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61-516: The LES was first worn by U.S. Air Force pilots in the mid-1970s, replacing a similar suit worn by SR-71 and U-2 pilots, and was identical to the suits worn by X-15 pilots and Gemini astronauts. Unlike the ACES suit, which is a full-pressure suit, the high-altitude suits were partial pressure suits, thus requiring a rubber diaphragm around the wearer's face. With the development of the Space Shuttle, and

122-524: A 1962 proposal, NASA considered using the B-52/X-15 as a launch platform for a Blue Scout rocket to place satellites weighing up to 150 pounds (68 kg) into orbit. In July and August 1963, pilot Joe Walker exceeded 100 km in altitude, joining NASA astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts as the first human beings to cross that line on their way to outer space . The USAF awarded astronaut wings to anyone achieving an altitude of 50 miles (80 km), while

183-591: A VCU (Voice Control Unit), a computer capable of recognising and responding to human speech. The VCU was created by SCI Systems in Huntsville, Alabama , and was based on technology licensed from the Votan company. This speech recognition system controlled the cameras and monitors that were used by the crew to monitor the Canadarm mechanical arm mounted in the cargo bay. Because of the experimental nature of speech recognition at

244-507: A combined 13   flights which met the Air Force spaceflight criterion by exceeding the altitude of 50 miles (80 km), thus qualifying these pilots as being astronauts ; of those 13   flights, two (flown by the same civilian pilot) met the FAI definition (100 kilometres (62 mi)) of outer space . The 5   Air Force pilots qualified for military astronaut wings immediately, while

305-514: A communications cap similar to those worn by Apollo astronauts, and because they were white (later changed to brown), the suit resembled the Vostok pressure suit worn by Yuri Gagarin . The suits were designed to withstand pressures up to 40,000 feet (12 kilometers), and immersion in the ocean for up to 24 hours at 5 °C (40 °F). Because of the limitations of protection the LES could offer, NASA and

366-512: A feature called "Reaction Augmentation System" (RAS) that helped stabilize the vehicle at high altitude. The RAS was typically used for approximately three minutes of an X-15 flight before automatic power off. The alternative control setup used the MH-96 flight control system, which allowed one joystick in place of three and simplified pilot input. The MH-96 could automatically blend aerodynamic and rocket controls, depending on how effective each system

427-490: A launch aircraft, drop, main engine start and acceleration, ballistic flight into thin air/space, re-entry into thicker air, unpowered glide to landing, and direct landing without a main-engine start. The main rocket engine operated only for a relatively short part of the flight but boosted the X-15 to its high speeds and altitudes. Without the main rocket engine thrust, the X-15's instruments and control surfaces remained functional, but

488-594: A new beginning". TDRS-C, which became TDRS-3 in orbit, and its attached Inertial Upper Stage (IUS), were deployed from Discovery ' s cargo bay six hours and 13 minutes into the flight. The first stage of the IUS placed TDRS-3 in a transfer orbit, and the second stage placed it in a geosynchronous orbit on September 30, 1988. TDRS-3 moved into position over the Pacific Ocean south of Hawaii at 171° west longitude . It joined TDRS-1 in tracking Earth-orbiting spacecraft;

549-447: A nose-wheel carriage and two rear skids. The skids did not extend beyond the ventral fin , which required the pilot to jettison the lower fin just before landing. The lower fin was recovered by parachute. The X-15 was the product of developmental research, and changes were made to various systems over the course of the program and between the different models. The X-15 was operated under several different scenarios, including attachment to

610-809: A parachute and flotation device. Name: Launch Entry Suit (S1032) Derived from: USAF Model S1031 Manufacturer: David Clark Company Missions: STS-26 to STS-79 , STS-81 to STS-83 , STS-94 to STS-85 , STS-87 to STS-90 , STS-88 Function: Intra-vehicular activity (IVA) Pressure type : Partial Operating pressure: 2.7 psi (18.6 kPa) Suit weight: 30 lb (13.6 kg) Parachute and survival systems weight: 64 lb (29 kg) Total weight: 94 lb (42.6 kg) Primary life support: Vehicle Provided Backup life support: 10 minutes Kenneth S. Thomas & Harold J. McMann (2006). US Spacesuits . Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing Ltd. ISBN   0-387-27919-9 . North American X-15 The North American X-15

671-618: A sister satellite, TDRS-B , was lost in the Challenger accident. Also in the payload bay was the Orbiter Experiments Autonomous Supporting Instrumentation System (OASIS). OASIS recorded environmental data on the orbiter and the TDRS payload during various inflight phases. All the mission's mid-deck experiments were deemed to have been performed successfully. However, there were some glitches with two of

