Kværner was a Norwegian engineering and construction services company that existed between 1853 and 2005.
131-559: During its initial decades, the firm was involved in the manufacture of cast iron stoves and hydroelectric turbines . The turbine business was Kværner's leading product throughout the first half of the twentieth century, although it had also branched out into the production of bridges, cranes, and pumps. Kværner underwent a spree of international acquisitions during the 1990s, which included Govan Shipbuilders , Götaverken , Trafalgar House , Vyborg Shipyard ; its headquarters were also relocated from Oslo to London during this decade. However,
262-751: A cupola , but in modern applications, it is more often melted in electric induction furnaces or electric arc furnaces. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a holding furnace or ladle. Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants . Next to carbon , silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution, forming iron carbide and producing white cast iron. A high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution, forming graphite and producing grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese , chromium , molybdenum , titanium , and vanadium counteract silicon, and promote
393-467: A democratisation process, and periods of rapid economic growth. Indonesia consists of thousands of distinct native ethnic groups and hundreds of linguistic groups, with Javanese being the largest. A shared identity has developed with the motto " Bhinneka Tunggal Ika " ("Unity in Diversity" literally , "many, yet one"), defined by a national language , cultural diversity, religious pluralism within
524-526: A special autonomous status ( otonomi khusus ) from the central government. Aceh, a conservative Islamic territory , has the right to create some aspects of an independent legal system implementing sharia . Yogyakarta is the only pre-colonial monarchy legally recognised within Indonesia, with the positions of governor and vice governor being prioritised for the reigning Sultan of Yogyakarta and Duke of Pakualaman , respectively. The six Papuan provinces are
655-464: A 10-tonne impeller) to be sand cast, as the chromium reduces cooling rate required to produce carbides through the greater thicknesses of material. Chromium also produces carbides with impressive abrasion resistance. These high-chromium alloys attribute their superior hardness to the presence of chromium carbides. The main form of these carbides are the eutectic or primary M 7 C 3 carbides, where "M" represents iron or chromium and can vary depending on
786-449: A Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. A developing country , Indonesia is classified a newly industrialized country , with its economy the world's 16th-largest by nominal GDP and the 7th-largest by PPP . It is the world's third-largest democracy, a regional power , and is considered a middle power in global affairs. The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including
917-471: A decision to cultivate its core businesses; consequently, Kvaerner was established, through a demerger , as a specialised EPC (engineering, procurement and construction) company addressing the global market. On 6 May 2011, the shareholders' annual general meeting approved the establishment of Kvaerner as a separate company. In 2015, it commenced fabrication of a 26,500 tonne steel jacket, the largest in Europe, for
1048-456: A dividing line ( Wallace Line ) between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species. It runs roughly north–south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait , between Lombok and Bali. Flora and fauna on the west of the line are generally Asian, while east from Lombok is increasingly Australian until the tipping point at
1179-700: A legislature ( DPRD Kabupaten/Kota ). The third level are the districts ( kecamatan , distrik in Papua , or kapanewon and kemantren in Yogyakarta ), and the fourth are the villages (either desa , kelurahan , kampung , nagari in West Sumatra , or gampong in Aceh ). The village is the lowest level of government administration. It is divided into several community groups ( rukun warga , RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood groups ( rukun tetangga , RT). In Java,
1310-482: A longer term target to further increase the coverage of its marine protected areas to 10% of its territorial waters, or 31 million hectares. Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms, with four constitutional amendments revamping the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Chief among them
1441-631: A passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks, and ductile cast iron has spherical graphite "nodules" which stop the crack from further progressing. Carbon (C), ranging from 1.8 to 4 wt%, and silicon (Si), 1–3 wt%, are the main alloying elements of cast iron. Iron alloys with lower carbon content are known as steel . Cast iron tends to be brittle , except for malleable cast irons . With its relatively low melting point, good fluidity, castability , excellent machinability , resistance to deformation and wear resistance , cast irons have become an engineering material with
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#17328553271051572-471: A range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches , dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems. Indonesia is one of the Coral Triangle countries with the world's most enormous diversity of coral reef fish , with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only. British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described
1703-563: A rule of mixtures. In any case, they offer hardness at the expense of toughness . Since carbide makes up a large fraction of the material, white cast iron could reasonably be classified as a cermet . White iron is too brittle for use in many structural components, but with good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost, it finds use in such applications as the wear surfaces ( impeller and volute ) of slurry pumps , shell liners and lifter bars in ball mills and autogenous grinding mills , balls and rings in coal pulverisers . It
