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75-664: The legion was levied by Deiotarus, king of the Celtic tribe of the Tolistobogii , who lived in Galatia , modern Turkey . Deiotarus became an ally of the Roman Republic 's general Pompey in 63 BC, who named him king of all the Celtic tribes of Asia minor , which were collectively known as Galatians (hence the name Galatia for the region). Deiotarus levied an army and trained it with Roman help;

150-674: A Moorish cavalry unit from the Legio I Illyricorum . A Latin inscription of the end of the 2nd century, found in the Benedictine monastery in Abu Ghosh , 15 km west of Jerusalem , marks the presence of a vexillatio detachment of X Fretensis : Some fragments bearing the "L.X.F" mark of the L egio X F retensis are present at the Tower of David in Jerusalem. Roman Law required all pottery to bear

225-451: A trireme as one of its symbols. Actium marked the end of the civil war and the rise to power of Octavian, who was proclaimed Augustus some years later. It is uncertain when the legion was redeployed to Macedonia . An inscription found in the valley of the Strymon river attests that a group of soldiers from the unit had built a bridge. While stationed in that province, it fought battles with

300-577: A 1951 novel, The Eagle and the Sun by Lord Belhaven , who had done military and civilian service in the region. Octavian, later known as Augustus , levied a legion and gave it the number ten, as a reference to Julius Caesar 's famous Tenth Legion . In 36 BC, the Tenth Legion fought under Octavian against Sextus Pompey in the Battle of Naulochus , where it earned its cognomen Fretensis . The name refers to

375-465: A Brittonic language of northern Britain. Celtic regions of mainland Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language survives; these include western Iberia, i.e. Portugal and north-central Spain ( Galicia , Asturias , Cantabria , Castile and León , Extremadura ). Continental Celts are the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe and Insular Celts are

450-682: A Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul (Northern Italy), the oldest of which pre-date the La Tène period . Other early inscriptions, appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of Massilia , are in Gaulish , which was written in the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest. Celtiberian inscriptions, using their own Iberian script, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of Insular Celtic

525-702: A Roman client. In 66, Zealot Jews killed the Roman garrison in Jerusalem . After the ignominious defeat of the legatus of Syria in 66, T. Flavius Vespasianus entered in Iudaea in 67 with the legions V Macedonica , X Fretensis , XV Apollinaris , one vexillatio of 1,000 legionaries of the XXII, and 15,000 soldiers from the Eastern allies, and started the siege of Jerusalem in 69, which would be completed by his son T. Flavius Vespasianus (better known as Titus) in 70. In fact in 69,

600-559: A borrowing from Frankish * Walholant , 'Roman-land' (see Gaul: Name ) , the root of which is Proto-Germanic * walha- , 'foreigner, Roman, Celt', whence the English word Welsh ( Old English wælisċ ). Proto-Germanic * walha comes from the name of the Volcae , a Celtic tribe who lived first in southern Germany and central Europe, then migrated to Gaul. This means that English Gaul , despite its superficial similarity,

675-749: A collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia , identified by their use of Celtic languages and other cultural similarities. Major Celtic groups included the Gauls ; the Celtiberians and Gallaeci of Iberia; the Britons , Picts , and Gaels of Britain and Ireland; the Boii ; and the Galatians . The interrelationships of ethnicity, language and culture in the Celtic world are unclear and debated; for example over

750-704: A common cultural and linguistic heritage more than a genetic one. Celtic cultures seem to have been diverse, with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common. Today, the term 'Celtic' generally refers to the languages and cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall , the Isle of Man , and Brittany ; also called the Celtic nations . These are the regions where Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent. The four are Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton ; plus two recent revivals, Cornish (a Brittonic language ) and Manx (a Goidelic language ). There are also attempts to reconstruct Cumbric ,

825-450: A distance of two furlongs (400 m) or further. The projectiles of their ballistae caused heavy damage to the ramparts. According to Josephus (in vol. III of his history of the Judaean war), Larcius Lepidus was the commanding officer of the X Legion. The siege of Jerusalem lasted five months and the besieged population experienced all the terrible rigors of starvation. The combined assaults of

