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50-517: Early in the design of the Space Shuttle program, the expected launch rate was 12 flights per year. The LPS was designed to oversee and manage the parallel processing of multiple orbiters and their subsystems in order to meet this launch schedule. The LPS tracks and manages all components of the Space Shuttle launch vehicle from the time the individual components arrive at KSC, through checkout, integration, testing, installation, and finally culminating in

100-402: A transmission electron microscope . Microscope types are often distinguished by their mechanism and application, and can be divided into two general categories. Amongst light microscopes, the utilised objective lens dictates how small of an object can be seen. These varying objective lenses can change the resolving power of the microscope, which determines the shortest distance that somebody

150-447: A certain distance, and where the metal gate is replaced by an ion -sensitive membrane , electrolyte solution and reference electrode . The ISFET is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization , biomarker detection from blood , antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology . By the mid-1980s, numerous other MOSFET sensors had been developed, including

200-471: A digital signal, using an analog-to-digital converter . Since sensors cannot replicate an ideal transfer function , several types of deviations can occur which limit sensor accuracy : All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors . Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a random error that can be reduced by signal processing , such as filtering, usually at

250-486: A launch. Any time a component is functioning, sensors within the component relay data on its performance back to the LPS, which checks these results against the expected normal conditions. If the result is unsatisfactory, the LPS then alerts an operator and provides data as to the nature of the component's performance, so that any fault may be isolated and resolved. Because the LPS monitors thousands of individual parameters on

300-479: A location, down to cells found in their blood. When the monetary value of gems is determined, various professions in gemology require systematic observation of the microscopic physical and optical properties of gemstones. This can involve the use of stereo microscopes to evaluate these qualities, to eventually determine the value of each individual jewel or gemstone. This can be done similarly in evaluations of gold and other metals. When assessing road materials,

350-415: A microscopic level increased. Published in 1665, Robert Hooke 's book Micrographia details his microscopic observations including fossils insects, sponges, and plants, which was possible through his development of the compound microscope. During his studies of cork, he discovered plant cells and coined the term ' cell '. Prior to the use of the micro- prefix, other terms were originally incorporated into

400-507: A much higher resolving power, and magnification approximately 10,000 times more than light microscopes. These can be used to view objects such as atoms , which are as small as 0.001 micrometres. During forensic investigations, trace evidence from crime scenes such as blood, fingerprints and fibres can be closely examined under microscopes, even to the extent of determining the age of a trace. Along with other specimens, biological traces can be used to accurately identify individuals present at

450-485: A sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends the information to other electronics, frequently a computer processor. Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons ( tactile sensor ) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, and in innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in micromachinery and easy-to-use microcontroller platforms,

500-480: A sharp distinction between a biosensor and a standard chemical sensor is superfluous. Typical biomimetic materials used in sensor development are molecularly imprinted polymers and aptamers . In biomedicine and biotechnology , sensors which detect analytes thanks to a biological component, such as cells, protein, nucleic acid or biomimetic polymers , are called biosensors . Whereas a non-biological sensor, even organic (carbon chemistry), for biological analytes

550-420: A thermometer moves 1  cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, its sensitivity is 1 cm/°C (it is basically the slope dy/dx assuming a linear characteristic). Some sensors can also affect what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what

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600-400: A wide range of other sensors that measure chemical and physical properties of materials, including optical sensors for refractive index measurement, vibrational sensors for fluid viscosity measurement, and electro-chemical sensors for monitoring pH of fluids. A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much its output changes when the input quantity it measures changes. For instance, if the mercury in

650-438: Is a self-contained analytical device that can provide information about the chemical composition of its environment, that is, a liquid or a gas phase . The information is provided in the form of a measurable physical signal that is correlated with the concentration of a certain chemical species (termed as analyte ). Two main steps are involved in the functioning of a chemical sensor, namely, recognition and transduction . In

700-532: Is a video simulation interface which allows testing of firing room systems without the need to have a vehicle present. The CDS originally consisted of two mainframe computers . It was upgraded in 1999 to its current clustered state, and was renamed the Shuttle Data Center (SDC) The CDS/SDC is located on the second floor of the Launch Control Center . The Record and Playback Subsystem (RPS), as