1834-424: A spongy steel without the stress concentration effects that flakes of graphite would produce. The carbon percentage present is 3-4% and percentage of silicon is 1.8-2.8%.Tiny amounts of 0.02 to 0.1% magnesium , and only 0.02 to 0.04% cerium added to these alloys slow the growth of graphite precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along with careful control of other elements and timing, this allows
1965-634: A stake in the Vyborg Shipyard ( Russian : Выборгский судостроительный завод ) and renamed it Kverner-Vyborg Shipyard ( Russian : ОАО "Квернер-Выборг Верфь" ) which was the largest manufacturer of offshore installations in Russia. Also during the mid 1990s, Kvaerner expanded its footprint in the Indonesian market, including through the formation of Kvaerner Bakrie Engineering in late 1995. The company's expansive acquisitions quickly brought economic hardship to
2096-509: A wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the Sumatran tiger , rhinoceros, orangutan, Asian elephant , and leopard were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Having been long separated from the continental landmasses, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku have developed their unique flora and fauna. Papua was part of the Australian landmass and
2227-417: A wide range of applications and are used in pipes , machines and automotive industry parts, such as cylinder heads , cylinder blocks and gearbox cases. Some alloys are resistant to damage by oxidation . In general, cast iron is notoriously difficult to weld . The earliest cast-iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu , China. Cast iron
2358-399: A year after it was opened. The Dee bridge disaster was caused by excessive loading at the centre of the beam by a passing train, and many similar bridges had to be demolished and rebuilt, often in wrought iron . The bridge had been badly designed, being trussed with wrought iron straps, which were wrongly thought to reinforce the structure. The centres of the beams were put into bending, with
2489-569: Is US$ 15,835, while nominal per capita GDP is US$ 5,108. Services are the economy's largest sector and account for 43.4% of GDP (2018), followed by industry (39.7%) and agriculture (12.8%). Since 2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.7% of the total labour force, followed by agriculture (30.2%) and industry (21.9%). Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably. Historically, it has been weighted heavily towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic development and government policies in
2620-462: Is a class of iron – carbon alloys with a carbon content of more than 2% and silicon content around 1–3%. Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. The alloying elements determine the form in which its carbon appears: white cast iron has its carbon combined into an iron carbide named cementite , which is very hard, but brittle, as it allows cracks to pass straight through; grey cast iron has graphite flakes which deflect
2751-624: Is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) and the East Asia Summit . In common with most of the Muslim world , Indonesia does not have diplomatic relations with Israel and has actively supported Palestine . However, observers have pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel, albeit discreetly. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and
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#17328553271052882-438: Is added in the ladle or in the furnace, on the order of 0.5–2.5%, to decrease chill, refine graphite, and increase fluidity. Molybdenum is added on the order of 0.3–1% to increase chill and refine the graphite and pearlite structure; it is often added in conjunction with nickel, copper, and chromium to form high strength irons. Titanium is added as a degasser and deoxidizer, but it also increases fluidity. Vanadium at 0.15–0.5%
3013-439: Is added to cast iron to stabilize cementite, increase hardness, and increase resistance to wear and heat. Zirconium at 0.1–0.3% helps to form graphite, deoxidize, and increase fluidity. In malleable iron melts, bismuth is added at 0.002–0.01% to increase how much silicon can be added. In white iron, boron is added to aid in the production of malleable iron; it also reduces the coarsening effect of bismuth. Grey cast iron
3144-404: Is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in debate. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of
3275-420: Is characterised by its graphitic microstructure, which causes fractures of the material to have a grey appearance. It is the most commonly used cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on weight. Most cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.5–4.0% carbon, 1–3% silicon, and the remainder iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile strength and shock resistance than steel, but its compressive strength
3406-481: Is comparable to low- and medium-carbon steel. These mechanical properties are controlled by the size and shape of the graphite flakes present in the microstructure and can be characterised according to the guidelines given by the ASTM . White cast iron displays white fractured surfaces due to the presence of an iron carbide precipitate called cementite. With a lower silicon content (graphitizing agent) and faster cooling rate,
3537-453: Is difficult to cool thick castings fast enough to solidify the melt as white cast iron all the way through. However, rapid cooling can be used to solidify a shell of white cast iron, after which the remainder cools more slowly to form a core of grey cast iron. The resulting casting, called a chilled casting , has the benefits of a hard surface with a somewhat tougher interior. High-chromium white iron alloys allow massive castings (for example,
3668-524: Is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections , elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019. Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions. The first level are