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900-470: A few fortresses, including Masada . In that year X Fretensis , in conjunction with V Macedonica , XII Fulminata , and XV Apollinaris , began the siege of Jerusalem , stronghold of the rebellion. The Xth camped on the Mount of Olives . During the siege, Legio X gained fame in the effective use of their various war machines. It was noted that they were able to hurl stones that weighed a talent, about 25 kg,

975-554: A long time, so the legions could be employed otherwise. The legionaries were used not only as soldiers, but also as workers, as some of them were sent to the granite mines of Mons Claudianus . Other legionaries were sent in the deepest south of the Egyptian province and scratched their names on the stones of the Colossi of Memnon . Under Nero , the Romans fought a campaign (55–63) against

1050-728: A result, these items quickly became associated with the Celts, so much so that by the 1870s scholars began to regard finds of the La Tène as 'the archaeological expression of the Celts'". This cultural network was overrun by the Roman Empire, though traces of La Tène style were still seen in Gallo-Roman artifacts . In Britain and Ireland, the La Tène style survived precariously to re-emerge in Insular art . The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to be challenged in

1125-615: A rethinking of the meaning of "Celtic". John T. Koch and Barry Cunliffe have developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It proposes that the proto-Celtic language arose along the Atlantic coast and was the lingua franca of the Atlantic Bronze Age cultural network, later spreading inland and eastward. More recently, Cunliffe proposes that proto-Celtic had arisen in the Atlantic zone even earlier, by 3000 BC, and spread eastwards with

1200-524: A revival. The first recorded use of the name 'Celts' – as Κελτοί ( Keltoi ) in Ancient Greek – was by Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus in 517 BC, when writing about a people living near Massilia (modern Marseille ), southern Gaul . In the fifth century BC, Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the source of the Danube and in the far west of Europe. The etymology of Keltoi

1275-651: A single culture or ethnic group. A new theory suggested that Celtic languages arose earlier, along the Atlantic coast (including Britain, Ireland, Armorica and Iberia ), long before evidence of 'Celtic' culture is found in archaeology. Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick argued that "Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might date to the Bell Beaker culture of the Copper and Bronze Age (from c. 2750 BC). Martín Almagro Gorbea (2001) also proposed that Celtic arose in

1350-448: A tougher desert environment than the Romans had expected. Gallus' retreat to Alexandria was completed in sixty days. Details of the expedition to Arabia Felix are given by Strabo, Cassius Dio and Pliny the Elder . Strabo's account is particularly detailed, and derives most of its information from Aelius Gallus himself, who was a personal friend of Strabo. The campaign is the subject of

1425-554: A trading port of the Nabateans in the northwestern Arabian coast. Gallus' subsequent movements relied on a Nabataean guide called Syllaeus, who proved to be untrustworthy. As a result of Syllaeus' misdirections, the army took six months to reach Mariba , the Sabaean capital. They besieged Ma'rib unsuccessfully for a week, before being forced to withdraw. Mommsen ascribed this to a combination of disease, over-extended supply lines , and

1500-536: A tribal surname, which epigraphic findings have confirmed. A Latin name for the Gauls, Galli ( pl. ), may come from a Celtic ethnic name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the Celtic expansion into Italy from the early fifth century BC. Its root may be Proto-Celtic *galno , meaning "power, strength" (whence Old Irish gal "boldness, ferocity", Welsh gallu "to be able, power"). The Greek name Γαλάται ( Galatai , Latinized Galatae ) most likely has

1575-614: A wall of circumvallation completely around the fortress. When the Romans finally broke through the walls of this citadel, they discovered that the Jewish defenders had chosen death with a mass suicide. After the conclusion of the Jewish revolt, Legio X was garrisoned at Jerusalem. Their main camp was positioned on the Western Hill , located in the southern half of what is now the Old City , which had been levelled of all former buildings. The camp of

