabled the Allied fleet to fight, and his stratagem brought about
4692-516: The cause of Themistocles's unpopularity in 479 BC, it obviously did not last long. Both Diodorus and Plutarch suggest he was quickly restored to the favour of the Athenians. Indeed, after 479 BC, he seems to have enjoyed a relatively long period of popularity. In the aftermath of the invasion and the Destruction of Athens by the Achaemenids, the Athenians began rebuilding their city under
4794-731: The city of Palaescepsis ("for clothes") and the city of Percote ("for bedding and furniture for his house"), both near Lampsacus . Themistocles was one of the several Greek aristocrats who took refuge in the Achaemenid Empire following reversals at home, other famous ones being Hippias , Demaratos , Gongylos or later Alcibiades . In general, those were generously welcomed by the Achaemenid kings, received land grants to support them, and ruled over cities thorughout Asia Minor . Conversely, some Achaemenid satraps were welcomed as exiles in western courts, such as Artabazos II . Coins are
4896-416: The city to make Athens a great mercantile centre. He also instructed the Athenians to build 20 triremes per year, to ensure that their dominance in naval matters continued. Plutarch reports that Themistocles also secretly proposed to destroy the beached ships of the other Allied navies to ensure complete naval dominance—but was overruled by Aristides and the council of Athens. It seems clear that, towards
4998-567: The city was taken and destroyed by the Cimmerians sometime between 726 BC and 660 BC. The deserted site was soon reoccupied, and rebuilt by the Milesians or, according to Athenaeus , by the Ephesians . The Persian satraps of Lydia also occasionally resided in the place. In the fifth century BC, the exiled Athenian Themistocles came to Persia to offer his services to Artaxerxes , and
5100-440: The city, and thus ward off any Spartan attack aimed at preventing the re-fortification of Athens. Furthermore, the Spartans were obliged to repatriate Themistocles in order to free their own ambassadors. However, this episode may be seen as the beginning of the Spartan mistrust of Themistocles, which would return to haunt him. Themistocles also now returned to his naval policy, and more ambitious undertakings that would increase
5202-522: The coast of the Isthmus to concentrate forces with the army. However, Themistocles tried to convince them to remain in the Straits of Salamis, invoking the lessons of Artemisium; "battle in close conditions works to our advantage". After threatening to sail with the whole Athenian people into exile in Sicily, he eventually persuaded the other Allies, whose security after all relied on the Athenian navy, to accept his plan. Therefore, even after Athens had fallen to
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#17328485359405304-451: The conflict ended, Themistocles continued his pre-eminence among Athenian politicians. However, he aroused the hostility of Sparta by ordering the re-fortification of Athens, and his perceived arrogance began to alienate him from the Athenians. In 472 or 471 BC, he was ostracised, and went into exile in Argos . The Spartans now saw an opportunity to destroy Themistocles, and implicated him in
5406-472: The distinction between "alien and legitimate". Plutarch further reports that Themistocles was preoccupied, even as a child, with preparing for public life. His teacher is said to have told him: "My boy, you will be nothing insignificant, but definitely something great, either for good or evil." Themistocles left three sons by Archippe, the daughter of Lysander of Alopece : Archeptolis , Polyeuctus, and Cleophantus. Plato 's Meno mentions Cleophantus as
5508-723: The dominant position of his native state. He further extended and fortified the port complex at Piraeus, and "fastened the city [Athens] to the Piraeus, and the land to the sea". Themistocles probably aimed to make Athens the dominant naval power in the Aegean. Indeed, Athens would create the Delian League in 478 BC, uniting the naval power of the Aegean Islands and Ionia under Athenian leadership. Themistocles introduced tax breaks for merchants and artisans, to attract both people and trade to
5610-466: The effect it had on the assembly can we gauge what surely must have been its electric and vivifying quality—for Themistocles's audacious proposals, when put to the vote, were ratified. The Athenian people, facing the gravest moment of peril in their history, committed themselves once and for all to the alien element of the sea, and put their faith in a man whose ambitions many had long profoundly dreaded. His proposals accepted, Themistocles issued orders for
5712-417: The end of the decade, Themistocles had begun to accrue enemies, and had become arrogant; moreover his fellow citizens had become jealous of his prestige and power. The Rhodian poet Timocreon was among his most eloquent enemies, composing slanderous drinking songs . Meanwhile, the Spartans actively worked against him, trying to promote Cimon (son of Miltiades) as a rival to Themistocles. Furthermore, after