3799-403: Is generally below average in both regional and global context. Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates. In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of the country's land area, down from 87% in 1950. Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the deforestation in Indonesia . Most recently, it has been driven by
3930-718: Is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire , where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian Plate , where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java , Bali and Nusa Tenggara , and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi . Of
4061-495: Is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species. Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic. Indonesia harbours 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest , and the highest amount of forest carbon in the region. Tropical seas surround Indonesia's 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline. The country has
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4192-595: Is known as the Iron Bridge in Shropshire , England. Cast iron was also used in the construction of buildings . Cast iron is made from pig iron , which is the product of melting iron ore in a blast furnace . Cast iron can be made directly from the molten pig iron or by re-melting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon (coke) and taking various steps to remove undesirable contaminants. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of
4323-591: Is now Taiwan. They arrived in the archipelago around 2,000 BCE and confined the native Melanesians to the far eastern regions as they spread east. Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, from several centuries BCE. Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. From
4454-433: Is one of the most common alloying elements, because it refines the pearlite and graphite structures, improves toughness, and evens out hardness differences between section thicknesses. Chromium is added in small amounts to reduce free graphite, produce chill, and because it is a powerful carbide stabilizer; nickel is often added in conjunction. A small amount of tin can be added as a substitute for 0.5% chromium. Copper
4585-544: Is some policy recognition of OECMs but no national mechanism for reporting them. There are 55 national parks in Indonesia, of which 9 are predominantly marine . Of these 6 are World Heritage Sites , such as the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra that includes three parks. Seven national parks are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and 5 are wetlands of international importance under
4716-542: Is the delegation of power and authority to various regional entities while remaining a unitary state . The President of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government , commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces ( Tentara Nasional Indonesia , TNI), and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. The highest representative body at
4847-693: The Netherlands East Indies ( Nederlandsch Oost Indië ), popularly Indië ; the East ( de Oost ); and Insulinde . After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894 . The first native scholar to use
4978-426: The 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake . Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity , and it is among the 17 megadiverse countries identified by Conservation International . Its flora and fauna are a mixture of Asian and Australasian species. The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia and have
5109-623: The Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes Marine Corps ), and Air Force (TNI–AU). The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget was 0.7% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018, with controversial involvement of military-owned commercial interests and foundations. The Armed Forces were formed during the Indonesian National Revolution when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia. Since then, territorial lines have formed
5240-491: The Bali myna , Sumatran orangutan , and Javan rhinoceros . Some academics describe the deforestation and other environmental destruction in the country as an ecocide . As of 2023, the government of Indonesia has gazetted 21.3% of the country's land as protected areas , with the intention of developing a new protected area strategy in line with global post-2020 framework . The country also has 411 marine reserves , or 9% of
5371-682: The Chirk Aqueduct and the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct , both of which remain in use following the recent restorations. The best way of using cast iron for bridge construction was by using arches , so that all the material is in compression. Cast iron, again like masonry, is very strong in compression. Wrought iron, like most other kinds of iron and indeed like most metals in general, is strong in tension, and also tough – resistant to fracturing. The relationship between wrought iron and cast iron, for structural purposes, may be thought of as analogous to
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5502-516: The Congo region of the Central African forest, blacksmiths invented sophisticated furnaces capable of high temperatures over 1000 years ago. There are countless examples of welding, soldering, and cast iron created in crucibles and poured into molds. These techniques were employed for the use of composite tools and weapons with cast iron or steel blades and soft, flexible wrought iron interiors. Iron wire
5633-586: The Constitutional Court ( Mahkamah Konstitusi ) which listens to constitutional and political matters, and the Religious Court ( Pengadilan Agama ), which deals with codified Islamic Personal Law ( sharia ) cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission ( Komisi Yudisial ) monitors the performance of judges. Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In all legislative elections since
