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131-538: Commodore Jean François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse ( French pronunciation: [ʒɑ̃ fʁɑ̃swa də ɡalo kɔ̃t də lapeʁuz] ; 23 August 1741 – 1788) was a French Navy officer and explorer. Having enlisted in the French navy at the age of 15, he had a successful career and in 1785 was appointed to lead a scientific expedition around the world. His ships stopped in Chile , Hawaii , Alaska , California , Macau ,

262-817: A one-star rank with a NATO code of OF-6 , known in the U.S. as " rear admiral (lower half)", but whether it is regarded as a flag rank varies among countries. It is sometimes abbreviated as "Cdre" in British Royal Navy, "CDRE" in the US Navy, "Cmdre" in the Royal Canadian Navy, "COMO" in the Spanish Navy and in some navies speaking the Spanish language , or "CMDE" as used in the Indian Navy and in navies of several other countries. The rank of commodore derives from

393-459: A senior captain position, whereas other naval services bestowed upon the rank of commodore the prestige of flag officer status. In 1899, the substantive rank of commodore was discontinued in the United States Navy , but revived during World War II in both the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard . It was discontinued as a rank in these services during the postwar period, but as an appointment,

524-564: A supply expedition to the fort of Louisbourg in New France . Lapérouse also took part in a second supply expedition in 1758 to Louisbourg, but as it was in the early years of the Seven Years' War the fort was under siege and the expedition was forced to make a circuitous route around Newfoundland to avoid British patrols. In 1759 Lapérouse was wounded in the Battle of Quiberon Bay , where he

655-464: A Recipe for Conviviality (2020) The following ethnic groups have been historically characterized as "Creole" peoples: Alaskan Creole, sometimes colloquially spelled "Kriol" in English (from Russian креол), are a unique people who first came about through the intermingling of Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki men with Aleut and Eskimo women in the late 18th century and assumed a prominent position in

786-491: A century old, such as the Los Angeles Yacht Club have formal ceremonies, where commodores from more than 100 surrounding yacht clubs, flag officers of the US Navy and Coast Guard attend a ceremony at the beginning of the year. The ceremony includes a bagpipe entrance, a presentation of the country flag by commissioned officers of the country's navy and a cannon shot upon the raising of each individual officer's flags on

917-572: A certain privilege during the Portuguese era. In Sierra Leone , the mingling of newly freed Africans and mixed heritage Nova Scotians and Jamaican Maroons from the Western hemisphere and Liberated Africans - such as the Akan , Igbo people , and Yoruba people - over several generations in the late 18th and early 19th centuries led to the eventual creation of the aristocratic ethnic group now known as

1048-571: A clash with indigenous people in the Samoan Islands and died at Botany Bay on 17 February; Receveur was buried on shore at Frenchman's Cove . On 10 March, after taking on sufficient wood and fresh water, the French expedition left New South Wales—bound for New Caledonia , Santa Cruz , the Solomons , the Louisiades , and the western and southern coasts of Australia. While Lapérouse had reported in

1179-475: A commonality in many other Francophone and Iberoamerican cultures, who tend to lack strict racial separations common in United States History and other countries with large populations from Northern Europe 's various cultures. This racial neutrality persists to the modern day, as many Creoles do not use race as a factor for being a part of the ethno-culture. Contemporary usage has again broadened

1310-704: A diverse array of ethnicities, each possessing a distinct cultural identity that has been shaped over time. The emergence of creole languages , frequently associated with Creole ethnicity, is a separate phenomenon. In specific historical contexts, particularly during the European colonial era , the term Creole applies to ethnicities formed through large-scale population movements . These movements involved people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds who converged upon newly established colonial territories . Often involuntarily separated from their ancestral homelands, these populations were forced to adapt and create

1441-539: A few of these groups have retained the name crioulo or variations of it: The usage of creole in the islands of the southwest of the Indian Ocean varies according to the island. In Mauritius , Mauritian Creoles will be identified based on both ethnicity and religion. Mauritian Creoles being either people who are of Mauritian ancestry or those who are both racially mixed and Christian. The Mauritian Constitution identifies four communities namely, Hindu, Muslim, Chinese and

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1572-407: A few yacht clubs and boating associations. Commodores 'in command' as Master aboard Merchant Marine ships wear distinctive rank and cap insignia denoting their honorific high rank position. In a few country the honorific high position of commodore it is indicated with the high rank denomination of senior captain . Traditionally, commodore is the title of the president of a yacht club. During wartime,

1703-675: A few years before Dillon arrived. Sven Wahlroos, in his 1989 book, Mutiny and Romance in the South Seas , suggests that there was a narrowly missed chance to rescue one or more of the survivors in 1791. In November 1790, Captain Edward Edwards —in command of HMS Pandora —had sailed from England with orders to comb the Pacific for the mutineers of HMS Bounty . In March of the following year, Pandora arrived at Tahiti and picked up 14 Bounty crewmen who had stayed on that island. Although some of

1834-445: A flag staff, (also known as flagpoles ) for each flag officer (commodore, vice commodore, rear commodore) as their term of office officially begins. Sometimes a trumpet fanfare is also include for special occasions like ribbon cutting in 2019 for the 50th Transpacific Yacht Race . Salutes are given to commodores for special ceremonies, including opening days of the racing season. The U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary also employs variants of

1965-432: A geologist; La Martinière , a botanist; a physicist; three naturalists; and three illustrators, Gaspard Duché de Vancy and an uncle and nephew named Prévost. Another of the scientists was Jean-André Mongez . Even both chaplains were scientifically schooled. One of the young men who applied for the voyage was a 16-year-old Corsican named Napoléon Bonaparte . Bonaparte, a second lieutenant from Paris ' military academy at

2096-623: A letter from Port Jackson that he expected to be back in France by June 1789, neither he nor any members of his expedition were seen again by Europeans. Louis XVI is recorded as having asked, on the morning of his execution in January 1793, "Any news of La Pérouse?" Documents that had been relayed to France from Lapérouse's expedition were published in Paris in 1797, under the title Voyage de La Pérouse autour du monde ("The voyage of La Pérouse around

