Lake Velence ( German : Welenzer See ), an endorheic basin , is the third largest natural lake in Hungary . It is a popular holiday destination among Hungarians.
60-618: The lake has an area of 26 km, one third of which is covered by the common reed . Because of the sunny climate of the area and the shallowness of the lake, it is one of the warmest lakes in Europe : its temperature in the summer may reach 26 to 28 °C. Lake Velence is located in Fejér county , close to the M7 motorway between Budapest and Székesfehérvár , at the foot of the Velence Hills . A part of
120-632: A monophyletic origin of giant reed and suggest that it originated in Asia , spreading from there into the Mediterranean Basin . Giant reed is adapted to a wide variety of ecological conditions, but is generally associated with riparian and wetland systems. It is distributed across the southern United States from Maryland to California . Plants can grow in a variety of soils, from heavy clays to loose sands and gravelly soils, but prefer wet drained soils, where they produce dense monotypic stands. Arundo
180-654: A brew similar to the South American ayahuasca , and may trace its roots to the Soma of lore . Mature reeds are used in construction as raw material, given their excellent properties and tubular shape. Its resemblance to bamboo permits their combination in buildings, though Arundo is more flexible. In rural regions of Spain, for centuries there has existed a technique named cañizo , consisting of rectangles of approximately 2 by 1 meters of woven reeds to which clay or plaster could be added. A properly insulated cañizo in
240-608: A cropping sequence (cereals-legumes cultivated conventionally). Arundo donax has been cultivated throughout Asia, southern Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East for thousands of years. Ancient Egyptians wrapped their dead in the leaves. The canes contain silica , perhaps the reason for their durability, and have been used to make fishing rods , and walking sticks . Its stiff stems are also used as support for climbing plants or for vines . This plant may have been used in combination with harmal ( Peganum harmala ) to create
300-447: A decline of fertility due to an increasing degradation of soils, loss of organic matter and increasing desertification. Recently research was carried out to evaluate, in the same pedological and climatic conditions, the impact of three long-term (14 years) agricultural systems, continuous giant reed, natural grassland, and cropping sequence, on the organic-matter characteristics and microbial biomass size in soil. The study pointed out that
360-482: A direct combustion high heating value of 19,000 kJ/kg (8,000 BTU/lb). In Italy , Arundo donax was used in one instance from 1937 to 1962 on a large-scale industrial basis for paper and dissolving pulp . This interest was stimulated primarily by the desire of the dictatorship, just before World War II , to be independent of foreign sources of textile fibres and the desire for an export product. According to historical records made by Snia Viscosa , giant reed
420-425: A great ability to sprout after removal from mother plant and both can be used for clonal propagation . The use of rhizomes was found to be the better propagation method for this species, achieving better survival rate. In this field study, it was noticed how the lowest density (12,500 rhizomes / ha ) resulted in taller and thicker plants compared to denser plantation (25,000 rhizomes / ha ). Seedbed preparation
480-409: A high speed. This is not to be confused with other double reeds like that of the oboe which uses two reeds made from the giant reed leaning against each other. The leaves, roots, seeds and stems of phragmites are edible. Young shoots can be cooked or eaten raw just like bamboo shoots. The young stems, "while still green and fleshy, can be dried and pounded into a fine powder, which when moistened
540-522: A large amount of decaying dead plant material can depress oxygen levels in the water and kill all the fish in a pond or small lake. Some success has also been obtained using goats to graze on Phragmites , controlled burns, and native wild rice crops. Biological controls have been suggested to be the most likely control method to succeed and biocontrols have been approved for introduction in North America Unfortunately, biocontrols may destroy
600-434: A long term Giant reed cropping system, characterized by low tillage intensity, positively affect the amount and quality of soil organic matter . Arundo donax showed greater values than tilled management system for total soil organic carbon, light fraction carbon, dissolved organic carbon, and microbial biomass carbon. Regarding the humification parameters, there were noticed any statistically differences between giant reed and