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1650-536: Is available only from about 400 AD, in the form of Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions . Besides epigraphic evidence, an important source of information on early Celtic is toponymy (place names). Arnaiz-Villena et al. (2017) demonstrated that Celtic-related populations of the European Atlantic (Orkney Islands, Scottish, Irish, British, Bretons, Basques, Galicians) shared a common HLA system . Legio X Fretensis Legio X Fretensis ("Tenth legion of

1725-460: Is from the year 119. In 145, when a list of all existing legions was made, XXII Deiotariana was not included. Whether the legion was disbanded on administrative grounds or was destroyed during conflict remains uncertain. It is generally proposed that XXII Deiotariana suffered serious losses during the Jewish rebellion of Simon bar Kokhba . According to Peter Schafer's 2003 book "The disappearance of

1800-502: Is not actually derived from Latin Gallia (which should have produced * Jaille in French), though it does refer to the same ancient region. Celtic refers to a language family and, more generally, means 'of the Celts' or 'in the style of the Celts'. Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic, based on unique sets of artefacts. The link between language and artefact is aided by

1875-526: Is primarily a linguistic label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he argues that the proto-Celtic language did not originate in central Europe nor the Atlantic, but in-between these two regions. He suggests that it "emerged as a distinct Indo-European dialect around the second millennium BC , probably somewhere in Gaul [centered in modern France] ... whence it spread in various directions and at various speeds in

1950-497: Is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European * kʲel 'to hide' (seen also in Old Irish ceilid , and Modern Welsh celu ), * kʲel 'to heat' or * kel 'to impel'. It may come from the Celtic language . Linguist Kim McCone supports this view and notes that Celt- is found in the names of several ancient Gauls such as Celtillus, father of Vercingetorix . He suggests it meant the people or descendants of "the hidden one", noting

2025-641: The Histories of Herodotus, which placed the Celts at the source of the Danube . However, Stephen Oppenheimer shows that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the Pyrenees , which would place the Ancient Celts in a region which is more in agreement with later classical writers and historians (i.e. in Gaul and Iberia). The theory was also partly based on the abundance of inscriptions bearing Celtic personal names in

2100-520: The 3rd millennium BC , suggesting that the spread of the Bell Beaker culture explained the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the Celtic peoples. Using a multidisciplinary approach, Alberto J. Lorrio and Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero reviewed and built on Almagro Gorbea's work to present a model for the origin of Celtic archaeological groups in Iberia and proposing

2175-677: The Gaels ( Irish , Scots and Manx ) and the Celtic Britons ( Welsh , Cornish , and Bretons ) of the medieval and modern periods. A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Britain, Ireland, and other European territories such as Galicia . Today, Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton are still spoken in parts of their former territories, while Cornish and Manx are undergoing

2250-528: The Iberian Peninsula , Ireland and Britain. The languages developed into Celtiberian , Goidelic and Brittonic branches, among others. The mainstream view during most of the twentieth century is that the Celts and the proto-Celtic language arose out of the Urnfield culture of central Europe around 1000 BC, spreading westward and southward over the following few hundred years. The Urnfield culture

2325-533: The Lepontic inscriptions from the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names. Insular Celtic languages are attested from the 4th century AD in Ogham inscriptions , though they were being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century AD. Elements of Celtic mythology are recorded in early Irish and early Welsh literature. Most written evidence of

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2400-514: The Marcomannic campaign of Marcus Aurelius . When this vexillation arrived or what part it played in the campaign is not known. In 193, the legion supported Pescennius Niger against Septimius Severus , and was possibly involved in a local struggle between Jews and Samaritans . The legion was still in Jerusalem at the time of Caracalla (r. 211–217) or Elagabalus (r. 218–222). Under Gallienus (r. 253–268), another vexillation of Fretensis

