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106-485: Roman legionaries were recruited from Roman citizens under age 45. They were first predominantly made up of recruits from Roman Italy , but more were recruited from the provinces as time went on. As legionaries moved into newly conquered provinces, they helped Romanize the native population and helped integrate the disparate regions of the Roman Empire into one polity. They enlisted in a legion for 25 years of service,

212-583: A Arverni and not a Gallo-Roman; being the relations between the natives and the Franks seen not as Romans against barbarians, as is popularly believed, but as in the case of Gregory, a relationship of coexistence between Arverni and Franks (Franci) as equals. It must also be remembered that Clovis I was born in Gaul, so according to the Edict of Caracalla that made him a Roman citizen by birth, in addition to being recognized by

318-439: A Arverni and not a Gallo-Roman; being the relations between the natives and the Franks seen not as Romans against barbarians, as is popularly believed, but as in the case of Gregory, a relationship of coexistence between Arverni and Franks (Franci) as equals. It must also be remembered that Clovis I was born in Gaul, so according to the Edict of Caracalla that made him a Roman citizen by birth, in addition to being recognized by

424-466: A medical discharge . This discharge would come with many benefits including exemption from some taxes and some civic duties. Legionary is also a term used for members of various military forces which have been accorded the title of "legion", although bearing no resemblance to the heavy infantry of ancient Rome. In the 18th and early 19th century this designation was sometimes accorded to units which comprised both mounted and foot components. More recently

530-460: A pater familias , but he did not control the property or possessions of a woman and was generally only needed to give his permission when a woman wanted to perform certain legal actions, such as freeing her slaves. Officially, one required Roman citizenship status to enrol in the Roman legions, but this requirement was sometimes overlooked and exceptions could be made. Citizen soldiers could be beaten by

636-412: A pater familias , but he did not control the property or possessions of a woman and was generally only needed to give his permission when a woman wanted to perform certain legal actions, such as freeing her slaves. Officially, one required Roman citizenship status to enrol in the Roman legions, but this requirement was sometimes overlooked and exceptions could be made. Citizen soldiers could be beaten by

742-435: A belt ( balteus ), a pair of heavy sandals ( caligae ), a pair of greaves , a pair of manicas , a marching pack ( sarcina ), about fourteen days' worth of food, a waterskin (bladder for posca ), cooking equipment, two stakes ( sudes murale ) for the construction of palisades , a shovel , and a wicker basket . After the military reforms of Emperor Claudius (circa 41 AD), each legion would also be requisitioned

848-418: A certain number of artillery pieces. Each cohort (roughly 480 men) would receive one ballista and each centuria (roughly 100 men) would receive one carroballista . In a standard legionary formation of ten cohorts and sixty centuriae, a legion would be equipped with ten ballistae and sixty carroballistae. The Roman legionary fought first and foremost with his contubernium , the basic eight man unit of

954-458: A change from the early practice of enlisting only for a campaign. Legionaries were expected to fight, but they also built much of the infrastructure of the Roman Empire and served as a policing force in the provinces. They built large public works projects, such as walls, bridges, and roads. The legionary's last five years of service were on lighter duties. Once retired, a Roman legionary received

1060-440: A conquered people (a tribe or a city-state) like Sparta and the conquered Helots , Rome tried to make those under its rule feel that they had a stake in the system. The ability of non-Roman born individuals to gain Roman citizenship also provided increased stability for those under Roman rule, and the system of sub-division within the different types of citizenship allowed for Roman rulers to work cooperatively with local elites in

1166-440: A conquered people (a tribe or a city-state) like Sparta and the conquered Helots , Rome tried to make those under its rule feel that they had a stake in the system. The ability of non-Roman born individuals to gain Roman citizenship also provided increased stability for those under Roman rule, and the system of sub-division within the different types of citizenship allowed for Roman rulers to work cooperatively with local elites in

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1272-435: A different fear was used to motivate a soldier in spite of the fear of battle; that was the fear of harsh punishment by their commanding officers. In the words of Josephus "they are moreover hardened for war by fear; for their laws inflict capital punishments, not only for soldiers running away from the ranks, but for slothfulness and inactivity". A Roman legionary had two or three meals per day: The prandium (breakfast) and

1378-449: A migration and reduction in status had to be a voluntary act. Roman citizenship was also used as a tool of foreign policy and control. Colonies and political allies would be granted a "minor" form of Roman citizenship, there being several graduated levels of citizenship and legal rights (the Latin rights was one of them). The promise of improved status within the Roman "sphere of influence" and

