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55-607: KNAU was established in 1933 by then Soviet constituent Kirghiz SSR with its first admission of 53 students. Now more than 7,000 students study at KNAU in 7 faculties and 31 specializations. The instruction is provided in Russian by 287 professors including 93 holding PhDs . As of 2022, the current rector of the university is Professor R. Z. Nurgaziev. 42°51′03″N 74°36′18″E  /  42.8509°N 74.6050°E  / 42.8509; 74.6050 This Kyrgyzstani university, college or other education institution article

110-674: A federation of republics; the light decentralization reforms during the era of perestroika (reconstruction) and glasnost (voice-ness, as in freedom of speech) conducted by Mikhail Gorbachev as part of the Helsinki Accords are cited as one of the factors which led to the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 as result of the Cold War and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States . There were two very distinct types of republics in

165-596: A flag , a coat of arms , and, with the exception of Russia until 1990, an anthem . Every republic of the Soviet Union also was awarded with the Order of Lenin . The number of the union republics of the USSR varied from 4 to 16. From 1956 until its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet Union consisted of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics. (In 1956, the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic, created in 1940,

220-479: A supranational union , it never de facto functioned as one; an example of the ambiguity is that the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in the 1930s officially had its own foreign minister , but that office did not exercise any true sovereignty apart from that of the union. The Constitution of the Soviet Union in its various iterations defined the union as a federation with the right of

275-664: A treaty between the Soviet republics of Byelorussia , Russian SFSR (RSFSR) , Transcaucasian Federation , and Ukraine , by which they became its constituent republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union). For most of its history, the USSR was a one-party state led by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . Key functions of the USSR were highly centralized in Moscow until its final years, despite its nominal structure as

330-527: A Soviet constituency introduced laws in contradiction to Supreme Soviet, the laws of the Supreme Soviet would supersede any legal difference, but the Union law which regulated the secession was not provided until the last days of the Soviet Union. Article 74. The laws of the USSR shall have the same force in all Union Republics. In the event of a discrepancy between a Union Republic law and an All-Union law,

385-625: A duty to safeguard and "enhance the power and prestige of the Soviet state." Violation of this duty was considered "a betrayal of the Motherland and the gravest of crimes". Finally, the Constitution required parents to train their children for socially useful work and to raise them to be worthy members of the socialist society. The Constitution and other legislation protected and enforced Soviet citizenship . Legislation on citizenship granted equal rights of citizenship to naturalized citizens as well as to

440-471: A series of civil and political rights. Among these were the rights to freedom of speech , freedom of the press , and freedom of assembly and the right to religious belief and worship . In addition, the Constitution provided for freedom of artistic work, protection of the family, inviolability of the person and home, and the right to privacy. In line with the Marxist-Leninist ideology of the government,

495-527: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Republics of the Soviet Union The Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Union Republics (Russian: Сою́зные Респу́блики , romanized : Soyúznye Respúbliki ) were national-based administrative units of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The Soviet Union was formed in 1922 by

550-691: The Belavezha Accords which agreed that the USSR would be dissolved and replaced with a Commonwealth of Independent States . On 25 December, President Gorbachev announced his resignation and turned all executive powers over to Yeltsin. The next day the Council of Republics voted to dissolve the Union . Since then, the republics have been governed independently with some reconstituting themselves as liberal parliamentary republics and others, particularly in Central Asia , devolving into highly autocratic states under

605-712: The European Court of Human Rights , the United Nations Human Rights Council and the United States . In contrast, the Russian government and state officials maintain that the Soviet annexation of the Baltic states was legitimate. Constitutionally, the Soviet Union was a federation . In accordance with provisions present in its Constitution (versions adopted in 1924, 1936 and 1977), each republic retained

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660-511: The Georgian SSR as a "treaty republic" was never clear or well-defined, making its status as a separate republic disputed. The Turkestan Soviet Federative Republic was proclaimed in 1918 but did not survive to the founding of the USSR, becoming the short-lived Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of the RSFSR. The Crimean Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Socialist Republic of Taurida)

715-866: The People's Republic of Bulgaria , Todor Zhivkov , suggested in the early 1960s that the country should become a union republic, but the offer was rejected. During the Soviet–Afghan War , the Soviet Union proposed to annex Northern Afghanistan as its 16th union republic in what was to become the Afghan Soviet Socialist Republic . Several of the Union Republics themselves, most notably Russia, were further subdivided into Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSRs). Though administratively part of their respective Union Republics, ASSRs were also established based on ethnic/cultural lines. According to