2475-524: The Parthian Empire , which had invaded the kingdom of Armenia , allied to the Romans. After gaining Armenia in 60 and losing it in 62, the Romans sent XV Apollinaris from Pannonia to Cn. Domitius Corbulo , legatus of Syria . Corbulo, with the legions XV Apollinaris , III Gallica , V Macedonica , X Fretensis and XXII, forced Vologases I of Parthia to a compromise peace in 63, whereby his brother Tiridates would become king of Armenia as

2550-614: The Sarmatae who attacked the province in 16 BC. Not much later, Legio X Fretensis went to Syria . An inscription in the temple of Bel in Palmyra dated AD 14-19, signed by the commander of the legion, was dedicated to members of the emperor's family. This has led experts to believe X Fretensis took part in Germanicus ' campaign in the East, as well that the legion was stationed at Zeugma to secure

2625-457: The first millennium BC ". Sims-Williams says this avoids the problematic idea "that Celtic was spoken over a vast area for a very long time yet somehow avoided major dialectal splits", and "it keeps Celtic fairly close to Italy, which suits the view that Italic and Celtic were in some way linked ". The Proto-Celtic language is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age. The earliest records of

2700-741: The gens Julia ) — a ship (probably a reference to the Battles of Naulochus and/or Actium ), the god Neptune , and a boar. The symbol of Taurus may also mean that it was organized between 20 April and 20 May. In 26 BC, the Legio under Aelius Gallus was ordered by Augustus to undertake a military expedition to Arabia Felix , where Gallus was to either conclude treaties making the Arabian people foederati (i.e. client states ), or to subdue them if they resisted. According to Theodor Mommsen , Aelius Gallus sailed with 10,000 legionaries from Egypt and landed at Leuce Kome,

2775-409: The " year of the four emperors ", Flavius Vespasianus senior returned to Italy to conquer the imperial throne after Nero's death and Galba 's rebellion. The Twenty-second sided with Flavius Vespasianus, who eventually became emperor. Under Trajan , the legion was officially known as Deiotariana , even if this was its unofficial name since Claudian times. The last certain record of XXII Deiotariana

2850-1089: The Bar Kokhba revolt and making the war the most plausible explanation to the legion's disappearance. According to Isaac and Roll , the fact the inscription was apparently deliberately erased was an intentional damnatio memoriae because of Legio XXII's defeat. However, according to Negev , the inscription may be attributed to either Legio Ferrata or Legio Deiotariana. All members are found in inscriptions from CIL and AE . Celt Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Celts ( / k ɛ l t s / KELTS , see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples ( / ˈ k ɛ l t ɪ k / KEL -tik ) were

2925-467: The Bell Beaker culture over the following millennium. His theory is partly based on glottochronology , the spread of ancient Celtic-looking placenames, and thesis that the Tartessian language was Celtic. However, the proposal that Tartessian was Celtic is widely rejected by linguists, many of whom regard it as unclassified. Celticist Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) notes that in current scholarship, 'Celt'

3000-474: The Britons resembled the Gauls in customs and religion. For at least 1,000 years the name Celt was not used at all, and nobody called themselves Celts or Celtic, until from about 1700, after the word 'Celtic' was rediscovered in classical texts, it was applied for the first time to the distinctive culture, history, traditions, language of the modern Celtic nations – Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and

3075-554: The Celtic-speaking people of the British and Irish islands, and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating Insular Celts from Britain and so are grouped accordingly. The Celtic languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages . By the time Celts are first mentioned in written records around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of western mainland Europe,

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3150-580: The Celts with the Iron Age Hallstatt culture which followed it ( c.  1200 –500 BC), named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt , Austria, and with the following La Tène culture ( c.  450 BC onward), named after the La Tène site in Switzerland. It proposes that Celtic culture spread westward and southward from these areas by diffusion or migration . A newer theory, " Celtic from

3225-558: The Eastern Hallstatt region ( Noricum ). However, Patrick Sims-Williams notes that these date to the later Roman era, and says they suggest "relatively late settlement by a Celtic-speaking elite". In the late 20th century, the Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to fall out of favour with some scholars, which was influenced by new archaeological finds. 'Celtic' began to refer primarily to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to