1484-402: A migration and reduction in status had to be a voluntary act. Roman citizenship was also used as a tool of foreign policy and control. Colonies and political allies would be granted a "minor" form of Roman citizenship, there being several graduated levels of citizenship and legal rights (the Latin rights was one of them). The promise of improved status within the Roman "sphere of influence" and

1590-451: A parcel of land or its equivalent in money and often became a politically prominent member of society. The Marian reforms were putative changes to the composition and operation of the Roman army during the late Roman republic usually attributed to Gaius Marius (a general who was consul in 107, 104–100, and 86 BC). The most important of those putative changes concerned the altering of

1696-497: A source of labor and expertise as well. As such, much of the infrastructure which connected the empire was built by legionaries. Roads, canals, and bridges were built by legionaries as well as more defensive structures such as fortresses and walls. Hadrian's wall , a monumental example of Roman engineering , was built by the three legions stationed in the area. Legionaries were not just limited to building large-scale engineering projects. Surveyors, doctors, artisans, and engineers within

1802-455: A specific social class in Rome had modified versions of citizenship. Roman citizens enjoyed a variety of specific privileges within Roman society. Male citizens had the rights to vote ( ius suffragi ) and hold civic office ( ius honorum, only available to the aristocracy). They also possessed ius vitae necisque, "the right of life and death." The male head of a Roman family ( pater familias ) had

1908-408: A specific social class in Rome had modified versions of citizenship. Roman citizens enjoyed a variety of specific privileges within Roman society. Male citizens had the rights to vote ( ius suffragi ) and hold civic office ( ius honorum, only available to the aristocracy). They also possessed ius vitae necisque, "the right of life and death." The male head of a Roman family ( pater familias ) had

2014-570: A successful campaign. Plunder and loot also supplement a legionary's income and is used as a large incentive for soldiers to follow their emperor in campaigns. At the end of their years of service, Roman legionaries received a small allotment of land or a monetary equivalent. As the Roman empire solidified, permanent legionary fortresses were constructed and many grew into towns. These fortresses contained bathhouses , taverns, and even amphitheaters where festivals and animal displays were held. However, legionaries were not allowed to legally marry until

2120-613: A variety of foodstuffs but mainly wine , vinegar, vegetables (largely beans or lentils), salt, salt-pork , cheese, and olive oil . However, this did not include fruit. Through foraging, trade with merchants, requisitioning, or raiding during campaigns, the Roman legionary could obtain other foodstuffs not included in his rations. In combination, the average soldier's diet was generally nutritious and filling. Permanent Roman forts would contain hospitals, where doctors ( medici ) operated on wounded, injured, or sick legionaries. These medical personnel also isolated sick soldiers, thereby reducing

2226-461: A whole unit displayed cowardice, the unit might be decimated , in which one out of every ten soldiers were executed. Less extreme punishments included demotions, changing the wheat rations to barley, and the removal of some identifying military gear. Large armies would generally not begin battle immediately upon meeting. Rather, days or even weeks of redeployment and negotiation would take place before battle. Several days of maneuvering occurred before

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2332-448: The cena (dinner). For these meals, the soldiers were issued regular rations consisting mainly of wheat, which composed roughly 60–70% of a soldier's total rations. This would be consumed in the form of either bread or porridge. However, while on campaign, the soldiers would cook their wheat rations into hardtack , a long-lasting biscuit. Supplementing the soldier's wheat rations was the cibaria , rations other than grain. This included

2438-464: The dediticii , people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves. By the century previous to Caracalla, Roman citizenship had already lost much of its exclusiveness and become more available between the inhabitants throughout the different provinces of the Roman Empire and between nobles such as kings of client countries. Before the Edict, however, a significant number of provincials were non-Roman citizens and held instead

2544-464: The dediticii , people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves. By the century previous to Caracalla, Roman citizenship had already lost much of its exclusiveness and become more available between the inhabitants throughout the different provinces of the Roman Empire and between nobles such as kings of client countries. Before the Edict, however, a significant number of provincials were non-Roman citizens and held instead

2650-454: The Battle of Pharsalus began. Before battle, measures were taken to ensure legionaries were as effective as possible. These included giving legionaries their meals and resting them before the battle. Their commanders and general would also give speeches during this time. These speeches would heavily emphasize the amount of plunder and riches that winning the battle would give the legionaries, as this

2756-512: The Latin League who came under Roman control at the close of the Latin War , but eventually became a legal description rather than a national or ethnic one. The Latin rights status could be assigned to different classes of citizens, such as freedmen , cives Romani convicted of crime, or colonial settlers. Under Roman law, citizens of another state that was allied to Rome via treaty were assigned