770-555: The Russian SFSR . Along with the state administrative hierarchy, there existed a parallel structure of party organizations, which allowed the Politburo to exercise large amounts of control over the republics. State administrative organs took direction from the parallel party organs, and appointments of all party and state officials required approval of the central organs of the party. Each republic had its own unique set of state symbols:

825-449: The Soviet state has become the state of the whole people" and no longer represented the workers and peasants alone. The 1977 Constitution extended the scope of the constitutional regulation of society compared to the 1924 and 1936 constitutions. The first chapter defined the leading role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and established the organizational principles for

880-404: The constitution of the USSR , in case of a union republic voting on leaving the Soviet Union, autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts and autonomous okrugs had the right, by means of a referendum , to independently resolve whether they will stay in the USSR or leave with the seceding union republic, as well as to raise the issue of their state-legal status. Starting in the late 1980s, under

935-531: The 1936 Soviet Constitution and explicitly defined the division of responsibilities between the Central Government in Moscow and the governments of the republics . Later chapters established principles for economic management and cultural relations. The 1977 Constitution included Article 72, which granted the official right of constituent republics to secede from the Soviet Union promised in previous constitutions. However, Articles 74 and 75 stated that when

990-451: The 1977 Constitution were published in the Soviet media for public discussion. Following the public review process, the Supreme Soviet adopted the amendments and additions in December 1988. The amendments and additions substantially and fundamentally changed the electoral and political systems. Although Soviet officials touted the changes as a return to "Leninist" forms and functions, citing that

1045-598: The 7th (Special) Session of the Ninth Convocation of the Supreme Soviet and signed by Chairman of the Presidium Leonid Brezhnev . The 1977 Constitution replaced the 1936 Constitution and the Soviet public holiday of USSR Constitution Day was shifted from 5 December to 7 October. The 1977 Constitution's preamble stated that "the aims of the dictatorship of the proletariat having been fulfilled,

1100-550: The Congress of People's Deputies had antecedents in the Congress of Soviets , they were unprecedented in many respects. The position of chairman of the Supreme Soviet was formally designated and given specific powers, particularly leadership over the legislative agenda, the ability to issue orders (rasporiazheniia), and formal power to conduct negotiations and sign treaties with foreign governments and international organizations. Later still,

1155-496: The Constitution also granted social and economic rights not provided by constitutions in some capitalist countries. Among these were the rights to work, rest and leisure, health protection, care in old age and sickness, housing, education, and cultural benefits. Unlike Western constitutions, the Soviet Constitution outlined limitations on political rights, whereas in capitalist countries these limitations are usually left up to

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1210-712: The Law on the Council of Ministers of 5 July 1978. Other enabling legislation has included a law on citizenship, a law on elections to the Supreme Soviet, a law on the status of Supreme Soviet deputies, regulations for the Supreme Soviet, a resolution on commissions, regulations on local government, and laws on the Supreme Court and the Procuracy. The enabling legislation provided the specific and changing operating rules for these government bodies. In October 1988, draft amendments and additions to

1265-506: The Party lost its control over the State machinery and was banned from operating after an attempted coup d'état . Throughout this period of turmoil, the Soviet government attempted to find a new structure that would reflect the increased authority of the republics. Some autonomous republics, like Tatarstan , Checheno-Ingushetia , Abkhazia , South Ossetia , Crimea , Transnistria , Gagauzia sought

1320-625: The Soviet Union: The Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic , a relic of the Soviet-Finnish War (the Winter War ), became the only union republic to be deprived of its status in 1956. The decision to downgrade Karelia to an autonomous republic within the Russian SFSR was made unilaterally by the central government without consulting its population. The official basis for downgrading the status of

1375-477: The USSR as a whole) to join the United Nations General Assembly as founding members in 1945. The Soviet currency Soviet ruble banknotes all included writings in national languages of all the 15 union republics. All of the former Republics of the Union are now independent countries, with ten of them (all except the Baltic states , Georgia and Ukraine ) being very loosely organized under

1430-514: The USSR noted in August 1977 that the proposed Constitution "has given rise to a number of letters containing serious comments and well-argued proposals. Although these letters were sent to the Constitution Commission, not one of them was even mentioned in the Soviet newspapers or official media," it is quite possible that, like the letters department of all major Soviet periodicals, some note

1485-458: The USSR. Article 78 of the Constitution stated that the territory of the union republic cannot be changed without its agreement. Article 81 of the Constitution stated that "the sovereign rights of Union Republics shall be safeguarded by the USSR". In the final decades of its existence, the Soviet Union officially consisted of fifteen Soviet Socialist Republics (SSRs). All of them, with