3300-502: The Galatian army was incorporated as a legion into the Roman army. M.H.D. Parker argues that the date of its incorporation could be narrowed further as between 16 BC and 8 BC; since Caesar Augustus had already 21 legions , the legion received the number XXII. The Twenty-second was assigned to Nicopolis (next Alexandria , in Aegyptus ) together with III Cyrenaica . These two legions had

3375-447: The Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god (according to Commentarii de Bello Gallico ), and linking it with the Germanic Hel . Others view it as a name coined by Greeks; among them linguist Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel , who suggests it meant "the tall ones". In the first century BC, Roman leader Julius Caesar reported that the Gauls called themselves 'Celts', Latin : Celtae , in their own tongue . Thus whether it

3450-405: The Greeks to apply this name for the type of Keltoi that they usually encountered". Because Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland Κελτοί ( Keltoi ) or Celtae , some scholars prefer not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands. However, they spoke Celtic languages, shared other cultural traits, and Roman historian Tacitus says

3525-425: The Isle of Man. 'Celt' is a modern English word, first attested in 1707 in the writing of Edward Lhuyd , whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of the early Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain. The English words Gaul , Gauls ( pl. ) and Gaulish (first recorded in the 16–17th centuries) come from French Gaule and Gaulois ,

3600-423: The Jordan to capture the fortress of Machaerus on the shore of the Dead Sea. Due to illness, Bassus did not live to complete his mission. Lucius Flavius Silva replaced him, and moved against the last Jewish stronghold, Masada , probably in the autumn of 72. He used Legio X, auxiliary troops, and thousands of Jewish prisoners. After his orders for surrender were rejected, Silva established several base camps and

3675-402: The Legio XXII Deiotariana in connection with the Bar Kokhba Revolt is uncertain and not generally accepted as fact." Evidence from Caesarea Maritima gained support from a number of scholars interpreting the aqueduct reparation inscription made c.133-134 as mentioning Legio XXII Deiotariana. If indeed connected with the legion, the inscription sets the last known location to Judean province during

3750-424: The Nubians, led by queen Candace Amanirenas , took the initiative and attacked the Romans moving towards Elephantine . The new praefectus of Egypt, Gaius Petronius , obtained reinforcements, and after blocking the Nubians, marched up the Nile to the Nubian capital of Napata , which was sacked in 22 BC. It is highly probable that XXII fought in these wars. After these actions, the Nubian front remained calm for

3825-419: The Strait") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army . It was founded by the young Gaius Octavius (later to become Augustus Caesar ) in 41/40 BC to fight during the period of civil war that started the dissolution of the Roman Republic . X Fretensis is then recorded to have existed at least until the 410s. X Fretensis symbols were the bull — the holy animal of the goddess Venus (mythical ancestor of

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3900-412: The Tenth was built using the surviving portions of the walls of Herod's royal palace , demolished by order of Titus. Once the Romans rebuilt parts of the destroyed city as the pagan city of Aelia Capitolina , the camp found itself at the end of the cardo maximus . At the time, Legio X was the sole legion assigned to maintain the peace in Judaea, and was directly under the command of the governor of

3975-493: The West ", suggests proto-Celtic arose earlier, was a lingua franca in the Atlantic Bronze Age coastal zone, and spread eastward. Another newer theory, "Celtic from the Centre", suggests proto-Celtic arose between these two zones, in Bronze Age Gaul, then spread in various directions. After the Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe in the 3rd century BC, Celtic culture reached as far east as central Anatolia , Turkey . The earliest undisputed examples of Celtic language are

4050-434: The army, in 48 BC, was composed of 12,000 infantrymen and 2,000 horsemen. Cicero writes that the army was divided into thirty cohortes, which were roughly equivalent to three Roman legions of the time. This army supported the Romans in their wars against king Mithridates VI of Pontus , and contributed to Roman victory in the Third Mithridatic War . After a heavy defeat against king Pharnaces II of Pontus near Nicopolis ,

