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107-407: The lantern enclosure was primarily used to prevent a burning candle or wick being extinguished from wind, rain or other causes. Some antique lanterns have only a metal grid, indicating their function was to protect the candle or wick during transportation and avoid the excess heat from the top to avoid unexpected fires. Another important function was to reduce the risk of fire should a spark leap from

214-433: A battery -powered fluorescent lamp and LED models, which are safer in the hands of young people and inside tents. Liquid fuel lanterns remain popular where the fuel is easily obtained and in common use. Many portable mantle-type fuel lanterns now use fuel gases that become liquid when compressed, such as propane , either alone or combined with butane . Such lamps usually use a small disposable steel container to provide

321-427: A lighthouse may be called a lantern. The word lantern comes via French from Latin lanterna meaning "lamp, torch," possibly itself derived from Greek. An alternate historical spelling was " lanthorn ", possibly derived from the ancient use of animal horn to cover window apertures, but allow in light. A lanthorn might have been significantly larger and brighter than a lantern. Lanterns were usually made from

428-445: A motif . " The Tell-Tale Heart ", a short story by Edgar Allan Poe , features the use of a dark lantern by the protagonist to shine a single ray of light on his victim's eye. Pirate code A pirate code , pirate articles , or articles of agreement were a code of conduct for governing ships of pirates , notably between the 17th and 18th centuries , during the so-called " Golden Age of Piracy ". The typical pirate crew

535-424: A polymer blend , such as high impact polystyrene . Large companies may do their own compounding prior to production, but some producers have it done by a third party. Companies that specialize in this work are known as Compounders. The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward; as it remains liquid until it is cured into its final form. For thermosoftening materials, which are used to make

642-486: A 'screen over that dark lantern' in order to wait in the dark for thieves to finish tunneling. This type of lantern could also preserve the light source for sudden use when needed. Lanterns may be used in religious observances. In the Eastern Orthodox Church , lanterns are used in religious processions and liturgical entrances , usually coming before the processional cross . Lanterns are also used to transport

749-464: A burning light source: a candle , liquid oil with a wick, or gas with a mantle . The ancient Chinese sometimes captured fireflies in transparent or semi-transparent containers and used them as (short-term) lanterns, and use of fireflies in transparent containers was also a widespread practice in ancient India; however, since these were short-term solutions, the use of fire torches was more prevalent. Modern varieties often place an electric light in

856-512: A conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented polyacetylene , has been achieved, it does not approach that of most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred kS/cm. Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade (break down) upon exposure to sunlight or ultra-violet radiation ; water or dampness; bacteria; enzymes; or wind abrasion. Attack by insects, such as waxworms and mealworms, can also be considered as forms of biodegradation. Aerobic degradation requires that

963-504: A decorative glass case. In 1417, the Mayor of London ordered that all homes must hang lanterns outdoors after nightfall during the winter months. This marked the first organized public street lighting. Lanterns have been used functionally, for light rather than decoration, since antiquity. Some used a wick in oil, while others were essentially protected candle-holders. Before the development of glass sheets, animal horn scraped thin and flattened

1070-619: A finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health Organization 's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl chloride , the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen. Some plastic products degrade to chemicals with estrogenic activity. The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA),

1177-577: A gas, by kerosene, or by a pressurized liquid such as "white gas", which is essentially naphtha . For protection from the high temperatures produced and to stabilize the airflow, a cylindrical glass shield called the globe or chimney is placed around the mantle. Manually pressurized lanterns using white gas (also marketed as Coleman fuel or "Camp Fuel") are manufactured by the Coleman Company in one and two-mantle models. Some models are dual fuel and can also use gasoline . These are being supplanted by

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1284-503: A lantern with a jutting base – such as the 15th-century example above – to the face of a person with the extended chin of mandibular prognathism ; this condition was also known as Habsburg jaw or Habsburg lip, as it was a hereditary feature of the House of Habsburg (see, for example, portraits of Charles V ). Raise the Red Lantern , a 1991 Chinese film, prominently features lanterns as

1391-408: A large molecular weight, they are biochemically inert. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, however, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like PVC to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over

1498-420: A light source, or the enclosure for a light source, even if it is not portable. Decorative lanterns exist in a wide range of designs. Some hang from buildings, such as street lights enclosed in glass panes. Others are placed on or just above the ground; low-light varieties can function as decoration or landscape lighting and can be a variety of colors and sizes. The housing for the top lamp and lens section of