5764-462: The Consumer Price Index have contributed to strong economic growth in recent years. From 2007 to 2019, annual growth accelerated to between 4% and 6% due to improvements in the banking sector and domestic consumption, helping Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession , and regain in 2011 the investment grade rating it had lost in 1997. As of 2019 , 9.41% of the population lived below
5895-491: The Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands , including Sumatra , Java , Sulawesi , and parts of Borneo and New Guinea . Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area , at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country . Java,
6026-671: The Indian subcontinent . Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam , and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery . Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism , Indonesia secured its independence after World War II . Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism,
6157-602: The Japanese invasion and occupation ended Dutch rule and encouraged the independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, influential nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence . Sukarno, Hatta, and Sutan Sjahrir were appointed president, vice-president, and prime minister, respectively. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule. In
6288-515: The Johan Sverdrup partnership. Subsequently, Kvarner was awarded additional work on this scheme. In September 2019, the company announced their plans to target renewable growth and that it was looking to expand its operations in renewable energy to help boost this growth by around 40% in the coming years. One month later, it signed a contract valued at NOK 1.5 billion for Hywind Tampen , the world's largest floating offshore wind farm. Separately,
6419-698: The Maluku Islands . Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602, the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company ( Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie ; VOC) and became the dominant European power for almost 200 years. The VOC was dissolved in 1799 following bankruptcy, and the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony. For most of the colonial period , Dutch control over
6550-735: The Oslo Stock Exchange in 1967. By the 1990s, the company assembled a collection of engineering and industrial businesses, including shipbuilding , construction of offshore oil and gas platforms , production of pulping and paper manufacturing equipment, and operation of a shipping fleet . Directors-general of Kværner after the stock exchange listing were Kjell B. Langballe (1960–1976), Carl Røtjer (1976–1986) and Mikal H. Grønner (1986–1989). Chairmen were Frithjof A. Lind (–1982), Johan B. Holte (1982–1985), Emil Eriksrud (1985–1986), Carl Røtjer (1986–1989), Kaspar Kielland (1989-1996), and then Christian Bjelland (1996-2001). Since 2011,
6681-536: The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). The first general election was held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly ( Konstituante ). The most recent elections in 2019 resulted in nine political parties in the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president
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#17328553271056812-520: The Ramsar convention . Around 9% of the Indonesia surface are national parks. As of 2012 Indonesia had over 100 marine protected areas covering an area of 15.7 million ha, of which 32 where managed by the Ministry of Forestry while the rest where managed by local governments. In 2009 the president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono declared a target of reaching 20 million hectares by 2020. In 2010 Indonesia also set out
6943-683: The UNHRC have raised the issue of human rights abuses committed by Indonesian troops in Papua such as extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances. Past engagements of the army include the conflict against the Netherlands over the Dutch New Guinea , the opposition to the British -sponsored creation of Malaysia (" Konfrontasi "), the mass killings of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and
7074-531: The Warring States period . This is based on an analysis of the artifact's microstructures. Because cast iron is comparatively brittle, it is not suitable for purposes where a sharp edge or flexibility is required. It is strong under compression, but not under tension. Cast iron was invented in China in the 5th century BC and poured into molds to make ploughshares and pots as well as weapons and pagodas. Although steel
7205-483: The Weber Line . In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago , Wallace described numerous species unique to the area. The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea . Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues . They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Problems include
7336-672: The invasion of East Timor , the latter having been Indonesia's most massive military operation. Indonesia has a mixed economy in which the private sector and government play vital roles. As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia, the country has the largest economy in the region and is classified as a newly industrialised country . Per a 2023 estimate, it is the world's 16th largest economy by nominal GDP and 7th in terms of GDP at PPP , estimated to be US$ 1.417 trillion and US$ 4.393 trillion, respectively. Per capita GDP in PPP
7467-436: The palm oil industry, which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities. The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened and 15 as critically endangered, including
7598-436: The provinces , which have a legislature ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah , DPRD) and an elected governor . A total of 38 provinces have been established from the original eight in 1945, the most recent change being the split of Southwest Papua from the province of West Papua in 2022. The second level are the regencies ( kabupaten ) and cities ( kota ), led by regents ( bupati ) and mayors ( walikota ), respectively, and