660-506: A maximum temperature of 30 °C. It has a high photosynthetic capacity , associated with absence of light saturation. Carbon dioxide exchange rates are high compared to other C 3 and C 4 species; maximum CO 2 uptake ranged from 19.8 to 36.7 μmol/s·m under natural conditions, depending on irradiance and leaf age. Carbon dioxide exchange is regulated by leaf conductance. Studies have found this plant to be rich in active tryptamine compounds, but there are more indications of
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#1732851667201720-399: A roof could keep its mechanical properties for over 60 years. Its high silicon content allows the cane to keep its qualities through time. Its low weight, flexibility, good adherence of the cañizo fabric and low price of the raw material have been the main reasons that this technique has been used. However, in the last decades, the rural migration from the countryside to urban centres and
780-410: A short term management rotation of 1–2 years could maximize bird and invertebrate numbers. P. australis provides ecosystem services such as nutrient sequestration, soil stabilization, and waste treatment. It has been suggested that due to its resilience to climate change impacts, P. australis may provide beneficial ecosystem services that need to be considered in coastal ecosystems, even where it
840-548: A single genetic clone of A. donax in the United States , although multiple introductions of this plant into the United States have been documented. Another study conducted in the Mediterranean area sampled giant reed from 80 different sites, and demonstrated low gene diversity in this region as well. Results indicate the occurrence of post- meiotic alterations in the ovule and pollen developmental pathway. AFLP data support
900-430: A single late-season application of 3% glyphosate onto the foliar mass is efficient and effective with least hazardous to biota. Glyphosate was selected as the most appropriate product for specific considerations on efficacy, environmental safety, soil residual activity, operator safety, application timing, and cost-effectiveness. However, glyphosate is only effective in fall when plants are actively transporting nutrients to
960-496: A tapered tip, and have a hairy tuft at the base. Overall, the plant resembles an outsize common reed ( Phragmites australis ) or a bamboo (subfamily Bambusoideae). A. donax flowers in late summer, bearing upright, feathery plumes 40 to 60 centimetres (16 to 24 in) long, that are usually seedless or with seeds that are rarely fertile. Instead, it mostly reproduces vegetatively by tough, fibrous underground rhizomes that form knotty, spreading mats which penetrate deep into
1020-416: A variety of harmful chemicals, including silica and various alkaloids , which protect it from most insect herbivores and deter wildlife from feeding on it. Grazing animals such as cattle , sheep , and goats may have some effect on it, but are unlikely to be useful in keeping it under control. Arundo donax appears to be highly adapted to fires. It is highly flammable throughout the year, and during
1080-846: Is a highly invasive plant in southwestern North American rivers, and its promotion as a biofuel in other regions is of great concern to environmental scientists and land managers. Arundo donax was introduced from the Mediterranean to California in the 1820s for roofing material and erosion control in drainage canals in the Los Angeles area. Through spread and subsequent plantings as an ornamental plant , and for use as reeds in woodwind instruments, it has become naturalised throughout warm coastal freshwaters of North America , and its range continues to spread. It has also been planted widely through South America and Australasia and in New Zealand it
1140-406: Is a tall perennial cane . It is one of several so-called reed species. It has several common names including giant cane , elephant grass , carrizo , arundo , Spanish cane , Colorado river reed , wild cane , and giant reed . Arundo and donax are respectively the old Latin and Greek names for reed. Arundo donax grows in damp soils, either fresh or moderately saline, and is native to
1200-570: Is about 17 MJ kg−1 dry matter regardless of fertilizer usage. Studies in the European Union have identified A. donax as the most productive and lowest impact of all energy biomass crops (see FAIR REPORT E.U. 2004). Its ability to grow for 20 to 25 years without replanting is also significant. In the UK it is considered suitable for planting in and around water areas. Arundo donax grown in Australia