2227-635: A lieutenant-colonel or wing commander in other air forces. Commodore is a rank in the Royal Netherlands Air Force . It is a one-star rank and has essentially the same rank insignia as the British air commodore . Many air forces use the rank of air commodore . This rank was first used by the Royal Air Force and is now used in many countries such as Australia, Bangladesh, Greece, India, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Thailand and Zimbabwe. It

2358-455: A map showing: their second domain of Yezo Island , present day Hokkaidō Island, Japan; and the coasts of Tartary , Russia on mainland Asia. Lapérouse wanted to sail north through the narrow Strait of Tartary between Oku-Yeso Island and mainland Asia, but failed. Instead, he turned south, and then sailed east through La Pérouse Strait , between Oku-Yeso Island (Sakhalin) and Yezo (Hokkaidō), where he met more Ainu in their third domain of

2489-516: A mission to a slave plantation. France and Spain were on friendly terms at this time. Lapérouse was the first non-Spanish visitor to California since Drake in 1579, and the first to come to California after the founding of Spanish missions and presidios (military forts). Lapérouse again crossed the Pacific Ocean in 100 days, arriving at Macau , where he sold the furs acquired in Alaska , dividing

2620-410: A new way of life. Through a process of cultural amalgamation, they selectively adopted and merged desirable elements from their varied heritages. This resulted in the emergence of novel social norms, languages, and cultural practices that transcended their individual origins. This process of cultural amalgamation, termed creolization , is characterized by rapid social change that ultimately leads to

2751-589: A number of independent republics. Persons of pure Spanish descent born in the islands of the Spanish Philippines were called Insulares ("islanders") or Criollos. Although many of the Spanish Americans in the islands were also persons of pure Spanish descent, they, along with many Mestizos and Castizos from Spanish America living in the East Indies were also classified as "Americanos". In many parts of

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2882-502: A number of settlements in southeastern Texas and western Louisiana (e.g. Los Adaes ). Black Texas Creoles have been present in Texas ever since the 1600s; they served as soldiers in Spanish garrisons of eastern Texas. Generations of Black Texas Creoles, also known as "Black Tejanos", played a role in later phases of Texas history: Mexican Texas, Republic of Texas, and American Texas. Unlike

3013-611: A proposal from the Dutch-born merchant adventurer William Bolts , who had earlier tried unsuccessfully to interest Louis's brother-in-law, the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II (brother of Queen Marie Antoinette ), in a similar voyage. The French court adopted the concept (though not its author, Bolts), leading to the dispatch of the Lapérouse expedition. Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu , Director of Ports and Arsenals, stated in

3144-477: A report, supported by presumptive evidence, that the spot where Lapérouse and his crew had perished was now ascertained. An English whaler discovered a long and low island, surrounded by innumerable breakers , situated between New Caledonia and New Guinea , at nearly an equal distance from each island. The inhabitants came on board the whaler, and one of the chiefs had a cross of St. Louis hanging as an ornament from one of his ears. Other natives had swords, on which

3275-441: A result of this confusion, the services soon renamed the new one-star rank as commodore admiral (CADM) within the first six months following the rank's reintroduction. However, this was considered an awkward title and the one-star flag rank was renamed a few months later to its current title of rear admiral (lower half), later abbreviated by the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard as RDML. The "title" of commodore continues to be used in

3406-577: A ship in Bengal and sailed for Vanikoro, where he found cannonballs, anchors and other evidence of the remains of ships in water between coral reefs. A Tikopin by the name of Pu Ratia showed Dillon and his crew the direction to sail to Vanikoro. He was on board as well with a European by the name of Bushat who lived in Tikopia before the third trip of Dillon to Tikopia. Dillon brought several of these artifacts back to Europe, as did Dumont d'Urville in 1828. Lesseps,

3537-418: A shipping convoy will have a ranking officer—sometimes an active-duty naval officer , at other times a civilian master or retired naval officer—designated as the convoy commodore . This title is not related to the individual ' s military rank (if any), but instead is the title of the senior individual responsible for the overall operation of the merchant ships and naval auxiliary ships that make up

3668-475: A similar usage, beginning in the Caribbean in the 16th century, which distinguished people born in the French, Spanish, and Portuguese colonies from the various new arrivals born in their respective, non-Caribbean homelands. Some writers from other parts of the country have mistakenly assumed the term to refer only to people of mixed racial descent, but this is not the traditional Louisiana usage. In Louisiana,

3799-400: A single ship even if the officer's official title in the service is a lower rank. As an official rank, a commodore typically commands a flotilla or squadron of ships as part of a larger task force or naval fleet commanded by an admiral . A commodore's ship is typically designated by the flying of a broad pennant , as compared to an admiral's flag. "Commodore" is typically regarded as

3930-597: A unique blend of European, Native American, and African cultures. Louisianians descended from the French Acadians of Canada are also Creoles in a strict sense, and there are many historical examples of people of full European ancestry and with Acadian surnames, such as the influential Alexandre and Alfred Mouton, being explicitly described as "Creoles." Today, however, the descendants of the Acadians are more commonly referred to as, and identify as, ' Cajuns '—a derivation of

4061-555: A young creole of modest origins whom he had met on Île de France (present-day Mauritius ) eight years earlier. Lapérouse was appointed in 1785 by Louis XVI and by the Secretary of State of the Navy , the Marquis de Castries , to lead an expedition around the world. Many countries were initiating voyages of scientific explorations at that time. Louis XVI and his court had been stimulated by

Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse - Misplaced Pages Continue

4192-503: Is "virtually certain" that Captain Edwards, whom he characterizes as one of England's most "ruthless", "inhuman", "callous", and "incompetent" naval captains, missed his chance to become "one of the heroes of maritime history" by solving the mystery of the lost Lapérouse expedition. Objects relating to the life and voyages of Lapérouse are held at The Lapérouse Museum in Albi in southern France, and

4323-430: Is Cajun and any francophone of African descent is Creole—a false assumption that would not have been recognized in the nineteenth century . Some assert that "Creole" refers to aristocratic urbanites whereas "Cajuns" are agrarian members of the francophone working class, but this is another relatively recent distinction. Creoles may be of any race and live in any area, rural or urban . The Creole culture of Southwest Louisiana