2862-407: The Latin League who came under Roman control at the close of the Latin War , but eventually became a legal description rather than a national or ethnic one. The Latin rights status could be assigned to different classes of citizens, such as freedmen , cives Romani convicted of crime, or colonial settlers. Under Roman law, citizens of another state that was allied to Rome via treaty were assigned

2968-472: The Latin rights . The Bible's Book of Acts indicates that Paul the Apostle was a Roman citizen by birth – though not clearly specifying which class of citizenship – a fact which had considerable bearing on Paul's career and on the religion of Christianity. Citizenship in Rome could be acquired through various means. To be born as a citizen required that both parents be free citizens of Rome. Another method

3074-422: The Latin rights . The Bible's Book of Acts indicates that Paul the Apostle was a Roman citizen by birth – though not clearly specifying which class of citizenship – a fact which had considerable bearing on Paul's career and on the religion of Christianity. Citizenship in Rome could be acquired through various means. To be born as a citizen required that both parents be free citizens of Rome. Another method

3180-482: The Pax Romana , a rank-and-file Roman legionary would be paid 225 denarii per year. This was increased to 300 denarii during the reign of Domitian . However, during the third century crisis, inflation and chaos disrupted a legionary's pay, with emperors often letting legionaries seize goods from civilians. Their income was supplemented by donatives from emperors either to secure a legion's loyalty or to award them after

3286-514: The Roman family , Roman citizens possessed the right of ius conubii, defined as the right to a lawful marriage in which children from the union would also be Roman citizens. Earlier Roman sources indicate that Roman women could forfeit their individual rights as citizens when entering into a manus marriage . In a manus marriage, a woman would lose any properties or possessions she owned herself and they would be given to her husband, or his pater familias . Manus marriages had largely stopped by

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3392-514: The Roman family , Roman citizens possessed the right of ius conubii, defined as the right to a lawful marriage in which children from the union would also be Roman citizens. Earlier Roman sources indicate that Roman women could forfeit their individual rights as citizens when entering into a manus marriage . In a manus marriage, a woman would lose any properties or possessions she owned herself and they would be given to her husband, or his pater familias . Manus marriages had largely stopped by

3498-575: The centurions and senior officers for reasons related to discipline. Non-citizens joined the Auxilia and gained citizenship through service. Following the early 2nd-century BC Porcian Laws , a Roman citizen could not be tortured or whipped and could commute sentences of death to voluntary exile , unless he was found guilty of treason. If accused of treason, a Roman citizen had the right to be tried in Rome, and even if sentenced to death, no Roman citizen could be sentenced to crucifixion . Ius gentium

3604-529: The centurions and senior officers for reasons related to discipline. Non-citizens joined the Auxilia and gained citizenship through service. Following the early 2nd-century BC Porcian Laws , a Roman citizen could not be tortured or whipped and could commute sentences of death to voluntary exile , unless he was found guilty of treason. If accused of treason, a Roman citizen had the right to be tried in Rome, and even if sentenced to death, no Roman citizen could be sentenced to crucifixion . Ius gentium

3710-603: The history of the Roman Empire . The oldest document currently available that details the rights of citizenship is the Twelve Tables , ratified c. 449 BC. Much of the text of the Tables only exists in fragments, but during the time of Ancient Rome the Tables would be displayed in full in the Roman Forum for all to see. The Tables detail the rights of citizens in dealing with court proceedings, property, inheritance, death, and (in

3816-446: The history of the Roman Empire . The oldest document currently available that details the rights of citizenship is the Twelve Tables , ratified c. 449 BC. Much of the text of the Tables only exists in fragments, but during the time of Ancient Rome the Tables would be displayed in full in the Roman Forum for all to see. The Tables detail the rights of citizens in dealing with court proceedings, property, inheritance, death, and (in

3922-404: The ius gentium were considered to be held by all persons; it is thus a concept of human rights rather than rights attached to citizenship. Ius migrationis was the right to preserve one's level of citizenship upon relocation to a polis of comparable status. For example, members of the cives Romani maintained their full civitas when they migrated to a Roman colony with full rights under

4028-404: The ius gentium were considered to be held by all persons; it is thus a concept of human rights rather than rights attached to citizenship. Ius migrationis was the right to preserve one's level of citizenship upon relocation to a polis of comparable status. For example, members of the cives Romani maintained their full civitas when they migrated to a Roman colony with full rights under

4134-407: The rewards and punishments , which served as both incentives and deterrents for legionaries in battle. For example, the highly coveted corona civica was given to legionaries who saved a comrade in battle. However, death was the punishment for a variety of different offenses. Those who committed cowardice and dereliction of duty were stoned to death by their comrades. On very rare occasions when