1605-583: A limb, or become a cripple in their service, he was to have eight hundred dollars, out of the public stock, and for lesser hurts, proportionately. X. The Captain and Quartermaster to receive two shares of a prize: the master , boatswain , and gunner , one share and a half, and other officers one and quarter. XI. The musicians to have rest on the Sabbath Day, but the other six days and nights, none without special favour. Captain John Phillips , captain of

1712-417: A material with inconsistent properties, which can be unappealing to industry. For example, mixing different colored plastics with different plastic colorants together can produce a discolored or brown material and for this reason plastic is usually sorted by both polymer type and color before recycling. Absence of transparency and reporting across the value chain often results in lack of knowledge concerning

1819-423: A metal frame with several sides (usually four, but up to eight) or round, commonly with a hook or a hoop of metal on top. Windows of some translucent material may be fitted in the sides; these are now usually glass or plastic but formerly were thin sheets of animal horn , or tinplate punched with holes or decorative patterns. Paper lanterns are made in societies around the world. A lantern generally contains

1926-495: A mixture of private and state-owned enterprises. Roughly half of all production takes place in East Asia, with China being the largest single producer. Major international producers include: Historically, Europe and North America have dominated global plastics production. However, since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer, with China accounting for 31% of total plastic resin production in 2020. Regional differences in

2033-500: A modest solar-powered charger. The derived term "lantern jaw[ed]" is used in two quite different still current ways, comparing faces with different types of lantern. According to the Oxford English Dictionary , it refers to "long thin jaws, giving a hollow appearance to the cheek"; this use was recorded in 1361, referring to a lantern with concave horn sides before glass was in use. Another meaning of "lantern jaw" compares

2140-486: A new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds. The birds identified as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste. "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival." Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water, and because they have

2247-692: A particular purpose. Examples include thermoplastics , thermosets , conductive polymers , biodegradable plastics , engineering plastics and elastomers . One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical processes used to make them are reversible or not. Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and thus can be molded repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have solidified, they stay solid. If reheated, thermosets decompose rather than melt. In

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2354-674: A pattern of more regularly spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). However, some plastics are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions (the temperature above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). These so-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes. Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While

2461-488: A prominent place, often the door to the captain's cabin. After a piratical cruise began, new recruits from captured ships would sometimes sign the articles, in some cases voluntarily, in other cases under threat of torture or death. Valuable sea artisans , such as carpenters and navigators , were especially likely to be forced to sign articles under duress, and would rarely be released regardless of their decision to sign or not. In some cases, even willing recruits would ask

2568-523: A safer and cheaper alternative to kerosene lamps . Lanterns utilizing LEDs are popular as they are more energy-efficient and rugged than other types, and prices of LEDs suitable for lighting have dropped. Some rechargeable fluorescent lanterns may be plugged in at all times and may be set up to illuminate upon a power failure, a useful feature in some applications. During extensive power failures (or for remote use), supplemental recharging may be provided from an automobile's 12-volt electrical system or from

2675-508: A shift of clothes: but if they defrauded the company to the value of a dollar in plate, jewels, or money, marooning was their punishment. If the robbery was only betwixt one another, they contented themselves with slitting the ears and nose of him that was guilty, and set him on shore, not in an uninhabited place, but somewhere, where he was sure to encounter hardships. III. No person to game at cards or dice for money. IV. The lights and candles to be put out at eight o'clock at night: if any of

2782-466: A train arrived. Lanterns also provided a means to signal from train-to-train or from station-to-train. A "dark lantern" was a candle lantern with a sliding shutter so that a space could be conveniently made dark without extinguishing the candle. For example, in the Sherlock Holmes story " The Red-Headed League ", the detective and police make their way down to a bank vault by lantern light but then put

2889-519: A turnover of more than 360 billion euros per year. In China in 2016 there were over 15,000 plastic manufacturing companies, generating more than US$ 366 billion in revenue. In 2017, the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics – polymers that can be melted and recast. Thermoplastics include polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and synthetic fibers, which together represent 86% of all plastics. Plastic

2996-594: A variety of shapes: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles and boxes, among many others. Plasticity also has a technical definition in materials science outside the scope of this article; it refers to the non-reversible change in form of solid substances. Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the attachment of oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise many repeating units formed from monomers . Each polymer chain consists of several thousand repeating units. The backbone