7729-403: The surface tension to form the graphite into spheroidal particles rather than flakes. Due to their lower aspect ratio , the spheroids are relatively short and far from one another, and have a lower cross section vis-a-vis a propagating crack or phonon . They also have blunt boundaries, as opposed to flakes, which alleviates the stress concentration problems found in grey cast iron. In general,
7860-410: The tropical rainforest climate found on every large island of Indonesia. Cooler climate types exist in mountainous regions that are 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb ) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates ,
7991-684: The 13th century and other travellers subsequently noted an iron industry in the Alburz Mountains to the south of the Caspian Sea . This is close to the silk route , thus the use of cast-iron technology being derived from China is conceivable. Upon its introduction to the West in the 15th century it was used for cannon and shot . Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547) initiated the casting of cannon in England. Soon, English iron workers using blast furnaces developed
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#17328553271058122-528: The 1720s and 1730s by a small number of other coke -fired blast furnaces. Application of the steam engine to power blast bellows (indirectly by pumping water to a waterwheel) in Britain, beginning in 1743 and increasing in the 1750s, was a key factor in increasing the production of cast iron, which surged in the following decades. In addition to overcoming the limitation on water power, the steam-pumped-water powered blast gave higher furnace temperatures which allowed
8253-413: The 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural self-sufficiency. A gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the late 1960s and accelerated in the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus on diversifying away from oil exports and towards manufactured exports. This development continued throughout the 1980s and into the next decade despite the 1990 oil price shock , during which
8384-411: The 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active. Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java. Volcanic ash has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali. A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It
8515-650: The CEO has been Jan Arve Haugan. Erik Tønseth became director-general of Kværner in 1989, and under his leadership the company underwent large-scale international expansion, acquiring the state-owned Govan Shipbuilders from British Shipbuilders . During 1992, Kværner acquired the Swedish company Götaverken . In 1996, Kværner acquired the British conglomerate Trafalgar House , after which it moved its international headquarters from Oslo to London . During January 1996, Kvaerner purchased
8646-620: The Cold War. Numerous attempts by the United States and the Soviet Union , and China to some degree, culminated in the 1965 coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign policy. Quiet alignment with the Western world while maintaining a non-aligned stance has characterised Indonesia's foreign policy since then. Today, it maintains close relations with its neighbours and
8777-541: The GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%. As a result, the official poverty rate fell from 60% to 15%. Trade barriers reduction from the mid-1980s made the economy more globally integrated. The growth ended with the 1997 Asian financial crisis that severely impacted the economy, including a 13.1% real GDP contraction in 1998 and a 78% inflation. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth. Relatively steady inflation and an increase in GDP deflator and
8908-588: The Industrial Revolution, cast iron was also widely used for frame and other fixed parts of machinery, including spinning and later weaving machines in textile mills. Cast iron became widely used, and many towns had foundries producing industrial and agricultural machinery. Indonesia Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania , between
9039-504: The Philippines , Australia , Palau , and India . Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity . The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and
9170-510: The Philippines, Palau, and Australia. At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest rivers are in Kalimantan and New Guinea and include Kapuas , Barito , Mamberamo , Sepik and Mahakam . They serve as communication and transport links between
9301-584: The Sergey Zavyalov ( Russian : Сергей Завьялов ) associated with early 1990s established Ako Barss Group ( Russian : "Ако Барсс Груп" ) which sold the shipyard to Rossiya Bank owners who placed the shipyard in the United Shipbuilding Corporation (USC) in 2012. In August 2000, Kværner sold its Construction Division to the Swedish company Skanska . The economic slowdown in 2001 coupled with
9432-488: The UN) scattered over both sides of the equator, around 6,000 of which are inhabited. The largest are Sumatra , Java , Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi , and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo and Sebatik , Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, East Timor on the island of Timor , and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam,
9563-581: The United Nations, World Trade Organization , G20 , and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement , Association of Southeast Asian Nations , East Asia Summit , D-8 , APEC , and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos ( Ἰνδός ) and nesos ( νῆσος ), meaning "Indian islands". The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating
9694-488: The alloy's composition. The eutectic carbides form as bundles of hollow hexagonal rods and grow perpendicular to the hexagonal basal plane. The hardness of these carbides are within the range of 1500-1800HV. Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting that is then heat treated for a day or two at about 950 °C (1,740 °F) and then cooled over a day or two. As a result, the carbon in iron carbide transforms into graphite and ferrite plus carbon. The slow process allows