4240-513: The Great had tried to "mingle" his Greeks with the Persians, Egyptians, Syrians, etc. in order to assimilate the people of the conquered Persian Empire , but after his death this policy was largely ignored by his successors . The idea was not to assimilate , but to turn a defeated and potentially rebellious enemy (or their sons) into Roman citizens. Instead of having to wait for the unavoidable revolt of

4346-414: The Great had tried to "mingle" his Greeks with the Persians, Egyptians, Syrians, etc. in order to assimilate the people of the conquered Persian Empire , but after his death this policy was largely ignored by his successors . The idea was not to assimilate , but to turn a defeated and potentially rebellious enemy (or their sons) into Roman citizens. Instead of having to wait for the unavoidable revolt of

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4452-514: The Later Republic, Roman legionaries predominantly came from the areas surrounding Rome. However, as Rome expanded, recruits began to come from other areas in Italy. Slowly, recruits came from the regions where the legions were stationed rather than from Italy itself. By the reign of Trajan , there were 4–5 legionaries originating from the provinces for every legionary originating from Italy. When on

4558-409: The Roman army, a process called "proletarianisation". This was thought to have created a semi-professional class of soldiers motivated by land grants; these soldiers in turn became clients of their generals, who then used them to overthrow the republic . Belief in a comprehensive scheme of reforms under Marius emerged in 1840s German scholarship, which posited that any changes in the Roman army between

4664-539: The Roman army. The men of the same contubernium fought, slept, ate, and trained together. This strong sense of camaraderie gave Roman legionaries a sense of pride and kept them fighting on the battlefield. The standard bearers, signiferi , were of great importance in keeping Roman soldiers in the battle. The loss of a standard was a disgrace to the centuria the standard belonged to. As such, standard bearers served as someone to rally around and as someone to exhort legionaries to battle. Optiones , Roman officers at

4770-420: The Roman legions. With the state providing the equipment to the recruits and no property requirements, even the poorest Roman citizens were able to join the legions. However, the army was viewed as an honorable and valued profession. With a steady pay, good retirement benefits, and even certain legal advantages, a legionary had many perks that common citizens found desirable. As such, though poor citizens could join

4876-468: The Roman state: The cives Romani were full Roman citizens, who enjoyed full legal protection under Roman law. Cives Romani were sub-divided into two classes: The Latini were a class of citizens who held the Latin rights ( ius Latii ), or the rights of ius commercii and ius migrationis (the right to migrate), but not the ius conubii . The term Latini originally referred to the Latins , citizens of

4982-420: The Roman state: The cives Romani were full Roman citizens, who enjoyed full legal protection under Roman law. Cives Romani were sub-divided into two classes: The Latini were a class of citizens who held the Latin rights ( ius Latii ), or the rights of ius commercii and ius migrationis (the right to migrate), but not the ius conubii . The term Latini originally referred to the Latins , citizens of

5088-515: The Social War, or who were willing to cease hostilities immediately. This was extended to all the Italian socii states when the war ended (except for Gallia Cisalpina ), effectively eliminating socii and Latini as legal and citizenship definitions. Provinciales were those people who fell under Roman influence, or control, but who lacked even the rights of the foederati , essentially having only

5194-412: The Social War, or who were willing to cease hostilities immediately. This was extended to all the Italian socii states when the war ended (except for Gallia Cisalpina ), effectively eliminating socii and Latini as legal and citizenship definitions. Provinciales were those people who fell under Roman influence, or control, but who lacked even the rights of the foederati , essentially having only

5300-431: The ancient world. Though there were many different formations that legionaries fought in, they tended toward close, ordered formations with gaps between formations. These gaps would allow for reserve units to enter battle or serve as avenues for skirmishing forces to retreat back behind the legionaries. During lulls in the battle, wounded soldiers could further be taken back behind battle lines through these gaps. During

5406-415: The army was an important component of tax collection. Legionaries also served to spread Roman culture throughout the provinces where they were stationed. As legionaries settled in the provinces, towns sprang up around them, often becoming large cities. In this way, as legionaries co-mingled and intermarried with the local populace, they helped Romanize the provinces they protect. Roman legionaries served as

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5512-493: The army would be used for a variety of different civil services along with their normal military role. Regular trained legionaries were known as milites and were the equivalent in rank of the modern private . Included in the ranks, aside from the milites , were the immunes , specialist soldiers with secondary roles such as engineer , artilleryman, drill and weapons instructor, carpenter and medic . These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and would fight in

5618-488: The case of women) public behavior. Under the Roman Republic , the government conducted a census every five years in Rome to keep a record of citizens and their households. As the Roman Empire spread so did the practice of conducting a census. Roman citizens were expected to perform some duties ( munera publica ) to the state in order to retain their rights as citizens. Failure to perform citizenship duties could result in