3103-411: A vote in affairs of moment; has equal title to the fresh provisions, or strong liquors, at any time seized, and may use them at pleasure, unless a scarcity (not an uncommon thing among them) makes it necessary, for the good of all, to vote a retrenchment. II. Every man to be called fairly in turn, by list, on board of prizes because, (over and above their proper share) they were on these occasions allowed

3210-921: A wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be molded , extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to their widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum ; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives. Between 1950 and 2017 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic are estimated to have been made; more than half of this has been produced since 2004. In 2020, 400 million tons of plastic were produced. If global trends on plastic demand continue, it

3317-403: Is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment. Other additives proven to be harmful such as cadmium , chromium , lead and mercury (regulated under

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3424-518: Is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food. Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase the body weight of lab animals' offspring. A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease. As of January 2010,

3531-555: Is as packaging materials, but they are used in a wide range of other sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and windows), textiles ( stretchable fabrics , fleece ), consumer goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation (headlights, bumpers, body panels , wing mirrors ), electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as machine parts. In optics, plastics are used to manufacture aspheric lenses. Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to change their performance or appearance, making it possible to alter

3638-402: Is bound to observe, and all of them, or the chief, set their hands to it." Although Exquemelin does not number the articles, the following approximately reflects his description of the buccaneers' laws: I. The fund of all payments under the articles is the stock of what is gotten by the expedition, following the same law as other pirates, that is, No prey, no pay . II. Compensation is provided

3745-488: Is burned, especially when burning is uncontrolled or takes place in low- technology incinerators, as is common in many developing countries. Incomplete combustion can cause emissions of hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash which can contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins . A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans and/or the environment are regulated internationally. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

3852-496: Is estimated that annual global plastic production will reach over 1.1 billion tons by 2050. The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century has caused widespread environmental problems, due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, or is incapable of reuse, either being captured in landfills or persisting in the environment as plastic pollution and microplastics . Plastic pollution can be found in all

3959-446: Is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance, but is instead mixed with various chemicals and other materials, which are collectively known as additives. These are added during the compounding stage and include substances such as stabilizers , plasticizers and dyes , which are intended to improve the lifespan, workability or appearance of the final item. In some cases, this can involve mixing different types of plastic together to form

4066-445: Is off the ground, and in readiness to put to sea. V. That every man shall keep his watch night and day; and at the hour of eight in the evening every one shall retire from gaming and drinking, in order to attend his respective station. VI. Every person who shall offend against any of these articles shall be punished with death, or in such other manner as the ship's company shall think proper. Exquemelin writes in general terms about

4173-414: Is performed by simply remelting and reforming used plastic into new items. Additives present risks in recycled products, as they are difficult to remove. When plastic products are recycled, it is highly likely that the additives will be integrated into the new products. Waste plastic, even if it is all of the same polymer type, will contain varying types and amounts of additives. Mixing these together can give

4280-496: Is probable that both reports are correct and that Low and Lowther shared the same articles, with Low's two extra articles being an ordinance , or amendment, adopted after the two crews separated. I. The Captain is to have two full Shares; the Quartermaster is to have one Share and one Half; The Doctor, Mate, Gunner and Boatswain, one Share and one Quarter. II. He that shall be found guilty of taking up any Unlawful Weapon on Board

4387-448: Is the part of the chain that is on the main path , linking together a large number of repeat units. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups called side chains hang from this backbone; they are usually hung from the monomers before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. The structure of these side chains influences the properties of the polymer. Plastics are usually classified by

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4494-679: The Holy Fire from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre on Great Saturday during Holy Week . Lanterns are used in many Asian festivals. During the Ghost Festival , lotus shaped lanterns are set afloat in rivers and seas to symbolically guide the lost souls of forgotten ancestors to the afterlife. During the Lantern Festival , the displaying of many lanterns is still a common sight on the 15th day of

4601-630: The Los Angeles Times reported that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is spending $ 30 million to investigate indications of BPA's link to cancer. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate , present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic compounds present in new car smell . The EU has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the US government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic. Because

4708-623: The Middle Ages when there was a system of "joint hands" agreements between merchants, owners, and seamen to share profits. Several 17th and 18th century pirates such as Bartholomew Roberts, John Philips, Edward Low and George Lowther were known to have written articles for piratical rules onboard ships. Lowe’s articles were published in The Boston News-Letter on August 1, 1723, and also The Tryals of Thirty-Six Persons for Piracy, Twenty-Eight of them upon Full Evidence were Found Guilty and