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732-552: A traditional center stick between a left 3-axis joystick that sent commands to the Reaction Control System, and a third joystick on the right used during high-G maneuvers to augment the center stick. In addition to pilot input, the X-15 " Stability Augmentation System " (SAS) sent inputs to the aerodynamic controls to help the pilot maintain attitude control . The Reaction Control System (RCS) could be operated in two modes – manual and automatic. The automatic mode used

793-632: Is a hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft operated by the United States Air Force and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of the X-plane series of experimental aircraft . The X-15 set speed and altitude records in the 1960s, crossing the edge of outer space and returning with valuable data used in aircraft and spacecraft design. The X-15's highest speed, 4,520 miles per hour (7,274 km/h; 2,021 m/s),

854-547: The Ulysses probe from Challenger in 1986. Ulysses was eventually launched on STS-41 . Hauck, Lounge and Hilmers were all assigned to that flight, with Roy D. Bridges Jr. as pilot. Bridges never flew again after the Challenger disaster, but would eventually become the director of Langley Research Center (LRC). Covey was the CAPCOM operator during the STS-51-L launch who uttered

915-618: The FAI set the limit of space at 100 kilometers (62.1 mi). On 15   November 1967, U.S. Air Force test pilot Major Michael J. Adams was killed during X-15 Flight 191 when X-15-3, AF Ser. No. 56-6672 , entered a hypersonic spin while descending, then oscillated violently as aerodynamic forces increased after re-entry. As his aircraft's flight control system operated the control surfaces to their limits, acceleration built to 15  g 0 (150  m/s ) vertical and 8.0  g 0 (78  m/s ) lateral. The airframe broke apart at 60,000 feet (18 km) altitude, scattering

976-513: The XLR99 rocket engine, generating 57,000 pounds-force (250 kN) of thrust. The remaining 175   flights of the X-15 used XLR99 engines, in a single engine configuration. The XLR99 used anhydrous ammonia and liquid oxygen as propellant, and hydrogen peroxide to drive the high-speed turbopump that delivered propellants to the engine. It could burn 15,000 pounds (6,804 kg) of propellant in 80   seconds; Jules Bergman titled his book on

1037-463: The loss of Columbia fifteen years later. NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Project Gemini , and first used music to awaken a flight crew during Apollo 15 . Each track is specially chosen, often by the astronauts' families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities. Kathryn D. Sullivan chose

1098-594: The rocket engine . The X-15 was built by two manufacturers: North American Aviation was contracted for the airframe in November 1955, and Reaction Motors was contracted for building the engines in 1956. Like many X-series aircraft, the X-15 was designed to be carried aloft and drop launched from under the wing of a B-52 mother ship . Air Force NB-52A, "The High and Mighty One" (serial 52-0003), and NB-52B, "The Challenger" (serial 52-0008, also known as Balls 8 ) served as carrier planes for all X-15 flights. Release of

1159-584: The space border . All five Air Force pilots flew above 50   miles and were awarded military astronaut wings contemporaneously with their achievements, including Adams, who received the distinction posthumously following the flight   191 disaster . However the other three were NASA employees and did not receive a comparable decoration at the time. In 2004, the Federal Aviation Administration conferred its first-ever commercial astronaut wings on Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie , pilots of

1220-489: The 3   civilian pilots were eventually awarded NASA astronaut wings in 2005, 35   years after the last X-15 flight. The X-15 was based on a concept study from Walter Dornberger for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) of a hypersonic research aircraft. The requests for proposal (RFPs) were published on 30   December 1954 for the airframe and on 4   February 1955 for

1281-552: The David Clark Company introduced the current ACES design in 1995, which thereafter was the only suit used for Shuttle missions. Based on the LES, but being a full-pressure suit, the ACES suit now incorporates gloves on disconnecting lock rings on the wrists, liquid cooling and improved ventilation, and an extra layer of insulation. The ACES suit is analogous to the Sokol suits used for Soyuz missions and its functions are virtually

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1342-608: The Gemini spacesuit in appearance, but identical in function to the SR-71 partial-pressure suits, the new LES suits featured a one-piece torso-limb suit with a Nomex outer layer (which NASA was able to use on the Shuttle due to the mixed nitrogen / oxygen sea-level atmosphere), closed with a rear-entry zipper, and featuring a full-pressure helmet with a polycarbonate clear faceplate, mechanical seal, and black sunshade, zippered-on gloves (resembling

1403-597: The Smithsonian Air & Space Museum for display. Both surviving X-15s are currently on display at museums in the United States. In addition, three mockups and both B-52 Stratofortresses used as motherships are on display as well. During 13 of the 199 total X-15 flights, eight pilots flew above 264,000 feet (50.0 mi; 80 km), thereby qualifying as astronauts according to the US Armed Forces definition of