5724-432: The case of women) public behavior. Under the Roman Republic , the government conducted a census every five years in Rome to keep a record of citizens and their households. As the Roman Empire spread so did the practice of conducting a census. Roman citizens were expected to perform some duties ( munera publica ) to the state in order to retain their rights as citizens. Failure to perform citizenship duties could result in

5830-444: The center of the shield. This allowed the legionary to not only use the scutum as defensive equipment but also as an offensive weapon. Legionaries would have used this iron boss to punch and shove the enemy combatants. Accompanying this was the gladius , a primarily stabbing weapon though it could also be used to cut. These fairly simple tools combined with impressive discipline made the Roman legionary an extremely effective soldier in

5936-443: The chance of a possibly infectious disease spreading through the army. Roman forts and camps were also planned in such a way as to minimize the spread of water-borne illnesses , which ravaged many ancient armies. Engineers took special care in piping fresh water to the camps and carrying sewage downstream of any watering places. Those legionaries who were seriously and permanently wounded or injured would be granted missio causaria , or

6042-524: The classical legionary and used darts rather than the pila of their predecessors. Though the legionary was first and foremost a soldier, he provided a variety of other critical functions. Lacking a professional police force , governors would use legionaries to keep the peace and protect critical facilities. As the Roman empire lacked a large civil administration , the army would often be given many administrative positions. High ranking soldiers often acted as judges in disputes among local populations and

6148-420: The discipline of the legionaries, as they began to expect more and more rewards from their emperors. Under Caracalla , Septimus Severus's successor, all freedmen in the Roman Empire became Roman citizens , effectively erasing the distinction between auxiliaries and legionaries. This, coinciding with the continued expansion of the Roman army, meant recruits of more dubious standards joined the legions, decreasing

6254-540: The emperor Anastasius I Dicorus as consul of Gaul , so his position of power was reinforced, in addition to being considered by his Gallo-Roman subjects as a legitimate viceroy of Rome; understanding that the Romanitas did not disappear in such an abrupt way, observed its effects centuries later with Charlemagne and the Translatio imperii . Roman citizenship Citizenship in ancient Rome ( Latin : civitas )

6360-545: The last years of unity of the pars occidentalis , a moment in which the old tribalisms and the proto-feudalism of Celtic origins, until then dormant, would re-emerge, mixing with the new ethnic groups of Germanic origin. This being observed in the writings of Gregory of Tours , who does not use the dichotomy Gallo-Roman - Frankish , but uses the name of each of the gens of that time existing in Gaul (arverni, turoni, lemovici, turnacenses, bituriges, franci, etc.), considering himself

6466-499: The last years of unity of the pars occidentalis , a moment in which the old tribalisms and the proto-feudalism of Celtic origins, until then dormant, would re-emerge, mixing with the new ethnic groups of Germanic origin. This being observed in the writings of Gregory of Tours , who does not use the dichotomy Gallo-Roman - Frankish , but uses the name of each of the gens of that time existing in Gaul (arverni, turoni, lemovici, turnacenses, bituriges, franci, etc.), considering himself

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6572-405: The law: a colonia civium Romanorum . Latins also had this right, and maintained their ius Latii if they relocated to a different Latin state or Latin colony ( Latina colonia ). This right did not preserve one's level of citizenship should one relocate to a colony of lesser legal status; full Roman citizens relocating to a Latina colonia were reduced to the level of the ius Latii , and such

6678-405: The law: a colonia civium Romanorum . Latins also had this right, and maintained their ius Latii if they relocated to a different Latin state or Latin colony ( Latina colonia ). This right did not preserve one's level of citizenship should one relocate to a colony of lesser legal status; full Roman citizens relocating to a Latina colonia were reduced to the level of the ius Latii , and such

6784-425: The legions. The Roman legionaries were also guaranteed a land grant or a cash payment at the end of his service, making the Roman legionary less dependent on generals for rewards after campaigns. Augustus also changed the sacramentum so that soldiers swore allegiance only to the emperor, and not to the general. Thus, Augustus managed to end the civil wars which defined the late Roman Republic and created an army that

6890-465: The loss of privileges, as seen during the Second Punic War when men who refused military service lost their right to vote and were forced out of their voting tribes. Women were exempt from direct taxation and military service. Anyone living in any province of Rome was required to register with the census. The exact extent of civic duties varied throughout the centuries. Much of Roman law involving

6996-407: The loss of privileges, as seen during the Second Punic War when men who refused military service lost their right to vote and were forced out of their voting tribes. Women were exempt from direct taxation and military service. Anyone living in any province of Rome was required to register with the census. The exact extent of civic duties varied throughout the centuries. Much of Roman law involving