4815-444: The Middle Ages ; the use of a lantern that blinks code to transmit a message dates to the mid-1800s. In railroad operations, lanterns have multiple uses. Permanent lanterns on poles are used to signal trains about the operational status of the track ahead, sometimes with color gels in front of the light to signify stop, etc. Historically, a flagman at a level crossing used a lantern to stop cars and other vehicular traffic before

4922-464: The Minamata Convention on Mercury ), which have previously been used in plastic production, are banned in many jurisdictions. However they are still routinely found in some plastic packaging including food packaging. The use of the additive bisphenol A (BPA) in plastic baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world, but is not restricted in some low-income countries. In 2023, plasticosis ,

5029-663: The Revenge , also set a code for his men in 1724: I. Every Man Shall obey civil Command; the Captain shall have one full Share and a half of all Prizes; the Master , Carpenter , Boatswain and Gunner shall have one Share and quarter. II. If any Man shall offer to run away, or keep any Secret from the Company, he shall be marooned with one Bottle of Powder, one Bottle of Water, one small Arm, and Shot. III. If any Man shall steal any Thing in

5136-462: The polymerization of their starting materials ( monomers ); which are almost always petrochemical in nature. Such facilities are normally large and are visually similar to oil refineries , with sprawling pipework running throughout. The large size of these plants allows them to exploit economies of scale . Despite this, plastic production is not particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies accounting for 90% of global production. This includes

5243-572: The 12th century Rolls of Oléron . They were later used by buccaneers and pirates such as John Phillips , Edward Low and Bartholomew Roberts . Buccaneers operated under a ship's articles that, among other things, governed conduct of the crew. These "articles of agreement" became authority independent of any nation, and were variously called the Chasse-Partie, Charter Party, Custom of the Coast, or Jamaica Discipline. In retrospect, these became known as

5350-450: The Captain for the use of his ship, and the salary of the carpenter, or shipwright, who mended, careened , and rigged the vessel (the latter usually about 150 pieces of eight). A sum for provisions and victuals is specified, usually 200 pieces of eight. A salary and compensation is specified for the surgeon and his medicine chest, usually 250 pieces of eight. Plastic Plastics are

5457-794: The Company shall think fit. VIII. If any Man shall lose a Joint in time of an Engagement, shall have 400 Pieces of Eight ; if a Limb, 800. IX. If at any time you meet with a prudent Woman, that Man that offers to meddle with her, without her Consent, shall suffer present Death. The articles listed below are attributed by the Boston News-Letter to Captain Edward Low . The first eight of these articles are essentially identical to those attributed to pirate captain George Lowther by Charles Johnson. Since Lowther and Low are known to have sailed together from about New Year's to May 28, 1722, it

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5564-587: The Company shall think fit. X. No snapping of Guns in the Hold. A set of articles written in John Gow 's own hand was found aboard his ship, the Revenge (née George ), in 1729. Article IV's reference to no going ashore "till the ship is off the ground" suggests that the Revenge was already grounded when the articles were written, only days before Gow and his men were captured. The code states as follows: I. That every man shall obey his commander in all respects, as if

5671-517: The Company, or game, to the Value of a Piece of Eight , he shall be marooned or shot. IV. If any time we shall meet another Marooner that Man shall sign his Articles without the Consent of our Company, shall suffer such Punishment as the Captain and Company shall think fit. V. That Man that shall strike another whilst these Articles are in force, shall receive Moses’ Law (that is, 40 Stripes lacking one) on

5778-491: The EU, over 400 additives are used in high volumes. In a global market analysis, 5,500 additives were found. At a minimum, all plastic contains some polymer stabilizers which permit them to be melt-processed (molded) without suffering polymer degradation . Other additives are optional and can be added as required, with loadings varying significantly between applications. The amount of additives contained in plastics varies depending on

5885-481: The Greek πλαστικός ( plastikos ), meaning "capable of being shaped or molded ;" in turn, it is from πλαστός ( plastos ) meaning "molded." As a noun , the word most commonly refers to the solid products of petrochemical-derived manufacturing. The noun plasticity refers specifically here to the deformability of the materials used in the manufacture of plastics. Plasticity allows molding , extrusion or compression into

5992-511: The Misfortune to lose a Limb in time of Engagement, shall have the Sum of Six hundred pieces of Eight, and remain aboard as long as he shall think fit. VII. Good Quarters to be given when Craved. VIII. He that sees a Sail first, shall have the best Pistol or Small Arm aboard of her. IX. He that shall be guilty of Drunkenness in time of Engagement shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and Majority of