1464-446: The X-15 from NB-52A took place at an altitude of about 8.5 miles (13.7 km) (45,000 feet) and a speed of about 500 miles per hour (805 km/h). The X-15 fuselage was long and cylindrical, with rear fairings that flattened its appearance, and thick, dorsal and ventral wedge-fin stabilizers. Parts of the fuselage (the outer skin ) were heat-resistant nickel alloy ( Inconel -X   750). The retractable landing gear comprised

1525-512: The X-15's wreckage across 50 square miles (130 km ). On 8   May 2004, a monument was erected at the cockpit's locale, near Johannesburg, California . Major Adams was posthumously awarded Air Force astronaut wings for his final flight in X-15-3, which had reached an altitude of 50.4 miles (81.1 km). In 1991, his name was added to the Astronaut Memorial . The second plane, X-15-2,

1586-413: The aircraft could not maintain altitude. As the X-15 also had to be controlled in an environment where there was too little air for aerodynamic flight control surfaces , it had a reaction control system (RCS) that used rocket thrusters. There were two different X-15 pilot control setups: one used three joysticks, the other, one joystick. The X-15 type with multiple control sticks for the pilot placed

1647-433: The blunt end at the rear of the X-15 could produce as much drag as an entire F-104 Starfighter . A wedge shape was used because it is more effective than the conventional tail as a stabilizing surface at hypersonic speeds. A vertical-tail area equal to 60 percent of the wing area was required to give the X-15 adequate directional stability. Stability at hypersonic speeds was aided by side panels that could be extended from

1708-477: The cabin pressure had been increased slightly by the activation of the oxygen systems in the crew's flight suits, and the launch was conducted without further delay. The shuttle crew, all veteran astronauts, included Commander Frederick H. "Rick" Hauck, Pilot Richard O. Covey, and Mission Specialists John M. "Mike" Lounge, George D. "Pinky" Nelson and David C. Hilmers. The primary payload for the STS-26 mission, TDRS-C ,

1769-401: The commercial SpaceShipOne , another spaceplane with a flight profile comparable to the X-15's. Following this in 2005, NASA retroactively awarded its civilian astronaut wings to Dana (then living), and to McKay and Walker (posthumously). Forrest S. Petersen, the only Navy pilot in the X-15 program, never took the aircraft above the requisite altitude and thus never earned astronaut wings. Of

1830-417: The day before the mission ended, the five-man crew paid tribute to the seven crew members lost in the Challenger disaster. Discovery landed on Runway 17, Edwards Air Force Base , California , at 12:37:11 p.m. EDT on October 3, 1988, after a mission duration of approximately 4 days, 1 hour, 0 minute, and 11 seconds. Capsule Communicator Blaine Hammond Jr. welcomed the crew, saying it was "a great ending to

1891-477: The first time on 25   June 1964. It reached its maximum speed of 4,520 miles per hour (7,274 km/h) in October 1967 with pilot William "Pete" Knight of the U.S. Air Force in control. Five principal aircraft were used during the X-15 program: three X-15 planes and two modified "nonstandard" NB-52 bombers: Additionally, F-100 , F-104 and F5D chase aircraft and C-130 and C-47 transports supported

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1952-727: The five materials science experiments. In the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment, two of the 11 proteins processed – including an enzyme believed to be key to the replication of AIDS – did not produce crystals suitable for analysis. Also, there were some equipment problems with the Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF), an experiment to investigate the melting and solidification of various materials in zero-gravity . The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and

2013-517: The gloves used by astronaut Alan Shepard on his Mercury space suit ), heavy black "paratrooper" style safety boots , and a survival backpack, which is donned prior to entering the Orbiter and contains a parachute, life raft, survival gear, and a 30-minute supply of breathing oxygen and a water tank. Because of the helmet design, which rested on the astronaut's shoulders and allowed them to move their head around freely, astronauts were now required to wear

2074-465: The inclusion of ejection seats on the Space Shuttle Columbia on the first four flights ( STS-1 to STS-4 ), NASA decided to adopt modified versions of the suit, the modifications being the attachments to the parachute harness, and the adoption of inflatable bladders in the legs to prevent the crew from passing out during reentry. One other modification, a mount for prescription glasses,

2135-459: The launch and landing portions of the flight. The initial eight suits were navy blue, similar in color to the previous flight suits, the rest of the suits were bright orange to contrast against the dark blue ocean water they'd most likely be used in. The blue suits were never used on an actual mission. For the first "Return to Flight" STS-26 , the five-man astronaut crew wore, for the first time, new Launch & Entry Pressure Suits (LES). Resembling