750-404: Is a vital contributor to successful cell function and growth, even in cancer cells. The entropy and disorder of the universe can be observed at a microscopic scale, with reference to the second and third law of thermodynamics . In some cases, this can involve calculating the entropy change within a container of expanding gas molecules and relating it to the entropy change of its environment and

800-408: Is able to distinguish two separate objects through that microscope lens. It is important to note that the resolution between two objects varies from individual to individual, but the strength of the objective lenses can be quantified. In the 1660s, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek devised a simple microscope utilising a single spherical lens mounted between two thin brass plates. Depending on the quality of

850-739: Is measured; making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages. Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a significantly faster measurement time and higher sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches. Due to the increasing demand for rapid, affordable and reliable information in today's world, disposable sensors—low-cost and easy‐to‐use devices for short‐term monitoring or single‐shot measurements—have recently gained growing importance. Using this class of sensors, critical analytical information can be obtained by anyone, anywhere and at any time, without

900-403: Is referred to as sensor or nanosensor . This terminology applies for both in-vitro and in vivo applications. The encapsulation of the biological component in biosensors, presents a slightly different problem that ordinary sensors; this can either be done by means of a semipermeable barrier , such as a dialysis membrane or a hydrogel , or a 3D polymer matrix, which either physically constrains

950-440: Is the micrometre (also called a micron ) (symbol: μm), which is one millionth of a metre . Whilst compound microscopes were first developed in the 1590s, the significance of the microscopic scale was only truly established in the 1600s when Marcello Malphigi and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek microscopically observed frog lungs and microorganisms. As microbiology was established, the significance of making scientific observations at

1000-560: Is the basis for modern image sensors , including the charge-coupled device (CCD) and the CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor), used in digital imaging and digital cameras . Willard Boyle and George E. Smith developed the CCD in 1969. While researching the MOS process, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it

1050-416: Is the scale of objects and events smaller than those that can easily be seen by the naked eye , requiring a lens or microscope to see them clearly. In physics , the microscopic scale is sometimes regarded as the scale between the macroscopic scale and the quantum scale . Microscopic units and measurements are used to classify and describe very small objects. One common microscopic length scale unit

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1100-531: The gas sensor FET (GASFET), surface accessible FET (SAFET), charge flow transistor (CFT), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), biosensor FET (BioFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET). By the early 2000s, BioFET types such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed. MOS technology

1150-516: The International metric system in 1795, such as centi- which represented a factor of 10^-2, and milli- , which represented a factor of 10^-3. Over time the importance of measurements made at the microscopic scale grew, and an instrument named the Millionometre was developed by watch-making company owner Antoine LeCoultre in 1844. This instrument had the ability to precisely measure objects to

1200-623: The Shuttle and support equipment, the number of personnel required in the firing room is less than half of the 450 engineers required for an Apollo program launch. The LPS is composed of three major subsystems: the Checkout, Control and Monitor Subsystem (CCMS), the Central Data Subsystem (CDS), and the Record and Playback Subsystem (RPS). The Checkout, Control and Monitor Subsystem (CCMS) controls

1250-418: The ability to view sub-wavelength, nanosized objects. Nanoscale imaging via atomic force microscopy has also been improved to allow a more precise observation of small amounts of complex objects, such as cell membranes . Coherent microscopic patterns discovered in chemical systems support ideas of the resilience of certain substances against entropic environments. This research is being utilised to inform

1300-428: The actual processing and launch of the Space Shuttle. This subsystem consists of the staffed consoles in the firing room, as well as minicomputers , and data transmission and recording systems, which monitor the pre-launch performance of all electrical and mechanical systems on board the Shuttle vehicle. The various systems being monitored are managed from operator-controlled consoles, which are clustered together based on

1350-450: The amount of energy products made by mitochondria, the lifespan of its cell, and thus organism, increases. Microscopic analysis of the spatial distribution of points within DNA heterochromatin centromeres emphasise the role of the centromeric regions of chromosomes in nuclei undergoing the interphase part of cell mitosis . Such microscopic observations suggest nonrandom distribution and precise structure of centromeres during mitosis