5814-442: The existing facilities at Phalerum . Although further away from Athens, Piraeus offered three natural harbours, and could be easily fortified. Since Athens was to become an essentially maritime power during the 5th century BC, Themistocles's policies were to have huge significance for the future of Athens, and indeed Greece. In advancing naval power, Themistocles was probably advocating a course of action he thought essential for
5916-421: The first referendum , Aristides was ostracised, and Themistocles's policies were endorsed. Indeed, becoming aware of the Persian preparations for the coming invasion, the Athenians voted for the construction of more ships than Themistocles had initially asked for. In the run-up to the Persian invasion, Themistocles had thus become the foremost politician in Athens. In 481 BC a congress of Greek city-states
6018-517: The good that I did him during his retreat, which brought no danger for me but much for him. (Thucydides) Thucydides and Plutarch say that Themistocles asked for a year's grace to learn the Persian language and customs, after which he would serve the king, and Artaxerxes granted this. Plutarch reports that, as might be imagined, Artaxerxes was elated that such a dangerous and illustrious foe had come to serve him. At some point in his travels, Themistocles's wife and children were extricated from Athens by
6120-399: The great honor and power he was to have in the war, but possibly thinking his task not even approachable, both because Hellas had other great generals at the time, and especially because Cimon was so marvelously successful in his campaigns; yet most of all out of regard for the reputation of his own achievements and the trophies of those early days; having decided that his best course was to put
6222-403: The guidance of Themistocles in the autumn of 479 BC. They wished to restore the fortifications of Athens, but the Spartans objected on the grounds that no place north of the Isthmus should be left that the Persians could use as a fortress. Themistocles urged the citizens to build the fortifications as quickly as possible, then went to Sparta as an ambassador to answer the charges levelled by
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#17328485359406324-430: The highest of the magistracies in Athens. On the back of his popularity, he evidently decided to run for this office and was elected Archon Eponymous , the highest government office in the following year (493 BC). Themistocles's archonship saw the beginnings of a major theme in his career; the advancement of Athenian sea-power. Under his guidance, the Athenians began the building of a new port at Piraeus , to replace
6426-477: The invasion. Xerxes' actions indicate that he was keen to finish the conquest of Greece in 480 BC, and to do this, he needed a decisive victory over the Allied fleet. Themistocles sent a servant, Sicinnus , to Xerxes, with a message proclaiming that Themistocles was "on the king's side, and prefers that your affairs prevail, not the Hellenes'." Themistocles claimed that the Allied commanders were infighting, that
6528-593: The legal authorities, Themistocles, who had been traveling under an assumed identity, revealed himself to the captain and said that if he did not reach safety he would tell the Athenians that he'd bribed the ship to take him. According to Thucydides, who wrote within living memory of the events, the ship eventually landed safely at Ephesus, where Themistocles disembarked. Plutarch has the ship docking at Cyme in Aeolia , and Diodorus has Themistocles making his way to Asia in an undefined manner. Diodorus and Plutarch next recount
6630-448: The local people for the fleet to remain at Artemisium, and he used some of it to bribe Eurybiades to remain, while pocketing the rest. From this point on, Themistocles appears to have been more or less in charge of the Allied effort at Artemisium. Over three days of battle, the Allies held their own against the much larger Persian fleet, but sustained significant losses. However, the loss of
6732-443: The long-term prospects of Athens. However, as Plutarch implies, since naval power relied on the mass mobilisation of the common citizens ( thetes ) as rowers, such a policy put more power into the hands of average Athenians—and thus into Themistocles's own hands. After Marathon, probably in 489, Miltiades , the hero of the battle, was seriously wounded in an abortive attempt to capture Paros. Taking advantage of his incapacitation,
6834-502: The most evocative version of this story: But when Egypt revolted with Athenian aid...and Cimon's mastery of the sea forced the King to resist the efforts of the Hellenes and to hinder their hostile growth...messages came down to Themistocles saying that the King commanded him to make good his promises by applying himself to the Hellenic problem; then, neither embittered by anything like anger against his former fellow-citizens, nor lifted up by