4125-567: The burials "dated to roughly the time when Celts are mentioned near the Danube by Herodotus , Ramsauer concluded that the graves were Celtic". Similar sites and artifacts were found over a wide area, which were named the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, the archaeological site of La Tène was discovered in Switzerland. The huge collection of artifacts had a distinctive style. Artifacts of this 'La Tène style' were found elsewhere in Europe, "particularly in places where people called Celts were known to have lived and early Celtic languages are attested. As

4200-417: The coastal city of Caesarea Maritima (67/68). This was due to the large number of legions being mobilized in Ptolemais, under Marcus Ulpius Traianus , future governor of Syria and father of the emperor Trajan . During that same winter, the Caesarea camp of Xth and Vth hosted Vespasian, who was forced to go to Rome the following year , where he seized power. Vespasian's son Titus finished the suppression of

4275-550: The command of Sextus Julius Severus — reconquered the entire territory and successfully besieged the last Jewish stronghold, the fortress of Betar . Legio X Fretensis sustained heavy casualties in the course of the revolt. As a consequence of the unrest in the region, Fretensis was supported by several other legions, of which the Legio VI Ferrata was stationed at a camp which became known as Lejjun (from "legion"). A vexillation , or detachment, of X Fretensis along with other troops stationed in eastern provinces, fought in

4350-451: The commander of the second legion". After participating in Trajan 's Parthian campaign, Fretensis was caught up in the Bar Kokhba's revolt (132-135). A possible cause for the revolt was the decision of Emperor Hadrian to build a pagan temple to Jupiter in Jerusalem. Simon Bar Kokhba started the revolt and inflicted massive casualties on the Romans. The war ended when the Roman army — including Fretensis and Danubian troops under

4425-452: The early Celts comes from Greco-Roman writers, who often grouped the Celts as barbarian tribes. They followed an ancient Celtic religion overseen by druids . The Celts were often in conflict with the Romans , such as in the Roman–Gallic wars , the Celtiberian Wars , the conquest of Gaul and conquest of Britain . By the 1st century AD, most Celtic territories had become part of the Roman Empire . By c. 500, due to Romanisation and

4500-405: The fact that the battle took place near the sea Strait of Messina ( Fretum Siculum ). In 31 BC, it fought in the Battle of Actium against Mark Antony . Although Actium was a battle at sea, the legion was able to board enemy ships that had been hooked close by means of an iron grapnel known as the Corvus . Its key participation in this battle is probably the reason that the legion also used

4575-406: The frontier with Parthia . In the year 6 CE, Publius Sulpicius Quirinius , governor of Syria, led X Fretensis and III Gallica , VI Ferrata , and XII Fulminata in suppressing the revolt that sprung out after the deposition of Herod Archelaus . Under Nero in 58-63 CE, X Fretensis participated in the campaigns of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo against the Parthians . X Fretensis

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4650-408: The latter 20th century, when it was accepted that the oldest known Celtic-language inscriptions were those of Lepontic from the 6th century BC and Celtiberian from the 2nd century BC. These were found in northern Italy and Iberia, neither of which were part of the 'Hallstatt' nor 'La Tène' cultures at the time. The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory was partly based on ancient Greco-Roman writings, such as

4725-450: The legions succeeded in taking the city, which was then subjected to destruction . During the spring of 71, Titus set sail for Rome. A new military governor was then appointed from Rome, Sextus Lucilius Bassus , whose assigned task was to undertake the "mopping-up" operations in Judaea. Naturally, he used X Fretensis to oppose the few remaining fortresses that still resisted. As part of this, X Fretensis took Herodium , and then crossed

4800-445: The migration of Germanic tribes, Celtic culture had mostly become restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and Brittany . Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. They had a common linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from surrounding cultures. Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of

4875-462: The presence of inscriptions. The modern idea of a Celtic cultural identity or "Celticity" focuses on similarities among languages, works of art, and classical texts, and sometimes also among material artefacts, social organisation , homeland and mythology . Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common "racial" ( race is now a contested concept) origin for the various Celtic peoples, but more recent theories hold that they reflect