1260-671: Is an abundant invasive species. In the United States, prior to 1910, only a few areas in the Northeast contained non-native haplotypes of Phragmites australis. However, by 1960 non-native haplotypes were found in samples taken from coast to coast. Today, in some places like Michigan, Phragmites australis ( haplotype M) has become the dominant haplotype. The problem is invasive non-native Phragmites australis quickly spread through marshes and wetland areas. They replace native plants, deny fish and wildlife nutrients and space; block access to
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#17328516672011320-487: Is an obstacle for breeding programs which aim to increase the productivity and biomass quality for energy conversion. A total of 185 clones of A. donax were collected from California to South Carolina and genetically fingerprinted with the SRAP and TE -based markers. Giant reed exhibited no molecular genetic variation despite the wide genomic coverage of the markers used in this study. The molecular data strongly point to
1380-502: Is conducted in the spring , immediately before planting, by a pass with a double-disk harrowing and a pass with a field cultivator . Giant reed has the possibility of adopting low plant density. The rhizomes were planted at 10–20 centimetres (3.9–7.9 in) of soil depth, with a minimum plant density of 10,000 plants per ha ), while mature stems , with two or more nodes, can be planted 10–15 centimetres (3.9–5.9 in) deep. In order to ensure good root stand and adequate contact with
1440-400: Is considered an invasive species. Others have argued that the ecosystem services lost as a result of invasion outweigh the benefits gained and managers need to be responsive to invasion control. P. australis is cultivated as an ornamental plant in aquatic and marginal settings such as pond- and lakesides. Its aggressive colonisation means it must be sited with care. Phragmites australis
1500-472: Is listed under the National Pest Plant Accord as an "unwanted organism". Despite its invasive characteristics in regions around the world where it is not native, Arundo is being promoted by the energy industry as a bio-fuel crop. Some of the regions, such as the southeastern United States have natural disturbances, such as hurricanes and floods, that could widely disperse this plant. It is among
1560-471: Is nearly impossible. The seeds or rhizomes can quickly lead to a new dense stand. Chemical treatment is by far the most utilized method in North America [1] . The two most common active ingredients in herbicides for Phragmites control are glyphosate and imazapyr. It is important to select the proper herbicide for the location. Further, even the proper herbicide can lead to unintended consequences since
1620-409: Is not affected by weed competition from the second year. An application of post-emergence treatment is usually recommended. Giant reed has few known diseases or insect pests , but in intensive cultivation, no pesticides are used. To remove giant reed at the end of the crop cycle, there are mainly two methods: mechanical or chemical. An excavator can be useful to dig out the rhizomes or alternatively
1680-430: Is one of the main wetland plant species used for phytoremediation water treatment. Waste water from lavatories and greywater from kitchens is routed to an underground septic tank-like compartment where the solid waste is allowed to settle out. The water then trickles through a constructed wetland or artificial reed bed, where bioremediation bacterial action on the surface of roots and leaf litter removes some of
1740-601: Is roasted like marshmallows." The seeds and rhizomes "can be ground into flour or made into gruel." In Japan, young leaves are dried, ground, and then mixed with cereal flour to make dumplings. Grazing on phragmites by large-bodied domestic herbivores, such as cows, horses, sheep, and goats, can effectively control the plant and provide a reciprocal positive benefit for humans by generating meat, milk, leather, and wool etc. Some other uses for Phragmites australis and other reeds in various cultures include baskets , mats, reed pen tips ( qalam ), and paper. Beekeepers can utilize
1800-426: Is used to create a small instrument similar to the clarinet called a sipsi , with either a single, as in the picture, or double pipes as in bagpipes. The reed of the zurna is made from the common reed which is flattened after removing its brittle outer glaze and the loose inner membrane, and after softening it by wetting. The result is a double reed with an elliptical opening that vibrates by closing and opening at