6936-597: The most indubitable signs of genius ; indeed, in this particular he has a claim on our admiration quite extraordinary and unparalleled". Themistocles was born in the Attic deme of Phrearrhii around 524 BC, the son of Neocles, a Leontian also of Phrearrhii, who was, in the words of Plutarch "no very conspicuous man at Athens". His mother is more obscure; her name was either Euterpe or Abrotonum , and her place of origin has been given variously as Halicarnassus , Thrace, or Acarnania . Like many contemporaries, little
7038-430: The most influential politician in Athens. However, the support of the nobility began to coalesce around the man who would become Themistocles's great rival— Aristides . Aristides cast himself as Themistocles's opposite—virtuous, honest and incorruptible—and his followers called him "the just". Plutarch suggests that the rivalry between the two had begun when they competed over the love of a boy: "... they were rivals for
7140-503: The noble families. Certainly, in the years (487 BC) following, the heads of the prominent families, including the Alcmaeonids, were exiled. The career of a politician in Athens thus became fraught with more difficulty, since displeasing the population was likely to result in exile. Themistocles, with his power-base firmly established among the poor, moved naturally to fill the vacuum left by Miltiades' death, and in that decade became
7242-424: The only contemporary documents remaining from the time of Themistocles. Although many coins in antiquity illustrated the images of various gods or symbols, the first portraiture of actual rulers only appears in the 5th century BC. Themistocles was probably the first ruler ever to issue coinage with his personal portrait, as he became Achaemenid Governor of Magnesia in 465–459 BC. Themistocles may have been in
7344-455: The other in Magnesia, which would lend credence to the possibility that he also illustrated himself on his coins. The Themistocles statue in Magnesia was illustrated on the reverse of some of the Magnesian coins of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius in the 2nd century. The rulers of Lycia followed towards the end of the 5th century as the most prolific and unambiguous producers of coins displaying
7446-462: The other naval powers, including Corinth and Aegina, refused to give command to the Athenians, and Themistocles pragmatically backed down. Instead, as a compromise, the Spartans (an insignificant naval power), in the person of Eurybiades , were to command the naval forces. Herodotus is clear, however, that Themistocles commanded the fleet in all but name. The congress met again in the spring of 480 BC. A Thessalian delegation suggested that
7548-495: The overwhelming numbers of Persians; furthermore, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium . However, after the Tempe debacle, it was uncertain whether the Spartans would be willing to march out from the Peloponnesus again. To persuade the Spartans to defend Attica , Themistocles had to show them that the Athenians were willing to do everything necessary for
7650-461: The people—a "democracy". The Athenian people thus overthrew Isagoras, repelled a Spartan attack under Cleomenes, and invited Cleisthenes to return to Athens and put his plan into action. The establishment of the democracy was to radically change Athens: "And so it was that the Athenians found themselves suddenly a great power... they gave vivid proof of what equality and freedom of speech might achieve" The new system of government in Athens opened up
7752-618: The portrait of their rulers. From the time of Alexander the Great , portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage. Themistocles died at Magnesia in 459 BC aged 65, according to Thucydides , from natural causes. However, perhaps inevitably, there were also rumours surrounding his death, saying that unwilling to follow the Great King's order to make war on Athens, he committed suicide by taking poison, or drinking bull's blood . Plutarch provides
7854-412: The powerful Alcmaeonid family arranged for him to be prosecuted. The Athenian aristocracy, and indeed Greek aristocrats in general, were loath to see one person pre-eminent, and such maneuvers were commonplace. Miltiades was given a massive fine for the crime of 'deceiving the Athenian people', but died weeks later as a result of his wound. In the wake of this prosecution, the Athenian people chose to use
7956-410: The prize for individual achievement. In response, realising the importance of the Athenian fleet to their security, and probably seeking to massage Themistocles's ego, the Spartans brought Themistocles to Sparta. There, he was awarded a special prize "for his wisdom and cleverness", and won high praise from all. Furthermore, Plutarch reports that at the next Olympic Games: [When] Themistocles entered
8058-411: The second invasion, he commanded the Greek allied navy at the battles of Artemisium and Salamis in 480 BC. Due to his subterfuge, the Allies successfully lured the Persian fleet into the Straits of Salamis, and the decisive Greek victory there was the turning point of the war. The invasion was conclusively repulsed the following year after the Persian defeat at the land Battle of Plataea . After