7102-420: The march in hostile territory, the legionary would carry or wear full armour , supplies and equipment. This commonly consisted of chain ( lorica hamata ) , scaled ( lorica squamata ) , or in the 1st–3rd century sectioned ( lorica segmentata ) armour, shield ( scutum ), helmet ( galea ), two javelins (one heavy pilum and one light verutum ), a short sword ( gladius ), a dagger ( pugio ),

7208-414: The military, members from across the plebeian class were found in the Roman legions. Indeed, the army served as one of the few avenues of upward mobility in the Roman world. The army actively sought out recruits with useful skills such as smiths, carpenters, and butchers. Though not required, literacy was useful since promotion to higher ranks such as centurion required a knowledge of writing. During

7314-507: The provinces. With the settlement of Romanization and the passing of generations, a new unifying feeling began to emerge within Roman territory, the Romanitas or "Roman way of life", the once tribal feeling that had divided Europe began to disappear (although never completely) and blend in with the new wedge patriotism imported from Rome with which to be able to ascend at all levels. The Romanitas , Romanity or Romanism would last until

7420-457: The provinces. With the settlement of Romanization and the passing of generations, a new unifying feeling began to emerge within Roman territory, the Romanitas or "Roman way of life", the once tribal feeling that had divided Europe began to disappear (although never completely) and blend in with the new wedge patriotism imported from Rome with which to be able to ascend at all levels. The Romanitas , Romanity or Romanism would last until

7526-410: The quality of the Roman legionary further. During the 3rd Century Crisis , a more mobile army became necessary, as threats arose across the long borders of the Roman Empire. As such, mounted cavalry became essential to respond to the varied challenges to the empire. Because of this, Roman heavy infantry faded further from dominance. By the 4th century, Roman infantry lacked much of the body armor of

7632-460: The ranks if called upon. They were excused from some of the more arduous tasks such as drill and fatigues and received better pay than their comrades in arms. Though Roman legionaries were predominantly made up of volunteer citizens, conscription of recruits continued through Republic era and into the Principate , especially in times of crisis. This meant that levees remained a significant part of

7738-433: The rear of a formation, had many essential roles outside of battle. However, during battle, their task was to prevent legionaries from routing. Carrying a staff with a ball-end, an optio would force legionaries fleeing from battle back into formation. Leading at the front, centurions would fight alongside legionaries under their command, serving as a role model for his legionaries to remain in combat. Finally, there were

7844-529: The recruit to develop strength as he trained with these wooden weapons. Alongside battle training, the recruit was also taught other necessary skills such as swimming and setting up camp. Most of all, however, the recruit was taught discipline, and was drilled twice a day during his training period. After this period, which could last up to six months, the recruit would become a milite and sent to his respective legion. The Roman soldier underwent especially rigorous training throughout his military career; discipline

7950-404: The reforms a "construct of modern scholarship". As Augustus consolidated power in 27 BC and founded the Principate , he further professionalized the Roman legionary and sought to break the legionary's dependence on his general. Under him, a legionary's term of service was raised to 25 years (before that, a legionary's average term of service was only 10 years) and pay was standardized throughout

8056-405: The reign of Septimius Severus (though their spouses were often recognized), most likely because of the implicit necessity to care for the widow in the event of a legionary's death. When first enlisted, a fresh Roman recruit ( tiro ) was not given real weapons to train with. Instead, he was given wooden swords and shields designed to be twice the weight of their counterparts in battle. This allowed

8162-508: The right to legally execute any of his children at any age, although it appears that this was mostly reserved in deciding to raise newborn children. More general rights included: the rights to property ( ius census ), to enter into contracts ( ius commercii ), ius provocationis, the right to appeal court decisions, the right to sue and to be sued, to have a legal trial, and the right of immunity from some taxes and other legal obligations, especially local rules and regulations. With regards to

8268-508: The right to legally execute any of his children at any age, although it appears that this was mostly reserved in deciding to raise newborn children. More general rights included: the rights to property ( ius census ), to enter into contracts ( ius commercii ), ius provocationis, the right to appeal court decisions, the right to sue and to be sued, to have a legal trial, and the right of immunity from some taxes and other legal obligations, especially local rules and regulations. With regards to

8374-599: The rights afforded to the socii and with the growing manpower demands of the legions (due to the protracted Jugurthine War and the Cimbrian War ) led eventually to the Social War of 91–87 BC in which the Italian allies revolted against Rome. The Lex Julia (in full the Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis Danda ), passed in 90 BC, granted the rights of the cives Romani to all Latini and socii states that had not participated in