1540-444: The chairman of the Supreme Soviet's non-legislative powers would be transferred to the newly created office of President . The Constitutional Oversight Committee, composed of people who were not in the Congress of People's Deputies , was established and given formal power to review the constitutionality of laws and normative acts of the central and republican governments and to suggest their suspension and repeal. The electoral process

1595-757: The congress itself; the Supreme Soviet, acting through its commissions and committees; the Presidium or chairman of the Supreme Soviet; the Constitutional Oversight Committee; the Council of Ministers; republic soviets; the Committee of People's Control; the Supreme Court; the Procuracy; and the chief state arbiter. In addition, the governing bodies of official organizations and even the Academy of Sciences could initiate amendments and other legislation. The principal source of uncensored information and comment in

1650-483: The dissolution despite the lacuna in the Soviet law, which was eventually filled under the pressure from the Republics in 1990. Adoption of the Constitution was a legislative act of the Supreme Soviet. Amendments to the Constitution were likewise adopted by legislative act of that body. Amendments required the approval of a two-thirds majority of the deputies of the Congress of People's Deputies and could be initiated by

1705-684: The exception of the Russian SFSR (until 1990 ), had their own local party chapters of the All-Union Communist Party . In 1944, amendments to the All-Union Constitution allowed for separate branches of the Red Army for each Soviet Republic. They also allowed for Republic-level commissariats for foreign affairs and defense, allowing them to be recognized as de jure independent states in international law. This allowed for two Soviet Republics, Ukraine and Byelorussia , (as well as

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1760-680: The government and society. For example, the right to freedom of expression stipulated in Article 52 could be suspended if the exercise of that freedom failed to be in accord with Party policies. Until the era of glasnost , freedom of expression did not entail the right to criticize the government. The constitution did provide a "freedom of conscience, that is, the right to profess or not to profess any religion, and to conduct religious worship or atheistic propaganda." It prohibited incitement of hatred or hostility on religious grounds. The Constitution also failed to provide political and judicial mechanisms for

1815-509: The heading of the Commonwealth of Independent States . The Baltic states assert that their incorporation into the Soviet Union in 1940 (as the Lithuanian , Latvian , and Estonian SSRs ) under the provisions of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was illegal , and that they therefore remained independent countries under Soviet occupation. Their position is supported by the European Union ,

1870-441: The law of the USSR shall prevail. Article 75. The territory of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a single entity and comprises the territories of the Union Republics. The sovereignty of the USSR extends throughout its territory. The 1977 Constitution was repealed upon the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991 and the post-Soviet states adopted new constitutions. Article 72 would play an important role in

1925-615: The leadership of the old Party elite. 1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union The 1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union , officially the Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was adopted on 7 October 1977. The 1977 Constitution, also known as the Brezhnev Constitution or the Constitution of Developed Socialism , was the third and final constitution of the Soviet Union , adopted unanimously at

1980-453: The legislative and/or judicial institutions. Article 6 effectively eliminated partisan opposition and division within government by granting to the CPSU the power to lead and guide society. Article 39 enabled the government to prohibit any activities it considered detrimental by stating that "Enjoyment of the rights and freedoms of citizens must not be to the detriment of the interests of society or

2035-510: The loosening of political restrictions led to fractures within the Communist Party which resulted in a reduced ability to govern the Union effectively. The rise of nationalist and right-wing movements, notably led by Boris Yeltsin in Russia, in the previously homogeneous political system undermined the Union's foundations. With the central role of the Communist Party removed from the constitution,

2090-523: The native born. Laws also specified that citizens could not freely renounce their citizenship. Citizens were required to apply for permission to do so from the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , which could reject the application if the applicant had not completed military service, had judicial duties, or was responsible for family dependants. In addition, the Presidium could refuse the application to protect national security, or revoke citizenship for defamation of

2145-467: The political foundation of the Soviet Union was formed by the Soviets (Councils) of People's Deputies. These existed at all levels of the administrative hierarchy, with the former "countries" and other regions brought into the union referred to as soviets during their time as republics and with the Soviet Union as a whole under the nominal control of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR , located in Moscow within

2200-631: The power to ensure that constitutional rights were observed by legislation or were respected by the rest of the government. The Soviet Union also signed the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe ( Helsinki Accords ), which mandated that internationally recognized human rights be respected in the signatory countries, yet it was not until the late 1980s that realigning constitutional and domestic law with international commitments on human rights

2255-410: The protection of rights. Thus, the Constitution lacked explicit guarantees protecting the rights of the people. In fact, the Supreme Soviet never introduced amendments specifically designed to protect human rights . Neither did the people have a higher authority within the government to which to appeal when their rights were violated. Unlike in a democratic system, there was no constitutional court with