6099-547: The North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA region) accounts for 21% of global plastic consumption, closely followed by China (20%) and Western Europe (18%). In North America and Europe, there is high per capita plastic consumption (94 kg and 85 kg/capita/year, respectively). In China, there is lower per capita consumption (58 kg/capita/year), but high consumption nationally because of its large population. The largest application for plastics

6206-611: The Onslow, they put a sentinel immediately over her to prevent ill consequences from so dangerous an instrument of division and quarrel; but then here lies the roguery; they contend who shall be sentinel, which happens generally to one of the greatest bullies, who, to secure the lady's virtue, will let none lie with her but himself.) VII. To desert the ship or their quarters in battle, was punished with death or marooning. VIII. No striking one another on board, but every man's quarrels to be ended on shore, at sword and pistol. (The quarter-master of

6313-452: The Pirate's Code. Pirate articles varied from one captain to another, and sometimes even from one voyage to another, but they were generally alike in including provisions for discipline , specifications for each crewmate's share of treasure, and compensation for the injured. Each crew member was asked to sign or make his mark on the articles, then swear an oath of allegiance or honour. The oath

6420-543: The Privateer or any other prize by us taken, so as to Strike or Abuse one another in any regard, shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall see fit. III. He that shall be found Guilty of Cowardice in the time of engagements, shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit. IV. If any Gold, Jewels, Silver, &c. be found on Board of any Prize or Prizes to

6527-641: The Rest Acquitted , which was also printed in 1723. Nine complete or nearly complete sets of piratical articles have survived, chiefly from Charles Johnson 's A General History of the Pyrates , first published in 1724, and from records kept by Admiralty Court proceedings at the trials of pirates. A partial code from Henry Morgan is preserved in Alexandre Exquemelin 's 1678 book The Buccaneers of America . Many other pirates are known to have had articles;

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6634-499: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) revealed that out of 3,377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and 906 likely associated with it, 68 were ranked by ECHA as "highest for human health hazards" and 68 as "highest for environmental hazards". As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during recycling. Presently, almost all recycling

6741-486: The additives' function. For example, additives in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can constitute up to 80% of the total volume. Pure unadulterated plastic (barefoot resin) is never sold, even by the primary producers. Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react in the polymer matrix. Although additives are blended into plastic they remain chemically distinct from it, and can gradually leach back out during normal use, when in landfills, or following improper disposal in

6848-471: The articles of late 17th century Caribbean buccaneers. Although he does not attribute these articles to any specific buccaneer captain, Exquemelin almost certainly sailed with Henry Morgan as a physician, and thus his account likely reflects Morgan's articles more accurately than any other privateer or buccaneer of the time. Exquemelin writes that the buccaneers "agree on certain articles, which are put in writing, by way of bond or obligation, which every one

6955-445: The associated disciplinary action, should a code be violated. Failing to honor the code could get a pirate marooned , whipped, beaten, or even executed (such as one article described, for merely allowing a female aboard their ship). For less serious violations, a pirate may have been temporarily denied equal food rations, or made to clean or maintain parts of the ship for a time. Primarily, these articles were designed to keep order aboard

7062-404: The bare Back. VI. That Man that shall snap his Arms, or smoke Tobacco in the Hold, without a Cap to his Pipe, or carry a Candle lighted without a Lanthorn , shall suffer the same Punishment as in the former Article. VII. That Man shall not keep his Arms clean, fit for an Engagement, or neglect his Business, shall be cut off from his Share, and suffer such other Punishment as the Captain and

7169-534: The birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021; this is up from 381 million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives). From the 1950s, rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging, in building and construction, and in other sectors. If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will exceed 1.1 billion tonnes annually. Plastics are produced in chemical plants by

7276-690: The chemical profile of the final products. For example, products containing brominated flame retardants have been incorporated into new plastic products. Flame retardants are a group of chemicals used in electronic and electrical equipment, textiles, furniture and construction materials which should not be present in food packaging or child care products. A recent study found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants in toys made from recycled plastic electronic waste that contained brominated flame retardants. Brominated dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that of chlorinated dioxins. They can have negative developmental effects and negative effects on

7383-448: The chemical structure of most plastics renders them durable, they are resistant to many natural degradation processes. Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber . There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since