8480-442: The rights afforded to the socii and with the growing manpower demands of the legions (due to the protracted Jugurthine War and the Cimbrian War ) led eventually to the Social War of 91–87 BC in which the Italian allies revolted against Rome. The Lex Julia (in full the Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis Danda ), passed in 90 BC, granted the rights of the cives Romani to all Latini and socii states that had not participated in

8586-631: The rights and functions of citizenship revolved around legal precedents. Documents from Roman writer Valerius Maximus indicate that Roman women were in later centuries able to mingle freely about the Forum and to bring in concerns on their own volition, providing they acted in a manner that was becoming of their family and station. Much of our basis for understanding Roman law comes from the Digest of Emperor Justinian . The Digest contained court rulings by juries and their interpretations of Roman law and preserved

8692-536: The rights and functions of citizenship revolved around legal precedents. Documents from Roman writer Valerius Maximus indicate that Roman women were in later centuries able to mingle freely about the Forum and to bring in concerns on their own volition, providing they acted in a manner that was becoming of their family and station. Much of our basis for understanding Roman law comes from the Digest of Emperor Justinian . The Digest contained court rulings by juries and their interpretations of Roman law and preserved

8798-555: The rights of the ius gentium (rules and laws common to nations under Rome's rule). A peregrinus (plural peregrini ) was originally any person who was not a full Roman citizen, that is someone who was not a member of the cives Romani . With the expansion of Roman law to include more gradations of legal status, this term became less used, but the term peregrini included those of the Latini , socii , and provinciales , as well as those subjects of foreign states. Individuals belonging to

8904-507: The rights of the ius gentium (rules and laws common to nations under Rome's rule). A peregrinus (plural peregrini ) was originally any person who was not a full Roman citizen, that is someone who was not a member of the cives Romani . With the expansion of Roman law to include more gradations of legal status, this term became less used, but the term peregrini included those of the Latini , socii , and provinciales , as well as those subjects of foreign states. Individuals belonging to

9010-455: The rivalry with one's neighbours for status, kept the focus of many of Rome's neighbours and allies centered on the status quo of Roman culture, rather than trying to subvert or overthrow Rome's influence. The granting of citizenship to allies and the conquered was a vital step in the process of Romanization . This step was one of the most effective political tools and (at that point in history) original political ideas. Previously, Alexander

9116-455: The rivalry with one's neighbours for status, kept the focus of many of Rome's neighbours and allies centered on the status quo of Roman culture, rather than trying to subvert or overthrow Rome's influence. The granting of citizenship to allies and the conquered was a vital step in the process of Romanization . This step was one of the most effective political tools and (at that point in history) original political ideas. Previously, Alexander

9222-425: The socio-economic background of the soldiery. Other changes were supposed to have included the introduction of the cohort ; the institution of a single form of heavy infantry with uniform equipment; the universal adoption of the eagle standard ; and the abolition of the citizen cavalry . It was commonly believed that Marius changed the soldiers' socio-economic background by allowing citizens without property to join

9328-405: The soldiers behind them. Even if the pila failed to pierce the shields, the neck of the javelin would bend, making the shield useless. This then made the enemy vulnerable to missile fire and legionary attack. The disruption and damage wrought by pila would then be followed by the charge of Roman legionaries. Though Roman scutum had various different designs, they all shared a large metal boss in

9434-443: The status of socii . Socii (also known as foederati ) could obtain certain legal rights of under Roman law in exchange for agreed upon levels of military service, i.e., the Roman magistrates had the right to levy soldier from such states into the Roman legions . However, foederati states that had at one time been conquered by Rome were exempt from payment of tribute to Rome due to their treaty status. Growing dissatisfaction with

9540-443: The status of socii . Socii (also known as foederati ) could obtain certain legal rights of under Roman law in exchange for agreed upon levels of military service, i.e., the Roman magistrates had the right to levy soldier from such states into the Roman legions . However, foederati states that had at one time been conquered by Rome were exempt from payment of tribute to Rome due to their treaty status. Growing dissatisfaction with

9646-492: The stoning of individuals or unit executions involving decimation . However, honors, rewards, and promotions were frequently awarded to legionaries who distinguished themselves in battle or through exemplary service. One of the goals for strong disciplinary training was to expel fear from a Roman soldier. Fear, and the panic that often follows, is a devastating force to an army on the battlefield. The Romans aimed to remove fear through strict physical and mental training. However,

9752-431: The time of Augustus and women instead remained under the protection of their pater familias. Upon his death, both the men and women under the protection of the pater familias would be considered sui iuris and be legally independent, able to inherit and own property without the approval of their pater familias. Roman woman however would enter into a tutela , or guardianship. A woman's tutor functioned similarly to