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2310-414: The republic was the changes that had occurred in the national composition of its population (about 80% of the inhabitants were Russians , Belarusians and Ukrainians ), as well as the need to reduce the state apparatus, the cost of maintaining which in 1955 amounted to 19.6 million rubles. Chapter 8 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution is titled as the "Soviet Union is a union state". Article 70 stated that

2365-460: The republics to secede . This constitutional status led to the possibility of the parade of sovereignties once the republic with de facto (albeit not de jure) dominance over the other republics, the Russian one , developed a prevailing political notion asserting that it would be better off if it seceded. The de facto dominance of the Russian republic is the reason that various historians (for example, Dmitri Volkogonov and others) have asserted that

2420-401: The right to secede from the USSR. Throughout the Cold War , this right was widely considered to be meaningless; however, the corresponding Article 72 of the 1977 Constitution was used in December 1991 to effectively dissolve the Soviet Union, when Russia , Ukraine , and Belarus seceded from the Union. Although the Union was created under an initial ideological appearance of forming

2475-427: The rule of Mikhail Gorbachev , the Soviet government undertook a program of political reforms ( glasnost and perestroika ) intended to liberalise and revitalise the Union. These measures, however, had a number of unintended political and social effects. Political liberalisation allowed the governments of the union republics to openly invoke the principles of democracy and nationalism to gain legitimacy. In addition,

2530-441: The state and the government. Article 1 defines the USSR as a socialist state , as did all previous constitutions: The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a socialist state of the whole people, expressing the will and interests of the workers, peasants, and intelligentsia, the working people of all the nations and nationalities of the country. The 1977 Constitution was long and detailed, including twenty-eight more articles than

2585-495: The state." Article 59 obliged citizens to obey the laws and comply with the standards of socialist society as determined by the Party. The government did not treat as inalienable those political and socioeconomic rights the Constitution granted to the people. Citizens enjoyed rights only when the exercise of those rights did not interfere with the interests of the state, and the CPSU alone had the power and authority to determine policies for

2640-459: The union statute in the New Union Treaty. Efforts to found a New Union Treaty , however, proved unsuccessful and the republics began to secede from the Union. By 6 September 1991, the Soviet Union's State Council recognized the independence of Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania bringing the number of union republics down to 12. On 8 December 1991, the remaining leaders of the republics signed

2695-403: The union was a unitary state in fact albeit not in law. In practice, the USSR was a highly centralised entity from its creation in 1922 until the mid-1980s when political forces unleashed by reforms undertaken by Mikhail Gorbachev resulted in the loosening of central control and its ultimate dissolution . Under the constitution adopted in 1936 and modified along the way until October 1977,

2750-430: The union was founded on principles "socialist federalism" as a result of free self-determination of nation and volunteer association of equal in rights soviet socialist republics. Article 71 listed all of 15 union republics that united into the Soviet Union. According to Article 76 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution , a Union Republic was a sovereign Soviet socialist state that had united with other Soviet Republics in

2805-555: Was absorbed into the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.) Rather than listing the republics in alphabetical order, the republics were listed in constitutional order (which roughly corresponded to their population and economic power when the republics were formed). However, particularly by the last decades of the Soviet Union, the constitutional order did not correspond to order either by population or economic power. Abkhazia's status in relation to

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2860-519: Was also proclaimed in 1918, but did not become a union republic and was made into an autonomous republic of the RSFSR, although the Crimean Tatars had a relative majority until the 1930s or 1940s according to censuses. When the Tuvan People's Republic joined the Soviet Union in 1944, it did not become a union republic, and was instead established as an autonomous republic of the RSFSR. The leader of

2915-495: Was constitutionally opened up to multiple candidacies, although not multi-party candidacies. A legislative body—the Supreme Soviet—was to convene for regular spring and fall sessions, each lasting three to four months. Unlike the old Supreme Soviet, however, the new Supreme Soviet was indirectly elected by the population, being elected from among the members of the Congress of People's Deputies. The Soviet Constitution included

2970-459: Was privately taken of these views. Soviet constitutions were frequently amended and had been changed more often than the constitutions of most Western countries. Nevertheless, the 1977 Constitution attempted to avoid frequent amendment by establishing regulations for government bodies (especially the lists of ministries, state commissions, and other bodies in the 1936 constitution) in separate, but equally authoritative, enabling legislation, such as

3025-499: Was publicly debated. Article 59 of the Constitution stated that citizens' exercise of their rights was inseparable from performance of their duties. Articles 60 through 69 defined these duties. Citizens were required to work and to observe labor discipline. The legal code declared evasion of work to be a crime of " parasitism " and provided punishment for it. The Constitution also obliged citizens to protect socialist property and oppose corruption. All citizens performed military service as

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