1860-857: The Greater Middle East . It has been widely planted and naturalised in the mild temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of both hemispheres, especially in the Mediterranean , California , the western Pacific and the Caribbean and is considered invasive in North America and Oceania. It forms dense stands on disturbed sites, sand dunes, in wetlands and riparian habitats. Arundo donax generally grows to 6 metres (20 ft) in height, or in ideal conditions can exceed 10 metres (33 ft). The hollow stems are 2 to 3 centimetres (0.79 to 1.18 in) in diameter. The grey-green swordlike leaves are alternate, 30 to 60 centimetres (12 to 24 in) long and 2 to 6 centimetres (0.79 to 2.36 in) wide with
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1920-515: The environment ), durable yields , and resistant to long drought periods. Several field studies have highlighted the beneficial effect of giant reed crop on the environment due to its minimal soil tillage , fertilizer and pesticide needs. Furthermore, it offers protection against soil erosion , one of the most important land degradation processes in Mediterranean and US environments. A. donax bioenergy feedstock has an impressive potential for several conversion processes. Dried biomass has
1980-508: The nutrients in biotransformation . The water is then suitable for irrigation , groundwater recharge , or release to natural watercourses. Reed is used in many areas for thatching roofs. In the British Isles , common reed used for this purpose is known as Norfolk reed or water reed. However, "wheat reed" and "Devon reed", also used for thatching, are not in fact reed, but long-stemmed wheat straw. In Middle East countries Phragmites
2040-411: The soil , sufficient moisture is needed immediately after planting. Pre-plant fertilizer is distributed according to the initial soil fertility , but usually an application of P at a rate of 80–100 kilograms (180–220 lb)/ ha is applied. A. donax maintains a high productive aptitude without irrigation under semi-arid climate conditions. In Southern Italy , a trial was carried out testing
2100-547: The yields performance of 39 genotypes , and an average yields of 22.1 t/ ha dry matter in the second year were reached, a comparable result with others results obtained in Spain (22.5 t/ ha ) as well as in South Greece (19.0 t/ ha ). Several reports underlined that it is more economical to grow giant reed under moderate irrigation . In order to evaluate different management practices, nitrogen fertilizer and input demand
2160-708: The United States as biological control agents. The Arundo wasp, Tetramesa romana , the Arundo scale insect, Rhizaspidiotus donacis , and the Arundo fly, Cryptonevra are known to have some effect in damaging the plant. Tetramesa romana and more recently Rhizaspidiotus donacisis were registered in the US as biological control agents. Other remedies like using mechanical force have also been employed, since outside its native range Arundo donax does not reproduce by seeds, so removing its root structure can be effective at controlling it. Preventing it from getting sunlight will deplete
2220-472: The beginning of October to the end of November. In this phenological stage moisture content falls significantly. In the low temperatures of winter giant reed stops its growth; regrowth occurs in springtime. Giant reed behaves as an annual in Central Europe where soil temperatures are low, due to poor freeze tolerance of the rhizomes . The base growth temperature reported for giant reed is 7 °C, with
2280-420: The chemicals they produce when decaying reduce the germination of competing seeds. Among other effects, the monocultures that result from invasion decrease spatial and temporal habitat heterogeneity and increase avian homogeneity. Recognizing the non-native form of Phragmites early in its invasion increases the opportunity for successful eradication dramatically. Once it has become established, removal by hand
2340-401: The drier months of the year (July to October), it can increase the probability, intensity, and spread of wildfires through the riparian environment, changing the communities from flood-defined to fire-defined communities. After fires, A. donax rhizomes can resprout quickly, outgrowing native plants, which can result in large stands of A. donax along riparian corridors. Fire events thus push
2400-430: The express purpose of using their biomass energetically and at the same time reduce carbon dioxide emission . Biofuels derived from lignocellulosic plant material represent an important renewable energy alternative to transportation fossil fuels. Perennial rhizomatous grasses display several positive attributes as energy crops because of their high productivity, low (no) demand for nutrient inputs consequent to