4454-691: Is found more often in the Chesapeake Colonies. In the United States , the words "Louisiana Creole" refers to people of any race or mixture thereof who are descended from colonial French La Louisiane and colonial Spanish Louisiana (New Spain) settlers before the Louisiana region became part of the United States in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase . Both the word and the ethnic group derive from

4585-429: Is historically inaccurate. Louisiane Creoles were also referred to as criollos , a word from the Spanish language meaning "created" and used in the post-French governance period to distinguish the two groups of New Orleans area and down river Creoles. Both mixed race and European Creole groups share many traditions and language, but their socio-economic roots differed in the original period of Louisiana history. Actually,

4716-512: Is not a rank but a distinction and, as such, can be issued by the chief of staff without congressional approval. Its equivalents are colonel-major in the Army and commodore-major in the Air Force. It is usually—but incorrectly—referred to as "navy commodore", to avoid confusion with the "air force commodore", which is equivalent to the navy's captain and army's colonel. The sleeve lace is identical to that of

4847-560: Is now discredited. He stopped at the Presidio of San Francisco long enough to create an outline map of the Bay Area, Plan du port de St. François, situé sur la côte de la Californie septentrionale ("Map of the port of San Francisco, situated on the coast of Northern California"), which was reproduced as Map 33 in L. Aubert's 1797 Atlas du voyage de La Pérouse . He arrived in Monterey Bay and at

4978-529: Is now present day Mozambique and Zimbabwe, to create the Prazeros and Luso-Africans , who were loyal to the Portuguese crown and served to advance its interests in southeastern Africa . A legacy of this era are the numerous Portuguese words that have entered Shona , Tsonga and Makonde. Today, mixed race communities exist across the region, notably so in South Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe. In colonial era Zambia,

5109-490: Is part of the Boy Scouts of America ), all National, Regional, Area, and Council committee chairs are titled as commodore, while senior committee members are addressed as vice commodore. Ship committee chairs do not hold this recognition. Creole (people) Creole peoples may refer to various ethnic groups around the world. The term's meaning exhibits regional variations, often sparking debate. Creole peoples represent

5240-528: Is spoken among those families determined to keep the language alive or in regions below New Orleans around St. James and St. John Parishes where German immigrants originally settled (also known as 'the German Coast', or La Côte des Allemands) and cultivated the land, keeping the ill-equipped French Colonists from starvation during the Colonial Period and adopting commonly spoken French and creole (arriving with

5371-472: Is the equivalent rank to the navy rank of "commodore", and the army ranks of brigadier and brigadier general . The German air force used the concept of a unit commodore for the commander of a wing, usually in the rank of colonel (OF-5). Commodore is also a title held by many captains as recognition of exceptional navigation ability and seagoing seniority in the Merchant Service, and by the directors of

Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse - Misplaced Pages Continue

5502-524: Is thus more similar to the culture dominant in Acadiana than it is to the Creole culture of New Orleans . Though the land areas overlap around New Orleans and down river, Cajun/Creole culture and language extend westward all along the southern coast of Louisiana, concentrating in areas southwest of New Orleans around Lafayette, and as far as Crowley, Abbeville, and into the rice belt of Louisiana nearer Lake Charles and

5633-548: The Creoles . Thoroughly westernized in their manners and bourgeois in their methods, the Creoles established a comfortable dominance in the country through a combination of British colonial favouritism and political and economic activity. Their influence in the modern republic remains considerable, and their language Krio - an English-based creole language - is the lingua franca and de facto national language spoken throughout

5764-480: The île Plistard and Norfolk Island . The expedition continued to Australia, arriving off Botany Bay on 24 January 1788. There Lapérouse encountered a British convoy (known later as the " First Fleet ") led by Captain Arthur Phillip   RN , who was to establish the penal colony of New South Wales . While it had been intended that the colony would be located at Botany Bay, Phillip had quickly decided that

5895-537: The Astrolabe . During their stay, the French established an observatory and a garden, held masses, and made geological observations. Lapérouse also took the opportunity to send journals, charts and letters back to Europe, with the British merchant ship Alexander , which had come to Sydney as part of the First Fleet. The chaplain from L'Astrolabe , Father Louis Receveur , never recovered from injuries he had sustained in

6026-560: The Caribbean and Canada. Many Louisiana Creole families arrived in Louisiana from Saint-Domingue as refugees from the Haitian Revolution , along with other immigrants from Caribbean colonial centers like Santo Domingo and Havana . The children of slaves brought primarily from Western Africa were also considered Creoles, as were children born of unions between Native Americans and non-Natives. Creole culture in Louisiana thus consists of

6157-848: The European colonial era, with some mix of African and non-African racial or cultural heritage. Creole communities are found on most African islands and along the continent's coastal regions where indigenous Africans first interacted with Europeans. As a result of these contacts, five major Creole types emerged in Africa: Portuguese , African American , Dutch , French and British . The Crioulos of African or mixed Portuguese and African descent eventually gave rise to several ethnic groups in Cape Verde , Guinea-Bissau , São Tomé e Príncipe , Angola and Mozambique . The French-speaking Mauritian and Seychellois Creoles are both either African or ethnically mixed and Christianized . On Réunion ,

6288-518: The European colonization of the Americas before 1660. Some had lived and worked in Europe or the Caribbean before coming (or being transported) to North America. Examples of such men included John Punch and Emanuel Driggus (his surname was likely derived from Rodrigues ). Also, during the early settlement of the colonies, children born of immigrants in the colonies were often referred to as "Creole". This

6419-510: The French commandeur , which was the second highest rank in the orders of knighthood , and in military orders the title of the knight in charge of a commandery . The Dutch Navy also used the rank of commandeur from the end of the 16th century for a variety of temporary positions, until it became a conventional permanent rank in 1955. The Royal Netherlands Air Force has adopted the English spelling of "commodore" for an equivalent rank. In

6550-648: The Kuril Islands , and explored. Lapérouse then sailed north and reached Petropavlovsk on the Russian Kamchatka peninsula on 7 September 1787. Here they rested from their trip, and enjoyed the hospitality of the Russians and Kamchatkans. In letters received from Paris, Lapérouse was ordered to investigate the settlement the British were establishing in New South Wales , Australia. Barthélemy de Lesseps , son of