7490-802: The chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains. Important groups classified in this way include the acrylics , polyesters , silicones , polyurethanes , and halogenated plastics . Plastics can be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as condensation , polyaddition , and cross-linking . They can also be classified by their physical properties, including hardness , density , tensile strength , thermal resistance , and glass transition temperature . Plastics can additionally be classified by their resistance and reactions to various substances and processes, such as exposure to organic solvents, oxidation , and ionizing radiation . Other classifications of plastics are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for

7597-452: The commodity plastics, with many having exceptional properties. Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to make products such as vehicle parts, building and construction materials, and some machine parts. In some cases they are polymer blends formed by mixing different plastics together (ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering plastics can replace metals in vehicles, lowering their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly 50% of

7704-401: The crew, after that hour still remained inclined for drinking, they were to do it on the open deck. V. To keep their piece, pistols, and cutlass clean and fit for service. VI. No boy or woman to be allowed amongst them. If any man were to be found seducing any of the latter sex, and carried her to sea, disguised, he was to suffer death; (so that when any fell into their hands, as it chanced in

7811-536: The day after on April 19, starting the American Revolution . Public spaces became increasingly lit with lanterns in the 1500s, especially following the invention of lanterns with glass windows, which greatly improved the quantity of light. In 1588 the Parisian Parlement decreed that a torch be installed and lit at each intersection, and in 1594 the police changed this to lanterns. Beginning in 1667 during

7918-508: The developing world, the applications of plastic may differ; 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging. In the medical field, polymer implants and other medical devices are derived at least partially from plastic. Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is produced annually per person, with production doubling every ten years. The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite , invented in New York in 1907, by Leo Baekeland , who coined

8025-651: The effects of such leachates , the EU has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the US has limited the use of DEHP, DPB , BBP , DINP , DIDP , and DnOP in children's toys and child-care articles through the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act . Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens (cancer-causing substances). Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols . While

8132-401: The environment. Additives may also degrade to form other toxic molecules. Plastic fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives to move in the environment far from the point of use. Once released, some additives and derivatives may persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms. They can have adverse effects on human health and biota. A recent review by

8239-407: The finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to rising levels of greenhouse gases caused primarily by the burning of those fuels, the development of bioplastics is a growing field. Global production capacity for bio-based plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes per year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world's leading petrochemical-derived polyolefins,

8346-450: The first lunar month throughout China. During other Chinese festivities, kongming lanterns (sky lanterns) can be seen floating high into the air. However, some jurisdictions, such as in Canada, some states in the U.S., and parts of India, as well as some organizations, ban the use of sky lanterns because of concerns about fire and safety. The term "lantern" can be used more generically to mean

8453-487: The flame or the light be dropped. This was especially important below deck on ships: a fire on a wooden ship was a major catastrophe. Use of unguarded lights was taken so seriously that obligatory use of lanterns, rather than unprotected flames, below decks was written into one of the few known remaining examples of a pirate code , on pain of severe punishment. Lanterns may also be used for signaling. In naval operations, ships used lights to communicate at least as far back as

8560-792: The fuel. The ability to refuel without liquid fuel handling increases safety. Additional fuel supplies for such lamps have an indefinite shelf life if the containers are protected from moisture (which can cause corrosion of the container) and excess heat. Lanterns designed as permanently mounted electric lighting fixtures are used in interior, landscape , and civic lighting applications. Styles can evoke former eras, unify street furniture themes, or enhance aesthetic considerations. They are manufactured for use with various wired voltage supplies. Various battery types are used in portable light sources. They are more convenient, safer, and produce less heat than combustion lights. Solar-powered lanterns have become popular in developing countries, where they provide

8667-568: The host resin. Masterbatch granules can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and will release their additives during processing to give a homogeneous final product. This can be cheaper than working with a fully compounded material and is particularly common for the introduction of color. Companies that produce finished goods are known as converters (sometimes processors). The vast majority of plastics produced worldwide are thermosoftening and must be heated until molten in order to be molded. Various sorts of extrusion equipment exist which can then form

8774-581: The late-17th century Articles of George Cusack and Nicholas Clough have also survived intact. Part of the reason that few pirate articles have survived is that pirates on the verge of capture or surrender often burned their articles or threw them overboard to prevent the papers being used against them at trial. Bartholomew Roberts ' Articles were similar (but not identical) to those of his former Captain, Howell Davis . In turn, Roberts' Articles influenced those of pirates such as Thomas Anstis who served under him and later went their own way. I. Every man has