9858-431: The time of Augustus and women instead remained under the protection of their pater familias. Upon his death, both the men and women under the protection of the pater familias would be considered sui iuris and be legally independent, able to inherit and own property without the approval of their pater familias. Roman woman however would enter into a tutela , or guardianship. A woman's tutor functioned similarly to

9964-523: The times of Polybius and Marius were attributable to a single reform event. This belief was spread relatively uncritically and was accepted as largely proven by the 1850s and through much of the 20th century. There is, however, little ancient evidence for any permanent or significant change to recruitment practice in Marius' time. The occurrence of such a comprehensive reform led by Marius is no longer widely accepted by specialists; 21st-century scholars have called

10070-789: The title has been used by the French Foreign Legion , the Spanish Foreign Legion and the Polish Legions . Members of these modern legions are often called légionnaires , the French term for legionary. The term was also used by the Romanian far right paramilitary group known in English as the Iron Guard . Roman citizen Citizenship in ancient Rome ( Latin : civitas )

10176-683: The writings of Roman legal authors. The Edict of Caracalla (officially the Constitutio Antoniniana in Latin: "Constitution [or Edict] of Antoninus") was an edict issued in AD 212 by the Roman Emperor Caracalla , which declared that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in the Empire were given the same rights as Roman women, with the exception of

10282-410: The writings of Roman legal authors. The Edict of Caracalla (officially the Constitutio Antoniniana in Latin: "Constitution [or Edict] of Antoninus") was an edict issued in AD 212 by the Roman Emperor Caracalla , which declared that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in the Empire were given the same rights as Roman women, with the exception of

10388-462: Was a primary incentive for the legionaries to do battle. Light skirmishing would then take place, with cavalry and auxiliaries probing enemy lines before a pitched battle commenced. The Roman legionary's three principal weapons were the pilum (javelin), scutum (shield), and gladius (short sword). Ideally, the legionaries would throw their pila first as they approached the enemy army. These pila could often penetrate enemy shields and hit

10494-421: Was a privileged political and legal status afforded to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance. Citizenship in ancient Rome was complex and based upon many different laws, traditions, and cultural practices. There existed several different types of citizenship, determined by one's gender, class, and political affiliations, and the exact duties or expectations of a citizen varied throughout

10600-421: Was a privileged political and legal status afforded to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance. Citizenship in ancient Rome was complex and based upon many different laws, traditions, and cultural practices. There existed several different types of citizenship, determined by one's gender, class, and political affiliations, and the exact duties or expectations of a citizen varied throughout

10706-656: Was broadly loyal to only the emperor. Legionaries would expand Rome's borders to include lower Britannia , Dacia , North Africa, and more through military campaigns under Augustus and future emperors. From the reign of Septimus Severus onward, the Roman legionary gradually lost his preeminence. Though there were multiple causes for this decline, all pointed to the gradual degradation of loyalty and/or discipline. Septimus Severus, perhaps unwittingly, began this decline when he lavished his legionaries with donatives and pay increases, recognising that they were his key to becoming and staying emperor. However, this proved detrimental to

10812-510: Was the base of the army's success, and the soldiers were relentlessly and constantly trained with weapons and especially with drill —forced marches with full load and in tight formation were frequent. As discipline was important, infractions were heavily punished by the centurions . Punishments could range from being obliged to spend the night outside the protective security of a fortified camp, through being beaten with clubs ( fustuarium —a common punishment for 'slowpokes' during long marches), to

10918-501: Was the legal recognition, developed in the 3rd century BC, of the growing international scope of Roman affairs, and the need for Roman law to deal with situations between Roman citizens and foreign persons. The ius gentium was therefore a Roman legal codification of the widely accepted international law of the time, and was based on the highly developed commercial law of the Greek city-states and of other maritime powers. The rights afforded by

11024-453: Was the legal recognition, developed in the 3rd century BC, of the growing international scope of Roman affairs, and the need for Roman law to deal with situations between Roman citizens and foreign persons. The ius gentium was therefore a Roman legal codification of the widely accepted international law of the time, and was based on the highly developed commercial law of the Greek city-states and of other maritime powers. The rights afforded by

11130-430: Was via the completion of a public service, such as serving in the non-Roman auxiliary forces. Cities could acquire citizenship through the implementation of the Latin law , wherein people of a provincial city of the empire could elect people to public office and therefore give the elected official citizenship. The legal classes varied over time, however the following classes of legal status existed at various times within

11236-430: Was via the completion of a public service, such as serving in the non-Roman auxiliary forces. Cities could acquire citizenship through the implementation of the Latin law , wherein people of a provincial city of the empire could elect people to public office and therefore give the elected official citizenship. The legal classes varied over time, however the following classes of legal status existed at various times within

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