6681-700: The Maritime Museum of New Caledonia . Both museums contain objects recovered from the ships Astrolabe and Boussole . There is also the Lapérouse Museum in La Perouse , which records his time in Australia. Places later named in honour of Lapérouse include: The fate of Lapérouse, his ships and his men are the subjects of a chapter in the 1870 novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas by Jules Verne . Lapérouse

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6812-521: The Philippines ). They were to explore both the north and south Pacific, including the coasts of the Far East and of Australia, and send back reports through existing European outposts in the Pacific. As early as March 1785, Lapérouse proposed that Paul Mérault Monneron , who had been chosen as the expedition's chief engineer, go to London to find out about the anti- scurvy measures recommended by Cook and

6943-535: The Philippines , Korea , Russia , Japan , Samoa , Tonga , and Australia before wrecking on the reefs of Vanikoro in the Solomon Islands . Jean-François de Galaup was born near Albi , France. His family had been ennobled in 1558. Lapérouse studied in a Jesuit college and joined the Navy as a Garde-Marine in Brest on 19 November 1756. In 1757 he was appointed to the French ship Célèbre and participated in

7074-625: The Presidio of Monterey on 14 September 1786. He examined the Spanish settlements, ranchos , and missions . He reported, "The country of the Ecclemachs extends above 20 leagues to the [south-]eastward of Monterey." He made critical notes on the missionary treatment of the California indigenous peoples with the Indian Reductions at the Franciscan run missions. Lapérouse likened conditions at

7205-509: The Royal Navy , the position was introduced in the 17th century to combat the cost of appointing more admirals—a costly business with a fleet as large as the Royal Navy's at that time. The rank of commodore was at first a position created as a temporary title to be bestowed upon captains who commanded squadrons of more than one vessel. In many navies, the rank of commodore was merely viewed as

7336-569: The Spanish word criollo (implying "native born") historically denoted a class in the colonial caste system comprising people born in the colonies with total or mostly European, mainly Spanish , descent. Those with mostly European descent were considered on the basis of their “passing” for white. For example, many castizos could've gotten away with passing as criollo because their features would be strikingly European and so many of them would assume such identity in passing, mainly for economic reasons. "Criollo" came to refer to things distinctive of

7467-483: The Tlingit people . This encounter was dramatized briefly in episode 13 of Carl Sagan 's Cosmos: A Personal Voyage . Next, he headed south, exploring the northwest coast, including the outer islands of present-day British Columbia . Lapérouse sailed between 10 and 30 August all the way south to the Spanish Las Californias Province, present-day California . He reportedly observed the only historical eruption of Mount Shasta on 7 September 1786, although this account

7598-444: The distance between the Moon and the Sun followed by theodolite triangulations or bearings taken from the ship, the same as those taken by Cook to produce his maps of the Pacific islands. As regards geography, Lapérouse decisively showed the rigour and safety of the methods proven by Cook. From his voyage, the resolution of the problem of longitude was evident and mapping attained a scientific precision. Impeded (as Cook had been) by

7729-447: The title of commodore. Members of the Auxiliary serve in the Coast Guard's uniformed auxiliary service and they do not have military rank, but who do wear modified U.S. Coast Guard uniforms and U.S. military-style officer rank insignia to indicate office. Auxiliary members who have been elected or appointed to positions in the highest levels of the organization, similar in nature to active and reserve rear admirals and vice admirals use

7860-427: The 14 had not joined the mutiny, all were imprisoned and shackled in a cramped "cage" built on the deck, which the men grimly nicknamed " Pandora's Box ". Pandora then left Tahiti in search of Bounty and the leader of the mutiny, Fletcher Christian . Captain Edwards' search for the remaining mutineers ultimately proved fruitless. However, when passing Vanikoro on 13 August 1791, he observed smoke signals rising from

7991-403: The 19th century, this discrimination and the example of the American Revolution and the ideals of the Enlightenment eventually led the Spanish American Criollo elite to rebel against the Spanish rule. With the support of the lower classes, they engaged Spain in the Spanish American wars of independence (1810–1826), which ended with the break-up of the former Spanish Empire in the Americas into

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8122-404: The 32-gun frigate Amazone . On 7 October 1779, he captured the 20-gun HMS Ariel . Lapérouse was promoted to Captain on 4 April 1780, and was part of the Expédition Particulière under Admiral Ternay , departing Brest on 2 May 1780. From October to November 1780, Amazone sailed from Rhode Island to Lorient , and from there to the Caribbean. Lapérouse then transferred to Astrée . In

8253-485: The Americas, the term coloured is preferred in Southern Africa to refer to mixed people of African and European descent. The colonisation of the Cape Colony by the Dutch East India Company led to the importation of Indonesian, East African and Southeast Asian slaves, who intermingled with Dutch settlers and the indigenous population leading to the development of a creolized population in the early 1700s. Additionally, Portuguese traders mixed with African communities, in what

8384-428: The Caribbean has French, Spanish, Portuguese, British, or Dutch ancestry, mixed with sub-Saharan African ethnicities, and sometimes mixed with Native Indigenous peoples of the Americas. As workers from Asia entered the Caribbean, Creole people of colour intermarried with Arabs, Indians, Chinese, Javanese, Filipinos, Koreans, and Hmongs. The latter combinations were especially common in Guadeloupe. The foods and cultures are

8515-412: The Chesapeake Colonies as the Charter Generation of slaves during the Transatlantic Slave Trade before 1660. The Crioulos of mixed Portuguese and African descent eventually gave rise to several major ethnic groups in Africa, especially in Cape Verde , Guinea-Bissau , São Tomé e Príncipe , Equatorial Guinea (especially Annobón Province ), Ziguinchor ( Casamance ), Angola , Mozambique . Only

8646-604: The French vice consul at Kronstadt, Russia , who had joined the expedition as an interpreter, disembarked in Petropavlovsk to bring the expedition's ships' logs, charts, and letters to France, which he reached after a year-long, epic journey across Siberia and Russia. Lapérouse next stopped in the Navigator Islands ( Samoa ), on 6 December 1787. Just before he left, the Samoans attacked a group of his men, killing twelve, among whom were Lamanon and de Langle , commander of L'Astrolabe . Twenty men were wounded. The expedition drifted to Tonga , for resupply and help, and later recognized