2196-403: The main engines and auxiliary power units (APUs). Additional tanks for helium and liquid nitrogen performed other functions; the fuselage interior was purged with helium gas, and liquid nitrogen was used as coolant for various systems. The X-15 had a thick wedge tail to enable it to fly in a steady manner at hypersonic speeds. This produced a significant amount of base drag at lower speeds;

2257-402: The need to replace fuses in the cooling systems of two crew members' flight suits. The suits were repaired, and a waiver was issued for the wind conditions after officials determined there was a sufficient safety margin for wind loads on the orbiter's wing leading edges. At T−1:30, it was proposed that the launch be delayed at T−0:31 due to a cabin air pressure issue. It was quickly determined that

2318-434: The orbiter iced up and shut down, increasing the crew cabin temperature to approximately 31 °C (88 °F). The problem was resolved on Flight Day 4 and cooler temperatures resulted. A Ku-band antenna for communications was deployed on Flight Day 2, but it failed to respond properly and had to be stowed for the remainder of the mission. During STS-26, Discovery became the first spacecraft to fly in space equipped with

2379-435: The original Space Transportation System (STS) numbering system, the first to have all its crew members wear pressure suits for launch and landing since STS-4 , and the first mission with bailout capacity since STS-4. STS-26 was also the first U.S. space mission with an all-veteran crew since Apollo 11 , with all of its crew members having flown at least one prior mission. The mission is technically designated STS-26R , as

2440-400: The original STS-26 designation previously belonged to STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab-2 ). Likewise all flights with the STS-26 through STS-33 designations would require the R in their documentation to avoid conflicts in tracking data between the old and new flight designations. The crew roster for STS-26 was based on the original crew assignment for STS-61-F , which would have launched

2501-598: The other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company. Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells , intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one

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2562-408: The program Ninety Seconds to Space to describe the total powered flight time of the aircraft. The X-15 reaction control system (RCS), for maneuvering in the low-pressure/density environment, used high-test peroxide (HTP), which decomposes into water and oxygen in the presence of a catalyst and could provide a specific impulse of 140 s (1.4 km/s). The HTP also fueled a turbopump for

2623-454: The program. The 200th flight over Nevada was first scheduled for 21   November 1968, to be flown by William "Pete" Knight. Numerous technical problems and outbreaks of bad weather delayed this proposed flight six times, and it was permanently canceled on 20   December 1968. This X-15 (56-6670) was detached from the B-52 and then put into indefinite storage. The aircraft was later donated to

2684-517: The same, the only differences being the ACES suit having a detachable helmet and survival backpack, while the Russian suit has an integrated helmet and no backpack, due to the limitations in space aboard the Soyuz, and that the spacecraft is an entry capsule, not a winged spacecraft or lifting body. Each suit was sized individually, although most suits could be worn by astronauts of different heights. It included

2745-584: The tail to increase the overall surface area, and these panels doubled as air brakes. Before 1958, United States Air Force (USAF) and NACA officials discussed an orbital X-15 spaceplane , the X-15B that would launch into outer space from atop an SM-64 Navaho missile. This was canceled when the NACA became NASA and adopted Project Mercury instead. By 1959, the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar space-glider program

2806-473: The termination of the test flight program, all flights from STS-5 to STS-51-L (the Challenger disaster ) saw the crew wearing one-piece light blue flight suits, escape harnesses, and helmets similar to the pressure suit helmets, but fitted around the head with a clamshell-like closure. After Challenger , NASA, in need of an escape system, also required the reintroduction of the wearing of pressure suits during

2867-720: The thirteen flights, only two   –   flights 90 and 91, piloted by Walker   –   exceeded the 100 km (62 mi) altitude used by the FAI to denote the Kármán line . fatal Killed in the crash of X-15-3 Died in a group formation accident on June 8, 1966. Other configurations include the Reaction Motors XLR11 equipped X-15, and the long version. Data from General characteristics Performance Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists STS-26 STS-26

2928-423: The time, this system was not used for any critical operations. Initial problems almost sidelined the tests when the voice templates that were created prior to liftoff were found to have less than 60% recognition for one crew member and less than 40% recognition for another. This problem was corrected by retraining the templates. It was retested and found to be operational with a recognition success rate of over 96%. It

2989-535: The words, " Challenger , go at throttle up", shortly after which the orbiter disintegrated. He also would have been the CAPCOM operator for the canceled STS-61-F mission during launch and landing. Space Shuttle Discovery lifted off from Launch Complex 39B , Kennedy Space Center , at 11:37:00 a.m. EDT on September 29, 1988, 975 days after the Challenger disaster. The launch was delayed by one hour and thirty-eight minutes due to unseasonable and unusual light winds, and