2460-473: The extensive exploitation of land has reduced its use. Recently, initiatives are being taken to recover the use of this material, combining ancient techniques from southern Iraq mudhif (reed houses) with new materials. Diverse associations and collectives, such as CanyaViva, are pioneering in the research in combination with Spanish universities. Ancient Greeks used cane to make flutes , known as kalamaulos , from kalamos ("cane") + aulos ("flute"). At
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2520-467: The fastest-growing terrestrial plants in the world (nearly 10 centimetres (3.9 in) per day). To present knowledge, Arundo does not provide any food sources or nesting habitats for wildlife. Replacement of native plant communities by Arundo results in low-quality habitat and altered ecosystem functioning. For example, it damages California's riparian ecosystems by outcompeting native species, such as willows, for water. A. donax stems and leaves contain
2580-450: The flowers, and the cyclic dehydrobufotenidine has been found in the roots. A. donax is also known to release volatile organic compounds (VOCs), mainly isoprene . In most areas where giant reed grows ( Mediterranean area and US ), viable seeds are not produced. It is reported that sterility of giant reed results from failure of the megaspore mother cell to divide. This sterility , which drastically limits genetic variability,
2640-405: The growing of one ha increases from not fertilised (4 GJ ha−1) to fertilised (18 GJ ha−1) crops, while the maximum energy yield output was 496 GJ ha−1, obtained with 20,000 plants per ha and fertilisation; fertilisation brought a 15% increase in biomass. The biomass calorific mean value (technically, the calorific value obtained from combustion of biomass sample in an adiabatic system) of Giant reed
2700-568: The lake is a bird reserve with a lot of species. The lake was the venue for the World Rowing Masters Regatta in September 2019. This Fejér location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Phragmites Phragmites ( / f r æ ɡ ˈ m aɪ t iː z / ) is a genus of four species of large perennial reed grasses found in wetlands throughout temperate and tropical regions of
2760-460: The native subspecies population as well. When cutting under water, cutting and then flooding, or burning and then flooding, it is important that the entire Phragmites stand is completely submerged so that the plants cannot obtain oxygen. Biocontrol using two species of moth larvae (Lenisa geminipuncta and Archanara neurica) is being investigated in Ontario . Arundo donax Arundo donax
2820-639: The plant of its resources and eventually kill it. Systemic herbicides and glyphosate are also used as chemical remedies. The US Department of Homeland Security considers this plant invasive and in 2007 began researching biological controls. In 2015, Texas Senator Carlos Uresti passed legislation to create a program to eradicate Arundo donax using herbicides and the Arundo wasp. In New Zealand 's northernmost region , Arundo donax crowds out native plants, reduces wildlife habitat, contributes to higher fire frequency and intensity, and modifies river hydrology. Energy crops are plants which are produced with
2880-504: The plants in India having these compounds than in the United States . Toxins such as bufotenidine and gramine have also been found. The dried rhizome with the stem removed has been found to contain 0.0057% DMT , 0.026% bufotenine , 0.0023% 5-MeO-MMT. The flowers are also known to have DMT and the 5-methoxylated N-demethylated analogue, also 5-MeO-NMT . The quite toxic quaternary methylated salt of DMT, bufotenidine, has been found in
2940-427: The recycling of nutrients by their rhizomes , exceptional soil carbon sequestration – 4X switchgrass , multiple products, adaptation to saline soils and saline water , and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses . Giant reed is one of the most promising crops for energy production in the Mediterranean climate of Europe and Africa, where it has shown advantages as an indigenous crop (already adapted to
3000-582: The reeds to make nesting. In the Philippines , Phragmites is known by the local name tambo . Reed stands flower in December, and the blooms are harvested and bundled into whisk brooms called "walis". Hence the common name of household brooms is walis tambo . Reeds have been used to make arrows and weapons such as spears for hunting game. Some Phragmites , when introduced by accident or intent, spread rapidly. In tropics and subtropics, Phragmites karka