8777-405: The French word Créole is derived from the Portuguese word Crioulo , which described people born in the Americas as opposed to Spain. The term is often used to mean simply "pertaining to the New Orleans area," but this, too, is not historically accurate. People all across the Louisiana territory, including the pays des Illinois , identified as Creoles, as evidenced by the continued existence of

8908-422: The General Population. Creoles are included in the General Population category along with white Christians. The term also indicates the same to the people of Seychelles . On Réunion the term creole applies to all people born on the island. In all three societies, creole also refers to the new languages derived from French and incorporating other languages. In regions that were formerly colonies of Spain ,

9039-418: The Royal Navy, and wears one star on the epaulette. Commodore, in Spanish comodoro , is a rank in the Argentine Air Force . This rank is the equivalent of a colonel in the Argentine Army , and a colonel or group captain in other air forces of the world. The Argentine rank below commodore is the rank of vice-commodore (Spanish vicecomodoro ) equivalent to a lieutenant-colonel in the Argentine Army, and

9170-441: The Sandwich Islands, the present-day Hawaiian Islands , where he became the first European to set foot on the island of Maui . Lapérouse sailed on to Alaska , where he landed near Mount Saint Elias in late June 1786 and explored the environs. On 13 July 1786 a barge and two longboats, carrying 21 men, were lost in the heavy currents of the bay called Port des Français by Lapérouse, but now known as Lituya Bay . The men visited

9301-400: The Solomon Islands further. Two months later, Entrecasteaux died of scurvy . The botanist Jacques Labillardière , attached to the expedition, eventually returned to France and published his account, Relation du voyage à la recherche de La Pérouse , in 1800. Franco-British relations deteriorated during the French Revolution , and unfounded rumours spread in France blaming the British for

9432-608: The Southern Caribbean, the term Creole people is used to refer to the mixed-race descendants of Europeans and Africans born in the islands. Over time, there was intermarriage with Amerindians and residents from Asia, the Middle East and Latin America as well. They eventually formed a common culture based on their experience of living together in countries colonized by the French, Spanish, Dutch, and British. A typical Creole person from

9563-476: The Texas border. Louisiana Creoles historically spoke a variety of languages; today, the most prominent include Louisiana French and Louisiana Creole . (There is a distinction between "Creole" people and the "creole" language. Not all Creoles speak creole—many speak French, Spanish, or English as primary languages.) Spoken creole is dying with continued 'Americanization' in the area. Most remaining Creole lexemes have drifted into popular culture. Traditional creole

9694-528: The U.S. Navy and Coast Guard for those senior captains in command of organizations consisting of groups of ships or submarines organized into squadrons ; air wings or air groups of multiple aviation squadrons other than carrier air wings (the latter whose commanders still use the title " CAG "); explosive ordnance disposal ( EOD ), mine warfare and special warfare ( SEAL ) groups; Mobile Inshore Underwater Warfare (MIUW) groups; and construction ( SeaBee ) regiments. Although not flag officers, modern day commodores in

9825-482: The U.S. Navy rate a blue and white command pennant, also known as a broad pennant , that is normally flown at their headquarters facilities ashore or from ships that they are embarked aboard when they are the senior officer present afloat (SOPA). In the Argentine Navy, the position of commodore was created in the late 1990s, and is usually, but not always, issued to senior captains holding rear-admirals' positions. It

9956-512: The area, establish trade contacts, open new maritime routes and enrich French science and scientific collections. His ships were L'Astrolabe (under Fleuriot de Langle ) and La Boussole , both 500 tons. They were storeships reclassified as frigates for the occasion. Their objectives were geographic, scientific, ethnological, economic (looking for opportunities for whaling or fur trading), and political (the eventual establishment of French bases or colonial cooperation with their Spanish allies in

10087-445: The arts, and journalism. Atlantic Creole is a term coined by historian Ira Berlin to describe a group of people from Angola and Central Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries with cultural or ethnic ties to Africa , Europe , and sometimes the Caribbean . They often had Portuguese names and were sometimes mixed race. Their knowledge of different cultures made them skilled traders and negotiators, but some were enslaved and arrived in

10218-424: The colonies on a previous Habsburg era. In Argentina , in an ambiguous ethnoracial way, criollo currently is used for people whose ancestors were already present in the territory in the colonial period, regardless their ethnicity. The exception are dark-skinned African people and current indigenous groups. The word criollo is the origin and cognate of the French word creole . The racially-based caste system

10349-462: The continual mists enveloping the northwestern coast of America, he did not succeed any better in producing complete maps, though he managed to fill in some of the gaps. Lapérouse and his 220 men left Brest on 1 August 1785, rounded Cape Horn , and investigated the Spanish colonial government in the Captaincy General of Chile . He arrived on 9 April 1786 at Easter Island . He then sailed to

10480-421: The convoy. The convoy commodore does not command the convoy ' escort forces (if any), which are commanded by a naval officer who serves as escort commander. Civilian yacht clubs , yachting associations and fellowships with formal hierarchical structures, began to use the title "commodore" in countries around the world for their presidents in the early twentieth century along with "vice commodore" in

10611-497: The country. The extension of these Sierra Leoneans' business and religious activities to neighbouring Nigeria in the late 19th and early 20th centuries - where many of them had ancestral ties - subsequently caused the creation of an offshoot in that country, the Saros . Now often considered to be part of the wider Yoruba ethnicity, the Saros have been prominent in politics, the law, religion,

10742-404: The culture of the Caribbean. In Trinidad , the term Creole is used to designate all Trinidadians except those of Asian origin. In Suriname , the term refers only to the descendants of enslaved Africans and in neighboring French Guiana the term refers to anyone, regardless of skin colour, who has adopted a European lifestyle. In Africa, the term Creole refers to any ethnic group formed during

10873-647: The defeat at the Battle of the Saintes against the squadron of Admiral Rodney . In August 1782, he made his name by capturing two British trading posts (the Prince of Wales Fort and York Fort) on the coast of Hudson Bay , but allowed the survivors, including Governor Samuel Hearne of Prince of Wales Fort, to sail off to England in exchange for a promise to release French prisoners held in England. The next year, his family finally consented to his marriage to Louise-Eléonore Broudou,