9825-461: The archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816 . The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and
9956-562: The archipelago was tenuous. Dutch forces were engaged continuously in quelling rebellions on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku , and the Aceh War weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces. Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. During World War II,
10087-473: The basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. The military has possessed a strong political influence since its founding, which peaked during the New Order . Political reforms in 1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation from the legislature. Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level. Since independence,
10218-573: The beginning of the Indonesian National Revolution , the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the face of international pressure in December 1949, following the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference . Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence. As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing
10349-429: The benefit of what is called precipitation hardening (as in some steels, where much smaller cementite precipitates might inhibit [plastic deformation] by impeding the movement of dislocations through the pure iron ferrite matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron simply by virtue of their own very high hardness and their substantial volume fraction, such that the bulk hardness can be approximated by
10480-520: The blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale. Other inventions followed, including one patented by Thomas Paine . Cast-iron bridges became commonplace as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace. Thomas Telford adopted the material for his bridge upstream at Buildwas , and then for Longdon-on-Tern Aqueduct , a canal trough aqueduct at Longdon-on-Tern on the Shrewsbury Canal . It was followed by
10611-531: The bolt holes were also cast and not drilled. Thus, because of casting's draft angle, the tension from the tie bars was placed on the hole's edge rather than being spread over the length of the hole. The replacement bridge was built in wrought iron and steel. Further bridge collapses occurred, however, culminating in the Norwood Junction rail accident of 1891. Thousands of cast-iron rail underbridges were eventually replaced by steel equivalents by 1900 owing to
10742-522: The carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as the metastable phase cementite , Fe 3 C, rather than graphite. The cementite which precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles. As the iron carbide precipitates out, it withdraws carbon from the original melt, moving the mixture toward one that is closer to eutectic , and the remaining phase is the lower iron-carbon austenite (which on cooling might transform to martensite ). These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide
10873-439: The carbon to separate as spheroidal particles as the material solidifies. The properties are similar to malleable iron, but parts can be cast with larger sections. Cast iron and wrought iron can be produced unintentionally when smelting copper using iron ore as a flux. The earliest cast-iron artifacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County , Jiangsu in China during
11004-451: The company entered into a strategic collaboration with Nel ASA on green hydrogen projects, including the prospective development of large scale hydrogen production plants. During July 2020, Aker Solutions announced major restructuring plans, centering on its merger with Kvaerner and the spinning off of its wind development and carbon capture and storage businesses into two separate Oslo-listed entities. Cast iron Cast iron
11135-532: The company. Kjell Almskog became Kværner's CEO in 1998, and implemented various plans to streamline the company. This included the sale of the Cunard Line (a division of Trafalgar House) to Carnival Corporation , the sale of Kvaerner Govan to BAE Systems and the sale of Chemrec to Babcock Borsig . On 10 March 2000, Kvaerner sold the Vyborg Shipyard, which was losing money and faced closure during 1999, to
11266-621: The cotton, hemp , or wool being spun. As a result, textile mills had an alarming propensity to burn down. The solution was to build them completely of non-combustible materials, and it was found convenient to provide the building with an iron frame, largely of cast iron, replacing flammable wood. The first such building was at Ditherington in Shrewsbury , Shropshire. Many other warehouses were built using cast-iron columns and beams, although faulty designs, flawed beams or overloading sometimes caused building collapses and structural failures. During
11397-499: The country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis . It brought out popular discontent with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency. In 1999, East Timor seceded from Indonesia, following its 1975 invasion by Indonesia and a 25-year occupation marked by international condemnation of human rights abuses . Since 1998, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing regional autonomy and instituting
11528-456: The country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies and separatist movements. Some, notably in Aceh and Papua , have led to an armed conflict and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides. The former was resolved peacefully in 2005, while the latter has continued amid a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws. Reports from Amnesty , Human Rights Watch , and
11659-493: The country's first direct presidential election in 2004 . Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of terrorism remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly since 2007. Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh
11790-415: The country's total maritime area, and has set a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a 2023 study suggested this target is not on track and that existing marine reserves are poorly managed. Around 390 marine areas are managed in some way by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for these to be considered other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs). There
11921-432: The destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal deforestation (causing extensive haze across parts of Southeast Asia ), over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage management, and reliable water and wastewater services . These issues contribute to Indonesia's low ranking (number 116 out of 180 countries) in the 2020 Environmental Performance Index . The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance
12052-526: The development of steel-framed skyscrapers. Cast iron was also used sometimes for decorative facades, especially in the United States, and the Soho district of New York has numerous examples. It was also used occasionally for complete prefabricated buildings, such as the historic Iron Building in Watervliet, New York . Another important use was in textile mills . The air in the mills contained flammable fibres from
12183-531: The dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. The first Europeans arrived in the archipelago in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão , sought to monopolise the sources of nutmeg , cloves , and cubeb pepper in
12314-407: The early 2000s, Kværner was approached multiple times by its long time rival Aker ASA , a Norwegian oil services group controlled by Kjell Inge Røkke . During November 2001, in order to avoid bankruptcy, Kværner was compelled to merge with Aker. Røkke scuppered the solution preferred by Kværner's management, which was a rescue by Yukos. Kværner's international headquarters returned to Oslo and Kværner
12445-520: The effects of sulfur, manganese is added, because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide. The manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt, so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag . The amount of manganese required to neutralize sulfur is 1.7 × sulfur content + 0.3%. If more than this amount of manganese is added, then manganese carbide forms, which increases hardness and chilling , except in grey iron, where up to 1% of manganese increases strength and density. Nickel
12576-636: The executive branch. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance, while the DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. Most civil disputes appear before the State Court ( Pengadilan Negeri ); appeals are heard before the High Court ( Pengadilan Tinggi ). The Supreme Court of Indonesia ( Mahkamah Agung ) is the highest level of the judicial branch and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include
12707-691: The fall of the New Order , no political party has won an overall majority of seats. The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) secured the most votes in the 2024 general election , becoming their third consecutive wins since 2014. Other notable parties include the Party of the Functional Groups ( Golkar ), the Great Indonesia Movement Party ( Gerindra ), the Democratic Party , and
12838-416: The firm's heavy debt burden and a series of management missteps brought the company to the brink of bankruptcy . Hugo Erikssen, a director of public relations at Yukos , and Oleg Sheiko (Russian: Олег Шейко ), Yukos' vice president for finance, and Alexey Golubovich (Russian: Алексей Голубович ), who was Yukos' "director of corporate finance" until 2001, supported Kværner with mergers and financing. During
12969-582: The formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl , an English ethnologist , proposed the terms Indunesians —and, his preference, Malayunesians —for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago ". In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan , used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago . Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia . They preferred Malay Archipelago ( Dutch : Maleische Archipel );
13100-438: The frequency of drought and food shortages (with an impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet and dry seasons, and thus Indonesia's agriculture system ) as well as numerous diseases and wildfires. Rising sea levels would also threaten most of Indonesia's population, who live in low-lying coastal areas. Impoverished communities would likely be affected the most by climate change. Tectonically , most of Indonesia's area
13231-502: The heavy debt burden built up by acquiring these businesses, some of which were actually unprofitable, jeopardised the company's continued existence by the start of the twenty-first century. Efforts to stabilise the company included the selling off of Cunard Line and its construction division, as well as the receipt of financial support from senior figures within the Russian oil company Yukos . However, in order to avoid bankruptcy , Kværner
13362-495: The interiors of Kalimantan and Papua, and less in areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, which tends to be relatively dry. The almost uniformly warm waters that constitute 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that land temperatures remain relatively constant. Humidity is quite high, at between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in May through October and from
13493-419: The island's river settlements. Indonesia lies along the equator, and its climate tends to be relatively even year-round. Indonesia has two seasons—a dry season and a wet season —with no extremes of summer or winter. For most parts of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October, while the wet season falls between November and April. Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical , dominated by
13624-526: The lower edge in tension, where cast iron, like masonry , is very weak. Nevertheless, cast iron continued to be used in inappropriate structural ways, until the Tay Rail Bridge disaster of 1879 cast serious doubt on the use of the material. Crucial lugs for holding tie bars and struts in the Tay Bridge had been cast integral with the columns, and they failed in the early stages of the accident. In addition,