1400-499: The expense of the dynamic behavior of the sensor. The sensor resolution or measurement resolution is the smallest change that can be detected in the quantity that is being measured. The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the numerical resolution of the digital output. The resolution is related to the precision with which the measurement is made, but they are not the same thing. A sensor's accuracy may be considerably worse than its resolution. A chemical sensor

1450-477: The eye. Such groups include the Cladocera , planktonic green algae of which Volvox is readily observable, and the protozoa of which stentor can be easily seen without aid. The submicroscopic scale similarly includes objects that are too small to see with an optical microscope . In thermodynamics and statistical mechanics , the microscopic scale is the scale at which we do not measure or directly observe

1500-446: The lens, magnifications of between 70x and 250x were possible. The specimen to be examined was mounted on a point on a finely threaded rod. Compound light microscopes have a short focal length objective lens which produces a real image which is examined using a longer focal length eyepiece. The ratio of the focal length of the objective and the eyepiece, when mounted in a standard tube length, gives an approximate magnification of

1550-401: The microscopic composition of the infrastructure is vital in determining the longevity and safety of the road, and the different requirements of varying locations. As chemical properties such as water permeability, structural stability and heat resistance affect the performance of different materials used in pavement mixes, they are taken into consideration when building for roads according to

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1600-415: The name implies, records unprocessed data from various sources during testing and countdown. This can be played back at a later time for analysis. The RPS consists of tape recorders, telemetry equipment, and computers to perform analysis and data reduction. Sensor A sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of detecting a physical phenomenon. In the broadest definition,

1650-575: The nearest micrometre. The British Association for the Advancement of Science committee incorporated the micro- prefix into the newly established CGS system in 1873. The micro- prefix was finally added to the official SI system in 1960, acknowledging measurements that were made at an even smaller level, denoting a factor of 10^-6. By convention, the microscopic scale also includes classes of objects that are most commonly too small to see but of which some members are large enough to be observed with

1700-409: The need for recalibration and worrying about contamination. A good sensor obeys the following rules: Most sensors have a linear transfer function . The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between the output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is constant with the units [V/K]. The sensitivity is the slope of

1750-406: The open-gate field-effect transistor (OGFET) introduced by Johannessen in 1970, the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970, the adsorption FET (ADFET) patented by P.F. Cox in 1974, and a hydrogen -sensitive MOSFET demonstrated by I. Lundstrom, M.S. Shivaraman, C.S. Svenson and L. Lundkvist in 1975. The ISFET is a special type of MOSFET with a gate at

1800-414: The precise state of a thermodynamic system – such detailed states of a system are called microstates. We instead measure thermodynamic variables at a macroscopic scale , i.e. the macrostate . As the microscopic scale covers any object that cannot be seen by the naked eye, yet is visible under a microscope, the range of objects that fall under this scale can be as small as an atom, visible underneath

1850-521: The recognition step, analyte molecules interact selectively with receptor molecules or sites included in the structure of the recognition element of the sensor. Consequently, a characteristic physical parameter varies and this variation is reported by means of an integrated transducer that generates the output signal. A chemical sensor based on recognition material of biological nature is a biosensor . However, as synthetic biomimetic materials are going to substitute to some extent recognition biomaterials,

1900-665: The sensing macromolecule or chemically constrains the macromolecule by bounding it to the scaffold. Neuromorphic sensors are sensors that physically mimic structures and functions of biological neural entities. One example of this is the event camera . The MOSFET invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960, MOSFET sensors (MOS sensors) were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical , chemical , biological and environmental parameters. A number of MOSFET sensors have been developed, for measuring physical , chemical , biological , and environmental parameters. The earliest MOSFET sensors include

1950-432: The severity of the disease, and early detection is possible through identification of microscopic indications of illness. Whilst use of the microscopic scale has many roles and purposes in the scientific field, there are many biochemical patterns observed microscopically that have contributed significantly to the understanding of how human life relies on microscopic structures to function and live. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