8160-457: The silver should be used to build a new fleet of 200 triremes , while Aristides suggested it should instead be distributed among the Athenian citizens. Themistocles avoided mentioning Persia, deeming that it was too distant a threat for the Athenians to act on, and instead focused their attention on Aegina . At the time, Athens was embroiled in a long-running war with the Aeginetans, and building
8262-446: The simultaneous Battle of Thermopylae to the Persians made their continued presence at Artemisium irrelevant, and the Allies thus evacuated. According to Herodotus, Themistocles left messages at every place where the Persian fleet might stop for drinking water, asking the Ionians in the Persian fleet to defect, or at least fight badly. Even if this did not work, Themistocles apparently intended that Xerxes would at least begin to suspect
8364-865: The site are now displayed in Istanbul and Aydın , as well as in Berlin and Paris . Copies of the portico ( pronaos ) of the Zeus temple and of a bay of the Artemis temple can be visited in the Pergamonmuseum in Berlin. Much of the architectural remains of Magnesia were destroyed long ago by local lime burners. The well preserved remains of the Zeus temple have been destroyed by local residents even after Humann's excavation campaign. In July 2018, six Greek statues were discovered. Four female, one male and one with unknown gender were unearthed in
8466-403: The stadium, the audience neglected the contestants all day long to gaze on him, and pointed him out with admiring applause to visiting strangers, so that he too was delighted, and confessed to his friends that he was now reaping in full measure the harvest of his toils in behalf of Hellas. After returning to Athens in the winter, Plutarch reports that Themistocles made a proposal to the city while
8568-503: The success of the alliance. In short, the entire Athenian fleet must be dispatched to Artemisium. To do this, every able-bodied Athenian male would be required to man the ships. This in turn meant that the Athenians must prepare to abandon Athens. Persuading the Athenians to take this course was one of the highlights of Themistocles's career. As Holland has it: What precise heights of oratory he attained, what stirring and memorable phrases he pronounced, we have no way of knowing...only by
8670-424: The ten Athenian strategoi (generals) in that battle. In the years after Marathon, and in the run-up to the second Persian invasion of 480–479 BC, Themistocles became the most prominent politician in Athens. He continued to advocate for a strong Athenian navy, and in 483 BC he persuaded the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 triremes ; these proved crucial in the forthcoming conflict with Persia. During
8772-635: The title of "Mother of the Gods". Mnesiptolema would eventually marry her half-brother Archeptolis, homopatric (but not homometric) marriages being permitted in Athens. Magnesia on the Maeander Magnesia or Magnesia on the Maeander ( Ancient Greek : Μαγνησία ἡ πρὸς Μαιάνδρῳ or Μαγνησία ἡ ἐπὶ Μαιάνδρῳ ; Latin : Magnesia ad Maeandrum ) was an ancient Greek city in Ionia , considerable in size, at an important location commercially and strategically in
8874-435: The treason and disgrace of the Spartan general Pausanias , the Spartans tried to implicate Themistocles in the plot; he was, however, acquitted of these charges. In Athens itself, he lost favour by building a sanctuary of Artemis , with the epithet Aristoboulẽ ("of good counsel") near his home, a blatant reference to his own role in delivering Greece from the Persian invasion. Eventually, in either 472 or 471 BC, he
8976-567: The triangle of Priene , Ephesus and Tralles . The city was named Magnesia, after the Magnetes from Thessaly who settled the area along with some Cretans . It was later called "on the Meander " to distinguish it from the nearby Lydian city Magnesia ad Sipylum . It was earlier the site of Leucophrys mentioned by several ancient writers. The territory around Magnesia was extremely fertile, and produced excellent wine , figs , and cucumbers . It
9078-471: The women and children of Athens to be sent to the city of Troezen , safely inside the Peloponnesus. He was then able to travel to a meeting of the Allies, at which he proposed his strategy; with the Athenian fleet fully committed to the defence of Greece, the other Allies accepted his proposals. Thus, in August 480 BC, when the Persian army was approaching Thessaly, the Allied fleet sailed to Artemisium, and
9180-519: Was built on the slope of Mount Thorax , on the banks of the small river Lethacus , a tributary of the Maeander river upstream from Ephesus . It was 15 miles from the city of Miletus . The ruins of the city are located west of the modern village Tekin in the Germencik district of Aydın Province , Turkey . Magnesia lay within Ionia , but because it had been settled by Aeolians from Greece,