11004-446: The descendants of European colonists who had been born in the colony. Creole is also known by cognates in other languages, such as crioulo , criollo , creolo , kriolu , criol , kreyol , kreol , kriol , krio , and kriyoyo . In Louisiana , the term Creole has been used since 1792 to represent descendants of African or mixed heritage parents as well as children of French and Spanish descent with no racial mixing. Its use as in

11135-650: The draft memorandum on the expedition that he submitted to the Louis XVI: "the utility which may result from a voyage of discovery ... has made me receptive to the views put to me by Mr. Bolts relative to this enterprise". But Fleurieu explained to the King: "I am not proposing at all, however, the plan for this voyage as it was conceived by Mr. Bolts". The expedition's aims were to complete the Pacific discoveries of James Cook (whom Lapérouse greatly admired), correct and complete maps of

11266-523: The economy of Russian America and the North Pacific Rim. Atlantic Creole is a term coined by historian Ira Berlin to describe a group of people from Angola and Central Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries with cultural or ethnic ties to Africa , Europe , and sometimes the Caribbean . Some of these people arrived in the Chesapeake Colonies as the Charter Generation of slaves during

11397-429: The eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries make use of the word "Creole" without any additional qualifier. Creoles of Spanish and German descent also exist, and Spanish Creoles survive today as Isleños and Malagueños, both found in southern Louisiana. However, all racial categories of Creoles - from Caucasian, mixed racial, African, to Native American - tended to think and refer to themselves solely as Creole,

11528-521: The eighth expedition sent to Vanikoro, took 24 months. It brought together more technological resources than previously and involved two ships, 52 crew members and almost 30 scientists and researchers. On 16 September 2008, two French Navy ships set out for Vanikoro from Nouméa ( New Caledonia ), and arrived on 15 October, thus recreating a section of the final voyage of discovery undertaken more than 200 years earlier by Lapérouse. Both ships had been wrecked on Vanikoro's reefs, Boussole first. Astrolabe

11659-477: The exchange items used by Cook in his dealings with native peoples, and to buy scientific instruments of English manufacture. The best-known figure from Cook's missions, Joseph Banks , intervened at the Royal Society to obtain for Monneron two inclining compasses that had belonged to Cook. Furnished with a list produced by Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu, Monneron also bought scientific instruments from some of

11790-773: The exiles) as a language of trade. Creoles are largely Roman Catholic and influenced by traditional French and Spanish culture left from the first Colonial Period, officially beginning in 1722 with the arrival of the Ursuline Nuns , who were preceded by another order, the sisters of the Sacred Heart, with whom they lived until their first convent could be built with monies from the French Crown. (Both orders still educate girls in 2010). The "fiery Latin temperament" described by early scholars on New Orleans culture made sweeping generalizations to accommodate Creoles of Spanish heritage as well as

11921-428: The first chapter, "Economy", when writing about how indispensable it is to cultivate the habits of a businessman in anything one does, Thoreau describes these habits in a very long list, including ... taking advantage of the results of all exploring expeditions, using new passages and all improvements in navigation;—charts to be studied, the position of reefs and new lights and buoys to be ascertained, and ever, and ever,

12052-496: The formation of a distinct Creole identity. The English word creole derives from the French créole , which in turn came from Portuguese crioulo , a diminutive of cria meaning a person raised in one's house. Cria is derived from criar , meaning "to raise or bring up", itself derived from the Latin creare , meaning "to make, bring forth, produce, beget"; which is also the source of the English word "create". It originally referred to

12183-418: The intermingling of African Recaptives with Afro-Caribbean people and African Americans . Perhaps due to the range of divergent descriptions and lack of a coherent definition, Norwegian anthropologist T. H. Eriksen concludes: “A Creole society, in my understanding, is based wholly or partly on the mass displacement of people who were, often involuntarily, uprooted from their original home, shedding

12314-467: The island. Edwards, single-minded in his search for Bounty and convinced that mutineers fearful of discovery would not be advertising their whereabouts, ignored the smoke signals and sailed on. Wahlroos argues that the smoke signals were almost certainly a distress message sent by survivors of the Lapérouse expedition, which later evidence indicated were still alive on Vanikoro at that time—three years after Boussole and Astrolabe had foundered. Wahlroos

12445-441: The islands northwest of Australia while at the same time making scientific and geographic discoveries. The expedition consisted of two ships, Recherche and Espérance . In May 1793, Entrecasteaux sighted Santa Cruz , now part of the Solomon Islands , and another, uncharted, island to the southeast; this island was Vanikoro . The French did not approach Vanikoro, only recording it on their charts before sailing away to explore

12576-496: The largest English firms, particularly Ramsden . He even surpassed Fleurieu's directives by acquiring two sextants of a new type. The Montgolfier brothers gave to Laperouse two prototypes of the new invented hot balloons to carry on board the Astrolabe . There is no evidence that they were used during the voyage. Lapérouse was well liked by his men. Among his crew there were ten scientists: Joseph Lepaute Dagelet (1751–1788), an astronomer and mathematician; Robert de Lamanon ,

12707-407: The logarithmic tables to be corrected, for by the error of some calculator the vessel often splits upon a rock that should have reached a friendly pier—there is the untold fate of La Perouse. Commodore (rank) Traditionally, "commodore" is the title for any officer assigned to command more than one ship, even temporarily, much as "captain" is the traditional title for the commanding officer of

12838-444: The main features of their social and political organisations on the way, brought into sustained contact with people from other linguistic and cultural areas and obliged to develop, in creative and improvisational ways, new social and cultural forms in the new land, drawing simultaneously on traditions from their respective places of origin and on impulses resulting from the encounter.” Thomas Hylland Eriksen , Creolisation as

12969-410: The meaning of Louisiana Creoles to describe a broad cultural group of people of all races who share a colonial Louisianian background. Louisianians who identify themselves as "Creole" are most commonly from historically Francophone and Hispanic communities. Some of their ancestors came to Louisiana directly from France , Spain , or Germany , while others came via the French and Spanish colonies in