4950-414: The province, who was also legatus of the legion. This combination of offices made this posting important, and several of the men assigned to it had previous experience commanding a legion. When a second legion was assigned to Judaea, and the province promoted to consular status, the political status of legate of this legion declined. Dabrowa observes, "he was subordinate to the governor of Judaea just like

5025-408: The revolt. When Tarichacae and Gamla were conquered, the X Fretensis moved to Scythopolis (modern Bet She'an ), just west of the Jordan River . In the summer of 68, X Fretensis destroyed the monastery of Qumran , where the Dead Sea Scrolls are believed to have originated. Its winter camp was at Jericho . By 70, the rebellion in all of Judaea had been crushed, except for Jerusalem and

5100-489: The role of garrisoning the Egyptian province from threats both within and without, given the multi-ethnic nature of Alexandria. In 26 BC, Aelius Gallus , praefectus Aegypti (praefectus of Egypt), led a campaign against the Nubian kingdoms and another to find Arabia Felix ( Yemen ). The campaign came quickly to a halt (25 BC) because of the heavy losses in the troops (Romans, Hebrews and Nabateans), due to hunger and epidemics. The losses were not recovered, so in 23 BC

5175-483: The same origin, referring to the Gauls who invaded southeast Europe and settled in Galatia . The suffix -atai might be a Greek inflection. Linguist Kim McCone suggests it comes from Proto-Celtic *galatis ("ferocious, furious"), and was not originally an ethnic name but a name for young warrior bands . He says "If the Gauls' initial impact on the Mediterranean world was primarily a military one typically involving fierce young *galatīs , it would have been natural for

5250-431: The surviving soldiers of Deiotarus’s army formed a single legion, which marched besides Julius Caesar during his victorious campaign against Pontus , and fought with him in the Battle of Zela (47 BC). On the death of Amyntas in 25 BC, Deiotarus' successor, the Galatian kingdom was absorbed into the Roman Empire . A papyrus recovered from Egypt, dated 8 BC, mentions two soldiers of the legion. Between these two dates,

5325-532: The ways in which the Iron Age people of Britain and Ireland should be called Celts. In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single ethnic group. The history of pre-Celtic Europe and Celtic origins is debated. The traditional "Celtic from the East" theory, says the proto-Celtic language arose in the late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of central Europe, named after grave sites in southern Germany, which flourished from around 1200 BC. This theory links

5400-573: Was centrally involved in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73), under the supreme command of Vespasian . In 66, the X Fretensis and V Macedonica went to Alexandria for an invasion of Ethiopia planned by Nero . However, the two legions were needed in Judaea to suppress a revolt. After spending the winter in Ptolemais Ace (modern Acre, Israel ), X Fretensis and V Macedonica relocated in

5475-581: Was drawn to fight in the war against the Gallic Empire . However, that unit defected to the other side. The legion moved to Aila, close to modern Aqaba , probably during Diocletian 's reforms around 300, and is recorded as still camping there at the time of the compilation of the Notitia Dignitatum in the 390s, when it is reported serving under the Dux Palaestinae . The legion was replaced by

5550-535: Was given to them by others or not, it was used by the Celts themselves. Greek geographer Strabo , writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC, refers to the "race which is now called both Gallic and Galatic ", though he also uses Celtica as another name for Gaul. He reports Celtic peoples in Iberia too, calling them Celtiberi and Celtici . Pliny the Elder noted the use of Celtici in Lusitania as

5625-599: Was preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age , circa 1200 BC to 700 BC. The spread of iron-working led to the Hallstatt culture (c. 800 to 500 BC) developing out of the Urnfield culture in a wide region north of the Alps. The Hallstatt culture developed into the La Tène culture from about 450 BC, which came to be identified with Celtic art . In 1846, Johann Georg Ramsauer unearthed an ancient grave field with distinctive grave goods at Hallstatt , Austria. Because

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