9282-464: Was declared a traitor in Athens, his property to be confiscated. Both Diodorus and Plutarch considered that the charges were false, and made solely for the purposes of destroying Themistocles. The Spartans sent ambassadors to Admetus, threatening that the whole of Greece would go to war with the Molossians unless they surrendered Themistocles. Admetus, however, allowed Themistocles to escape, giving him
9384-414: Was exactly the kind of news that Xerxes wanted to hear. Xerxes evidently took the bait, and the Persian fleet was sent out to effect the block. Perhaps overconfident and expecting no resistance, the Persian navy sailed into the Straits, only to find that, far from disintegrating, the Allied navy was ready for battle. According to Herodotus, after the Persian navy began its maneuvers, Aristides arrived at
9486-466: Was given control of Magnesia to support his family. The word " magnet " possibly derives from lodestones found around Magnesia ad Sipylum , a neighbouring city with a similar name. In the time of the Romans , Magnesia was added to the kingdom of Pergamon , after Antiochus had been driven eastward beyond Mount Taurus . After this time the town seems to have declined and is rarely mentioned, though it
9588-405: Was held, during which 30 or so states agreed to ally themselves against the forthcoming invasion. The Spartans and Athenians were foremost in this alliance, being sworn enemies of the Persians. The Spartans claimed the command of land forces, and since the Greek (hereafter referred to as "Allied") fleet would be dominated by Athens, Themistocles tried to claim command of the naval forces. However,
9690-473: Was married to Panthoides of Chios ; and Sybaris to Nicomedes the Athenian. After Themistocles died, his nephew Phrasicles went to Magnesia and married another daughter, Nicomache (with her brothers' consent). Phrasicles then took charge of her sister Asia, the youngest of all ten children. Themistocles grew up in a period of upheaval in Athens. The tyrant Peisistratos had died in 527 BC, passing power to his sons, Hipparchus and Hippias . Hipparchus
9792-548: Was moved from the banks of the Meander to a place at the foot of Mount Thorax three miles from the river. The new town which Strabo saw was remarkable for its temple of Artemis Leucophryene ( Ancient Greek : Ἄρτεμις Λευκοφρυηνή ), which in size and the number of its treasures was surpassed by the temple of Ephesus , but in beauty and the harmony of its parts was superior to all the temples in Asia Minor: The temple to Artemis
9894-498: Was murdered in 514 BC, and in response to this, Hippias became paranoid and started to rely increasingly on foreign mercenaries to keep a hold on power. The head of the powerful but exiled Alcmaeonid family, Cleisthenes , began to scheme to overthrow Hippias and return to Athens. In 510 BC, he persuaded the Spartan king Cleomenes I to launch a full-scale attack on Athens, which succeeded in overthrowing Hippias. However, in
9996-625: Was not accepted into the Ionian League . Magnesia may have been ruled for a time by the Lydians , and was for some time under the control of the Persians and subject to Cimmerian raids. In later years, Magnesia supported the Romans during the Second Mithridatic War . Magnesia soon attained great power and prosperity, so as to be able to cope even with a challenge from Ephesus . However,
10098-443: Was ostracised. In itself, this did not mean that Themistocles had done anything wrong; ostracism, in the words of Plutarch, "was not a penalty, but a way of pacifying and alleviating that jealousy which delights to humble the eminent, breathing out its malice into this disfranchisement." Themistocles first went to live in exile in Argos . However, perceiving that they now had a prime opportunity to bring Themistocles down for good,
10200-549: Was posthumously rehabilitated, and he was re-established as a hero of the Athenian, and indeed Greek, cause. Themistocles can still reasonably be thought of as "the man most instrumental in achieving the salvation of Greece" from the Persian threat, as Plutarch describes him. His naval policies would have a lasting impact on Athens as well, since maritime power became the cornerstone of the Athenian Empire and golden age . Thucydides assessed Themistocles as "a man who exhibited
10302-476: Was rumored that after his death, Themistocles's bones were transported to Attica in accordance with his wishes, and buried in his native soil in secret, it being illegal to bury an Athenian traitor in Attica. The Magnesians built a "splendid tomb" in their marketplace for Themistocles, which still stood during the time of Plutarch, and continued to dedicate part of their revenues to the family of Themistocles. Nepos in
10404-509: Was to contact the Persian king; in Thucydides, this is by letter, while Plutarch and Diodorus have a face-to-face meeting with the king. The spirit is, however, the same in all three: Themistocles introduces himself to the king and seeks to enter his service: I, Themistocles, am come to you, who did your house more harm than any of the Hellenes, when I was compelled to defend myself against your father's invasion—harm, however, far surpassed by
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