13100-543: The name for languages started from 1879, while as an adjective for languages, its use began around 1748. In Spanish-speaking countries, the word Criollo refers to the descendants of Europeans born in the Americas, but also in some countries, to describe something local or very typical of a particular Latin American region. In the Caribbean , the term broadly refers to all the people, whatever their class or ancestry — African, East Asian, European, Indian — who are part of

13231-494: The northern part of New Holland (Australia) , and explore that archipelago. It was not until 1826 that an Irish sea captain, Peter Dillon , found enough evidence to piece together the events of the tragedy. In Tikopia (one of the islands of Santa Cruz), he bought some swords that he had reason to believe had belonged to Lapérouse or his officers. He made enquiries and found that they came from nearby Vanikoro, where two big ships had broken up years earlier. Dillon managed to obtain

13362-406: The one-star rate. To correct this inequity, the rank of commodore as a single star flag officer was reinstated by both services in the early 1980s. This immediately caused confusion with those senior U.S. Navy captains commanding destroyer squadrons, submarine squadrons, functional air wings and air groups, and so on, who held the temporary "title" of commodore while in their major command billet. As

13493-416: The only member of the original expedition still alive at the time, identified them as all belonging to Astrolabe . From the information Vanikoro inhabitants gave Dillon, a rough reconstruction could be made of the disaster that struck Lapérouse. Dillon's reconstruction was later confirmed by the discovery and subsequent examination, in 1964, of what was believed to be the shipwreck of Boussole . In May 2005,

13624-457: The original French. The mixed-race Creoles, descendants of mixing of European colonists, slaves, and Native Americans or sometimes Gens de Couleur (free men and women of colour), first appeared during the colonial periods with the arrival of slave populations. Most Creoles, regardless of race, generally consider themselves to share a collective culture. Non-Louisianans often fail to appreciate this and assume that all Creoles are of mixed race, which

13755-760: The profits among his men. The next year, on 9 April 1787, after a visit to Manila , he set out for the northeast Asian coasts. He saw the island of Quelpart, in the Korean Peninsula (present-day Cheju in South Korea ), which had been visited by Europeans only once before when a group of Dutchmen shipwrecked there in 1635. He visited the Asian mainland coasts of Korea . Lapérouse then sailed northward to Northeast Asia and Oku-Yeso Island, present day Sakhalin Island , Russia. The Ainu people , Oku-Yeso Island residents, drew him

13886-523: The region, as it is used today, in expressions such as "comida criolla" ("country" food from the area). In the latter period of settlement of Latin America called La Colonia , the Bourbon Spanish Crown preferred Spanish-born Peninsulares (literally "born in the Iberian Peninsula ") over Criollos for the top military, administrative, and religious offices due to the former mismanagement of

14017-562: The result of creolization of these influences. "Kreyòl" or "Kwéyòl" or "Patois/Patwa" refers to the French-lexicon Creole languages in the Caribbean, including Antillean French Creole , Haitian Creole , and Trinidadian Creole . Creole also refers to Bajan Creole , Bahamian Creole , Belizean Creole , Guyanese Creole , Jamaican Patois , Tobagonian Creole , Trinidadian Creole and Sranan Tongo (Surinamese Creole), among others. People speak French-lexicon Antillean Creole in

14148-404: The same manner as "vice president,"and "rear-commodore" and "port captain' or "international bridge member" in the same manner as board members. Commodores, vice-commodores and rear-commodores are also known as civilian flag officers because they have an epaulettes , regalia and maritime flags with designated symbols and number of stars for their ranks. Many of the clubs that are more than

14279-498: The shipwreck examined in 1964 was formally identified as that of Boussole . The 2005 expedition had embarked aboard Jacques Cartier , a ship of the French Navy . The ship supported a multi-discipline scientific team assembled to investigate the "Mystery of Lapérouse". The mission was named "Opération Vanikoro—Sur les traces des épaves de Lapérouse 2005" (Operation Vanikoro—Tracing the Lapérouse wrecks 2005). A further similar mission

14410-686: The site was unsuitable and the colony would instead be established at Sydney Cove in Port Jackson . High winds—which had hindered Lapérouse's ships in entering Botany Bay—delayed the relocation until 26 January (later commemorated as Australia Day ). The French were received courteously and spent six weeks at the British colony (this would be their last recorded landfall). While Lapérouse and Phillip did not meet, French and British officers visited each other formally on at least 11 occasions, and offered each other assistance and supplies. The senior French officer to visit Sydney Cove and wait upon Governor Phillip

14541-565: The summer of 1781, he was offered command of the 50-gun Sagittaire , but as his crew was sick with scurvy , he requested permission to keep command of Astrée , and was appointed to lead a frigate division, along with Hermione , under Latouche-Tréville . Lapérouse escorted a convoy to the West Indies in December 1781, participated in the attack on St. Kitts in February 1782 and then fought in

14672-541: The ten Coast Guard Auxiliary districts are commodores, as well as most of the Deputy National Directors (some may be rear admirals). Commodore is abbreviated to COMMO in the PCGA. Vanderbilt University 's intercollegiate athletics teams are nicknamed the " Commodores ", a reference to Cornelius Vanderbilt 's self-appointed title (he was the master of a large shipping fleet). In the U.S. Sea Scouting program (which

14803-529: The term Créole in the critically endangered Missouri French . The Mississippi Gulf Coast region has a significant population of Creoles—especially in Pass Christian , Gulfport , Biloxi , and Pascagoula . A community known as Creoletown is located in Pascagoula, with its history on record. Many in this location are Catholic and have also used the Creole, French. and English languages. In colonial Texas,

14934-581: The term Eurafrican was often used though it has largely fallen out of use in the modern era and is no longer recognized at the national level. Today, South African Coloureds and Cape Malay form the majority of the population in the Western Cape and a plurality in the Northern Cape . In addition to Coloured people, the term mestiço is used in Angola and Mozambique to refer to mixed race people, who enjoyed

15065-401: The term "Creole" ( criollo ) distinguished old-world Africans and Europeans from their descendants born in the new world, Creoles; they composed the citizen class of New Spain 's Tejas province. Texas Creole culture revolved around "' ranchos " (Creole ranches), attended mostly by vaqueros (cowboys) of African, Spaniard, or Mestizo descent, and Tlaxcalan Nahuatl settlers , who established