3060-517: The root zone, and multiple retreatments are usually needed. Other herbicides registered for aquatic use can be very effective in controlling Arundo at other times of the year. Arundo donax is a strong candidate for use as a renewable biofuel source because of its fast growth rate and its ability to grow in different soil types and climatic conditions. A. donax will produce an average of three kilograms of biomass per square metre (12 tons per acre/year) once established. The total energy input needed for
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#17328516672013120-419: The soil, up to 1 metre (3.3 ft) deep. Stem and rhizome pieces less than 5 centimetres (2.0 in) long and containing a single node could sprout readily under a variety of conditions. This vegetative propagation appears well adapted to floods, which may break up individual A. donax clumps, spreading the pieces, which may sprout and colonise downstream. Arundo donax is a tall, perennial grass in
3180-572: The subfamily Arundinoideae , characterised by C3 photosynthesis . The stems produced during the first growing season are unbranched and photosynthetic. In the Mediterranean , where a temperate climate is characterized by warm and dry summer and mild winter, new shoots of giant reed emerge around March, growing rapidly in June and July and producing stems and leaves. From late July the lower leaves start to dry, depending on seasonal temperature patterns. Drying accelerates during autumn when anthesis occurs from
3240-564: The system further toward mono-specific stands of A. donax . A waterside plant community dominated by A. donax may also have reduced canopy shading of the in-stream habitat, which may result in increased water temperatures. This may lead to decreased oxygen concentrations and lower diversity of aquatic animals. As the impact of Arundo donax increased in the environment and native species various efforts have been taken to reduce its population. It has few natural enemies in its introduced range. Several Mediterranean insects have been imported into
3300-629: The time, the best cane for flutes came from the banks of river Cephissus , in Attica, Greece . Several kalamauloi tuned differently and tied together, made a syrinx . Giant reed has been used to make flutes for over 5,000 years. The pan pipes consist of ten or more pipes made from the cane. The ancient end-blown flute ney is made from the same reeds. A. donax is still the principal source material of reed makers for clarinets , saxophones , oboes , bassoons , bagpipes , and other woodwind instruments. The Var country in southern France contains
3360-444: The water for swimming, fishing and other recreation endeavors; spoil shoreline views; and pose a fire hazard. Phragmites also alters wetland biogeochemistry and affects both floral and faunal species assemblages, including potentially reducing nitrogen and phosphorus availability for other plants. Phragmites can drive out competing vegetation in two main ways. Their sheer height and density can deprive other plants of sunlight and
3420-456: The world. The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, maintained by Kew Garden in London , accepts the following four species: Phragmites stands can provide food and shelter resources for a number of birds, insects, and other animals. Habitat benefits are often optimal when stands are thinner, and management of stands may promote more suitable habitat benefits. Some evidence suggests that
3480-425: Was demonstrated as potential feedstock for producing advanced biofuels through hydrothermal liquefaction . Outside its native range, the interest as a biofuel crop needs to be balanced against its major invasive potential. An increased environmental concern is the health of soil system as one of the main factors affecting quality and productivity of agroecosystems. Around the world, several regions are subjected to
3540-530: Was established on 6 300 ha in Torviscosa ( Udine ), reaching the average annual production of 35 t / ha . Today several screening studies on energy crops have been carried out by several universities in the US as well as in EU to evaluate and identify best management practices for maximizing biomass yields and assess environmental impacts. Establishment is a critical point of cultivation. Stem and rhizome have
3600-523: Was evaluated in a 6-year field study conducted at the University of Pisa . Fertilizer enhanced the productive capacity in the initial years, but as the years go by and as the radical apparatus progressively deepens, the differences due to fertilizer decrease until disappearing. Harvest time and plant density were found to not affect the biomass yields . Due to its high growth rate and superior resource-capture capacity (light, water and nutrients), A. donax
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