3050-404: Was achieved on 3   October 1967, when William J. Knight flew at Mach   6.7 at an altitude of 102,100 feet (31,120 m), or 19.34   miles. This set the official world record for the highest speed ever recorded by a crewed, powered aircraft, which remains unbroken. During the X-15 program, 12   pilots flew a combined 199   flights. Of these, 8   pilots flew

3111-541: Was an unpowered glide flight by Scott Crossfield , on 8   June 1959. Crossfield also piloted the first powered flight on 17   September 1959, and his first flight with the XLR-99 rocket engine on 15   November 1960. Twelve test pilots flew the X-15. Among these were Neil Armstrong , later a NASA astronaut and the first man to set foot on the Moon, and Joe Engle , later a commander of NASA Space Shuttle missions. In

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3172-453: Was at controlling the aircraft. Among the many controls were the rocket engine throttle and a control for jettisoning the ventral tail fin. Other features of the cockpit included heated windows to prevent icing and a forward headrest for periods of high deceleration. The X-15 had an ejection seat designed to operate at speeds up to Mach 4 (4,500 km/h; 2,800 mph) and/or 120,000 feet (37 km) (23 miles) altitude, although it

3233-406: Was concluded that weightless conditions caused a fundamental change in human speech, making the templates created prior to liftoff virtually useless on orbit. Besides conducting the mission's various experiments, crew members practiced suiting up in new partial-pressure "launch-and-entry" flight suits, and also practiced the unstowing and attaching of the new crew escape system. On October 2, 1988,

3294-528: Was fed separately to the pilot. The initial 24 powered flights used two Reaction Motors XLR11 liquid-propellant rocket engines, enhanced to provide a total of 16,000 pounds-force (71 kN) of thrust as compared to the 6,000 pounds-force (27 kN) that a single XLR11 provided in 1947 to make the Bell X-1 the first aircraft to fly faster than the speed of sound . The XLR11 used ethyl alcohol and liquid oxygen . By November 1960, Reaction Motors delivered

3355-475: Was in communications research. Discovery suffered severe damage to its thermal protection tiles in the underwing area. Post-flight analysis showed that the impact of a 30 cm (12 in) long piece of cork insulation during ascent was the culprit. The origin of the debris was the forward field joint on the right-hand SRB. The damage was such that, during re-entry, the thermal protection tile eroded almost completely. A similar chain of events ultimately led to

3416-420: Was incorporated for astronaut John W. Young , who wore modified bifocal reading glasses (resembling aviator sunglasses, but with the top portion, usually for distance seeing, being of regular glass, and the bottom, for reading, of the wearer's prescription) during the flight. The four test flights, between April 1981 and July 1982, went without incident, and the pressure suits performed without any problems. With

3477-430: Was never used during the program. In the event of ejection, the seat was designed to deploy fins, which were used until it reached a safer speed/altitude at which to deploy its main parachute. Pilots wore pressure suits, which could be pressurized with nitrogen gas. Above 35,000 feet (11 km) altitude, the cockpit was pressurized to 3.5 psi (24 kPa; 0.24 atm) with nitrogen gas, while oxygen for breathing

3538-424: Was rebuilt after a landing accident on 9   November 1962 which damaged the craft and injured its pilot, John McKay . The new plane renamed X-15A-2 , had a new 28 -in. fuselage extension to carry liquid hydrogen. It was lengthened by 2.4 feet (73 cm), had a pair of auxiliary fuel tanks attached beneath its fuselage and wings, and a complete heat-resistant ablative coating was added. It took flight for

3599-487: Was successfully deployed, and 11 scheduled mid-deck scientific and technological experiments were carried out. The orbiter sustained only minor Space Shuttle thermal protection system tile damage, and the post- Challenger redesigned solid rocket booster segment joints showed no signs of leakage or overheating. Two minor problems occurred during the flight. After ascent, the Flash Evaporator System for cooling

3660-484: Was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery . The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center , Florida , on September 29, 1988, and landed four days later on October 3, 1988. STS-26 was declared the "Return to Flight" mission, being the first mission after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster of January 28, 1986. It was the first mission since STS-9 to use

3721-501: Was to become the USAF's preferred means for launching military crewed spacecraft into orbit. This program was canceled in the early 1960s before an operational vehicle could be built. Various configurations of the Navaho were considered, and another proposal involved a Titan I stage. Three X-15s were built, flying 199   test flights, the last on 24   October 1968. The first X-15 flight

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