8881-604: The majority of products, it is necessary to melt the plastic in order to mix-in the additives. This involves heating it to anywhere between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F). Molten plastic is viscous and exhibits laminar flow , leading to poor mixing. Compounding is therefore done using extrusion equipment, which is able to supply the necessary heat and mixing to give a properly dispersed product. The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low, however high levels can be added to create Masterbatch products. The additives in these are concentrated but still properly dispersed in

8988-450: The nervous system and interfere with mechanisms of the endocrine system. Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to their additives, as some compounds can be persistent, bioaccumulating and potentially harmful. The now banned flame retardants OctaBDE and PentaBDE are an example of this, while the health effects of phthalates are an ongoing area of public concern. Additives can also be problematic if waste

9095-646: The night. There was violence every time he was arrested and Allsopp would denounce the military. In October he prosecuted the soldiers involved in his arrests. On April 18, 1775, Paul Revere had two lanterns held up in the Old North Church to signal to patriots in Charlestown that the British troops were crossing the Charles River to disarm the rebel colonial militias. The Battles of Lexington and Concord occurred

9202-596: The pirates to pretend to force them to sign, so that they could plead they were forced should they ever be captured by the law. Generally, men who had not signed the articles had a much better chance of acquittal at trial if captured by the law. Pirate articles are closely related to, and were derived from, ship's articles of the time, especially those of privateers , which similarly provided for discipline and regulated distribution of booty (though usually far less equally than with pirate articles). Merchant articles and privateering articles can be traced back to Europe in

9309-709: The plastic be exposed at the surface, whereas anaerobic degradation would be effective in landfill or composting systems. Some companies produce biodegradable additives to enhance biodegradation. Although starch powder can be added as a filler to allow some plastics to degrade more easily, such treatment does not lead to complete breakdown. Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB); however, these were still relatively costly as of 2021. While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch. Due both to

9416-571: The plastic into almost any shape. For thermosetting materials the process is slightly different, as the plastics are liquid to begin with and but must be cured to give solid products, but much of the equipment is broadly similar. The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from LDPE (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film), containers made from HDPE (e.g. milk bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and PET (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks). Together these products account for around 36% of plastics use in

9523-464: The preferred choice for the mass production everyday objects. Their biggest single application is in packaging, with some 146 million tonnes being used this way in 2015, equivalent to 36% of global production. Due to their dominance; many of the properties and problems commonly associated with plastics, such as pollution stemming from their poor biodegradability , are ultimately attributable to commodity plastics. A huge number of plastics exist beyond

9630-413: The properties of plastics to better suit their intended applications. Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used so widely. Plastics are composed of chains of polymers. Many different chemicals are used as plastic additives. A randomly chosen plastic product generally contains around 20 additives. The identities and concentrations of additives are generally not listed on products. In

9737-478: The reign of King Louis XIV , thousands of street lights were installed in Parisian streets and intersections. Under this system, streets were lit with lanterns suspended 20 yards (18 m) apart on a cord over the middle of the street at a height of 20 feet (6.1 m); as an English visitor described in 1698, 'The streets are lit all winter and even during the full moon!' In London, a diarist wrote in 1712 that ‘All

9844-399: The ship was his own, and as if he received monthly wages. II. That no man shall give, or dispose of, the ship's provisions; but every one shall have an equal share. III. That no man shall open, or declare to any person or persons, who they are, or what designs they are upon; and any persons so offending shall be punished with immediate death. IV. That no man shall go on shore till the ship

9951-511: The ship, avoid dissension or mutinies , and ensure the crews' loyalty, all of which was crucial to the group's mutual survival. The first set of the "Pirate's Code" was supposedly written by the Portuguese buccaneer Bartolomeu Português sometime in the early 1660s, but the first recorded set belonged to George Cusack who was active from 1668 to 1675. These early buccaneer articles were based on earlier maritime law and privateer codes such as

10058-583: The ship, when the parties will not come to any reconciliation, accompanies them on shore with what assistance he thinks proper, and turns the disputant back to back, at so many paces distance; at the word of command, they turn and fire immediately (or else the piece is knocked out of their hands). If both miss, they come to their cutlasses, and then he is declared the victor who draws the first blood.) IX. No man to talk of breaking up their way of living, till each had shared one thousand pounds [equivalent to £202,000 in 2023]. If in order to this, any man should lose

10165-528: The term "plastics". Dozens of different types of plastics are produced today, such as polyethylene , which is widely used in product packaging , and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger , who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry ," and Herman Mark , known as "the father of polymer physics ". The word plastic derives from