15196-460: The term "Creole" was first used to describe people born in Louisiana, who used the term to distinguish themselves from newly arrived immigrants. It was not a racial or ethnic identifier; it was simply synonymous with "born in the New World," meant to separate native-born people of any ethnic background—white, African, or any mixture thereof—from European immigrants and slaves imported from Africa. Later,

15327-531: The term Creole applies to all people born on the island, while in South Africa , the blending of East African and Southeast Asian slaves with Dutch settlers, later produced a creolized population. The Fernandino Creole peoples of Equatorial Guinea are a mix of Afro-Cubans with Emancipados and English-speaking Liberated Africans , while the Americo-Liberians and Sierra Leone Creoles resulted from

15458-489: The term commodore (e.g., district commodore, assistant national commodore, deputy national commodore, national commodore, etc.). These Coast Guard auxiliarists may permanently append the title commodore, sometimes abbreviated COMO, to their names (e.g., Commodore James A. Smith, National Commodore; or COMO Jim Smith, (NACO)). In the Philippine Coast Guard Auxiliary —PCGA—each of the directors in command of

15589-662: The term was racialized after newly arrived Anglo-Americans began to associate créolité, or the quality of being Creole, with racially mixed ancestry. This caused many white Creoles to eventually abandon the label out of fear that the term would lead mainstream Americans to believe them to be of racially mixed descent (and thus endanger their livelihoods or social standing). Later writers occasionally make distinctions among French Creoles (of European ancestry), Creoles of Color (of mixed ethnic ancestry), and occasionally, African Creoles (of primarily African descendant); these categories, however, are later inventions, and most primary documents from

15720-440: The time, made the preliminary list but he was ultimately not chosen for the voyage list and remained behind in France. At the time, Bonaparte was interested in serving in the navy rather than army because of his proficiency in mathematics and artillery, both valued skills on warships. Copying the work methods of Cook's scientists, the scientists on this voyage would base their calculations of longitude on precision chronometers and

15851-610: The title "commodore" was then used to identify senior U.S. Navy captains who commanded squadrons of more than one vessel or functional air wings or air groups that were not part of a carrier air wing or carrier air group. Concurrently, until the early 1980s, U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard captains selected for promotion to the rank of rear admiral (lower half), would wear the same insignia as rear admiral (upper half), i.e., two silver stars for collar insignia or sleeve braid of one wide and one narrow gold stripe, even though they were actually only equivalent to one-star officers and paid at

15982-492: The tragedy which had occurred in the vicinity of the new colony. Before the mystery was solved, the French government had published the records of the voyage as far as Kamchatka: Voyage de La Pérouse autour du monde , 1–4 (Paris, 1797). These volumes are still used for cartographic and scientific information about the Pacific. Three English translations were published in 1798–99. In 1825 Royal Navy Captain Thomas Manby brought

16113-444: The word ' Paris ' was engraved, and some were observed to have medals of Louis XVI . One of the chiefs, aged about fifty, said that when he was young, a large ship was wrecked on a coral reef during a violent gale . During his voyage, Manby had seen several medals of the same kind, which Lapérouse had distributed among the natives of California ; and Lapérouse, on his departure from Botany Bay , intimated that he intended to steer from

16244-427: The word Acadian, indicating French Canadian settlers as ancestors. The distinction between "Cajuns" and "Creoles" is stronger today than it was in the past because American racial ideologies have strongly influenced the meaning of the word "Creole" to the extent that there is no longer unanimous agreement among Louisianians on the word's precise definition. Today, many assume that any francophone person of European descent

16375-741: The world"). In 1825, another French naval officer, Captain Hyacinthe de Bougainville , founded the Lapérouse Monument at Frenchman's Bay, near Receveur's grave. The bay later became part of the suburb of La Perouse . The anniversary of Receveur's death, Lapérouse Day (on varying dates in February/March) and Bastille Day (14 July) have long been marked at the monument (along with Bougainville). On 25 September 1791, Rear Admiral Antoine Bruni d'Entrecasteaux departed Brest in search of Lapérouse. His expedition followed Lapérouse's proposed path through

16506-460: Was Robert Sutton de Clonard , Captain of the Astrolabe , who took despatches to him for forwarding to the French ambassador in London by the returning Alexander transport. Clonard was an Irishman (from Wexford ) in the French service, "esteemed for his bravery, and beloved for his humanity". After de Langle had been killed during the expedition's visit to Tutuila , he had succeeded him as commander of

16637-459: Was also mentioned in episode "The Quest" of the series Northern Exposure , wherein the character Joel ( Rob Morrow ) finds an old chart of the French explorer that will lead to a legendary "jewelled city of the North" ( New York City ). The novel Landfalls by Naomi J. Williams explores the Lapérouse expedition in depth. Henry David Thoreau mentions him (as "La Perouse") in his book Walden . In

16768-575: Was in force throughout the Spanish viceroyalties in the Americas , since the 16th century. During the early Spanish colonial period the Spaniards had a policy selecting promising assimilationist Indigenous to educate and indoctrinate. They were accepted into the colonial leadership but sometimes remained in Spain. Among the descendants of these assimilated sons of chiefs are the Aztec descended Moctezuma de Tultengo . By

16899-805: Was mounted in 2008. The 2008 expedition showed the commitment of France, in conjunction with the New Caledonian Association Salomon , to seek further answers about Lapérouse's mysterious fate. It received the patronage of the President of the French Republic as well as the support and co-operation of the French Ministry of Defence , the Ministry of Higher Education and Research , and the Ministry of Culture and Communication. Preparation for this,

17030-473: Was serving aboard Formidable . He was captured by the British and briefly imprisoned before being paroled back to France; he was formally exchanged in December 1760. He participated in a 1762 attempt by the French to gain control of Newfoundland , escaping with the fleet when the British arrived in force to drive them out. At the outbreak of the Anglo-French War in 1778, Lapérouse was given command of

17161-428: Was unloaded and taken apart. A group of men, probably the survivors of Boussole , were massacred by the local inhabitants. According to the islanders, some surviving sailors built a two-masted craft from the wreckage of Astrolabe and left in a westward direction about nine months later, but what happened to them is unknown. Also, two men, one a "chief" and the other his servant, had remained behind, but had left Vanikoro

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