2000-559: The study of rock microstructures, to determine how geologic features such as tectonic plates affect the likelihood of earthquakes and groundwater movement. There have been both advances in microscopic technology, and discoveries in other areas of knowledge as a result of microscopic technology. In conjunction with fluorescent tagging, molecular details in singular amyloid proteins can be studied through new light microscopy techniques, and their relation to Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Other improvements in light microscopy include

2050-497: The study of the Earth's structure at a microscopic level. Physical characteristics of rocks are recorded, and in petrography there is a specific focus on the examination of microscopic details of rocks. Similar to scanning electron microscopes, electron microprobes can be used in petrology to observe the condition that allows rocks to form, which can inform the origin of these samples. In structural geology , petrographic microscopes allow

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2100-477: The system. Due to their design, compound microscopes have improved resolving power and contrast in comparison to simple microscopes, and can be used to view the structure, shape and motility of a cell and its organisms, which can be as small as 0.1 micrometres. While electron microscopes are still a form of compound microscope, their use of electron beams to illuminate objects varies in mechanism significantly from compound light microscopes, allowing them to have

2150-422: The traffic, weather, supply and budget in that area. In medicine , diagnoses can be made with the assistance of microscopic observation of patient biopsies , such as cancer cells. Pathology and cytology reports include a microscopic description, which consists of analyses performed using microscopes, histochemical stains or flow cytometry . These methods can determine the structure of the diseased tissue and

2200-459: The transfer function. Converting the sensor's electrical output (for example V) to the measured units (for example K) requires dividing the electrical output by the slope (or multiplying by its reciprocal). In addition, an offset is frequently added or subtracted. For example, −40 must be added to the output if 0 V output corresponds to −40 C input. For an analog sensor signal to be processed or used in digital equipment, it needs to be converted to

2250-506: The type of systems. The LPS master console in the firing room links the CCMS with the other subsystems of the LPS. The Central Data Subsystem (CDS) consists of a cluster of high-end minicomputers which store vital data such as vehicle test and performance data, test procedures, historical data, etc. There are two primary interfaces into the CDS. The first is a real-time interface with the CCMS. The second

2300-413: The universe. Ecologists monitor the state of an ecosystem over time by identifying microscopic features within the environment. This includes the temperature and CO 2 tolerance of microorganisms such as ciliates, and their interactions with othrt Protozoa. Additionally, microscopic factors such as movement and motility can be observed in water samples of that ecosystem. Branches of geology involve

2350-401: The uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature, pressure and flow measurement, for example into MARG sensors . Analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used. Their applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine, robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day life. There is

2400-431: Was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first digital video cameras for television broadcasting . The MOS active-pixel sensor (APS) was developed by Tsutomu Nakamura at Olympus in 1985. The CMOS active-pixel sensor

2450-1268: Was later developed by Eric Fossum and his team in the early 1990s. MOS image sensors are widely used in optical mouse technology. The first optical mouse, invented by Richard F. Lyon at Xerox in 1980, used a 5   μm NMOS sensor chip. Since the first commercial optical mouse, the IntelliMouse introduced in 1999, most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors. MOS monitoring sensors are used for house monitoring , office and agriculture monitoring, traffic monitoring (including car speed , traffic jams , and traffic accidents ), weather monitoring (such as for rain , wind , lightning and storms ), defense monitoring, and monitoring temperature , humidity , air pollution , fire , health , security and lighting . MOS gas detector sensors are used to detect carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , hydrogen sulfide , ammonia , and other gas substances. Other MOS sensors include intelligent sensors and wireless sensor network (WSN) technology. Microscopic scale The microscopic scale (from Ancient Greek μικρός ( mikrós )  'small' and σκοπέω ( skopéō )  'to look (at); examine, inspect')

2500-593: Was not only a contributor to the invention of the microscope, he is also referred to as the "father of Microbiology". This is due to his significant contributions in the initial observation and documentation of unicellular organisms such as bacteria and spermatozoa, and microscopic human tissue such as muscle fibres and capillaries. Genetic manipulation of energy-regulating mitochondria under microscopic principles has also been found to extend organism lifespan, tackling age-associated issues in humans such as Parkinson's , Alzheimer's and multiple sclerosis . By increasing

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