10272-762: The thermosetting process, an irreversible chemical reaction occurs. The vulcanization of rubber is an example of this process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur, natural rubber ( polyisoprene ) is a sticky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product is dry and rigid. Around 70% of global production is concentrated in six major polymer types, the so-called commodity plastics . Unlike most other plastics these can often be identified by their resin identification code (RIC): Polyurethanes (PUR) and PP&A fibers are often also included as major commodity classes, although they usually lack RICs, as they are chemically quite diverse groups. These materials are inexpensive, versatile and easy to work with, making them

10379-477: The value of a Piece of Eight, & the finder do not deliver it to the Quarter Master in the space of 24 hours he shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit. V. He that is found Guilty of Gaming, or Defrauding one another to the value of a Royal of Plate, shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit. VI. He that shall have

10486-444: The volume of modern cars is made of plastic, but this only accounts for 12–17% of the vehicle weight. High-performance plastics are usually expensive, with their use limited to specialized applications which make use of their superior properties. Many plastics are completely amorphous (without a highly ordered molecular structure), including thermosets, polystyrene, and methyl methacrylate (PMMA). Crystalline plastics exhibit

10593-567: The volume of plastics production are driven by user demand, the price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made in the petrochemical industry. For example, since 2010 over US$ 200 billion has been invested in the United States in new plastic and chemical plants, stimulated by the low cost of raw materials. In the European Union (EU), too, heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry, which employs over 1.6 million people with

10700-589: The way, quite through Hyde Park to the Queen's Palace at Kensington, lanterns were placed for illuminating the roads on dark nights.’ All fueled lanterns are somewhat hazardous owing to the danger of handling flammable and toxic fuel, danger of fire or burns from the high temperatures involved, and potential dangers from carbon monoxide poisoning if used in an enclosed environment. Simple wick lanterns remain available. They are cheap and durable and usually can provide enough light for reading. They require periodic trimming of

10807-443: The wick and regular cleaning of soot from the inside of the glass chimney. Mantle lanterns use a woven ceramic impregnated gas mantle to accept and re-radiate heat as visible light from a flame. The mantle does not burn (but the cloth matrix carrying the ceramic must be "burned out" with a match prior to its first use). When heated by the operating flame the mantle becomes incandescent and glows brightly. The heat may be provided by

10914-497: The world's major water bodies , for example, creating garbage patches in all of the world's oceans and contaminating terrestrial ecosystems. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled. In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping , plumbing or vinyl siding . Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic ), furniture, and toys. In

11021-726: The world. Most of them (e.g. disposable cups, plates, cutlery, takeaway containers, carrier bags) are used for only a short period, many for less than a day. The use of plastics in building and construction, textiles, transportation and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the plastics market. Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer life spans. They may be in use for periods ranging from around five years (e.g. textiles and electrical equipment) to more than 20 years (e.g. construction materials, industrial machinery). Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, with some form of plastic having made its way into most people's lives. North America (i.e.

11128-423: Was an unorthodox mixture of former sailors , escaped convicts , disillusioned men, and possibly escapee or former slaves , among others, looking for wealth at any cost; once aboard a seafaring vessel, the group would draw-up their own ship- and crew-specific code (or articles), which listed and described the crew's policies surrounding pirate behavior (such as drunkenness, fighting, and interaction with females) and

11235-638: Was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015. The plastic industry includes the global production, compounding , conversion and sale of plastic products. Although the Middle East and Russia produce most of the required petrochemical raw materials, the production of plastic is concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic industry comprises a huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors: Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made, with more than half this having been produced since 2004. Since

11342-454: Was sometimes taken on a Bible , but John Phillips' men, lacking a Bible, swore on an axe. Legend suggests that other pirates swore on crossed pistols , swords , on a human skull , or astride a cannon . This act formally inducted the signer into the pirate crew, generally entitling him to vote for officers and on other "affairs of moment", to bear arms, and to his share of the plunder. The articles having been signed, they were then posted in

11449-546: Was used as the translucent window. Beginning in the Middle Ages , middle eastern towns hired watchmen to patrol the streets at night, as a crime deterrent. Each watchman carried a lantern or oil lamp against the darkness. The practice continued up through at least the 18th century. In March 1764 and twice in October 1764, George Allsopp , a British-born Canadian, was arrested in Quebec for violating an order to carry lanterns during

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