13755-406: The molten iron, but this also burns out the carbon, which must be replaced. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, which may be anywhere from 2–3.5% and 1–3%, respectively. If desired, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting . Cast iron is sometimes melted in a special type of blast furnace known as
13886-511: The name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in 1913, he established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau . Fossilised remains of Homo erectus , popularly known as the " Java Man ", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. Homo sapiens reached the region around 43,000 BCE. Austronesian peoples , who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what
14017-625: The national level is the People's Consultative Assembly ( Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat , MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising broad outlines of state policy. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat , DPR), with 575 members, and the Regional Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Daerah , DPD), with 136. The DPR passes legislation and monitors
14148-550: The north and west in November through April. Typhoons and large-scale storms pose little hazard to mariners; significant dangers come from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits. Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change . These include unreduced emissions resulting in an average temperature rise of around 1 °C (2 °F) by mid-century, raising
14279-425: The only ones where the indigenous people have privileges in their local government. Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies. The country adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking a role in regional affairs in proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among other countries. Indonesia was a significant battleground during
14410-484: The opposing forces of the military , political Islam, and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in an attempted coup in 1965. The army, led by Major General Suharto , countered by instigating a violent anti-communist purge that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in concentration camps . The PKI
14541-544: The poverty line, and the official open unemployment rate was 5.28%. During the first year of the global COVID-19 pandemic , the economy suffered its first recession since the 1997 crisis but recovered in the following year. Indonesia has abundant natural resources. Its primary industries are fishing, petroleum, timber, paper products, cotton cloth, tourism, petroleum mining, natural gas, bauxite, coal, and tin. Its main agricultural products are rice, coconuts, soybeans, bananas, coffee, tea, palm, rubber, and sugar cane. Indonesia
14672-418: The properties of malleable cast iron are more like those of mild steel . There is a limit to how large a part can be cast in malleable iron, as it is made from white cast iron. Developed in 1948, nodular or ductile cast iron has its graphite in the form of very tiny nodules with the graphite in the form of concentric layers forming the nodules. As a result, the properties of ductile cast iron are that of
14803-683: The relationship between wood and stone. Cast-iron beam bridges were used widely by the early railways, such as the Water Street Bridge in 1830 at the Manchester terminus of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , but problems with its use became all too apparent when a new bridge carrying the Chester and Holyhead Railway across the River Dee in Chester collapsed killing five people in May 1847, less than
14934-475: The retention of carbon and the formation of those carbides. Nickel and copper increase strength and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. Carbon as graphite produces a softer iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength, and decreases density. Sulfur , largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide , which prevents the formation of graphite and increases hardness . Sulfur makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter
15065-450: The seventh century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished due to trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism . Between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan . The Hindu Majapahit kingdom
15196-438: The subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb ) is more pronounced during dry season. Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra , experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season and floods in the wet season. Rainfall varies across regions, with more in western Sumatra, Java, and
15327-501: The technique of producing cast-iron cannons, which, while heavier than the prevailing bronze cannons, were much cheaper and enabled England to arm her navy better. Cast-iron pots were made at many English blast furnaces at the time. In 1707, Abraham Darby patented a new method of making pots (and kettles) thinner and hence cheaper than those made by traditional methods. This meant that his Coalbrookdale furnaces became dominant as suppliers of pots, an activity in which they were joined in
15458-556: The use of higher lime ratios, enabling the conversion from charcoal (supplies of wood for which were inadequate) to coke. The ironmasters of the Weald continued producing cast irons until the 1760s, and armament was one of the main uses of irons after the Restoration . The use of cast iron for structural purposes began in the late 1770s, when Abraham Darby III built The Iron Bridge , although short beams had already been used, such as in
15589-633: The village ( desa ) is divided into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), which are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have become chief administrative units responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles village or neighbourhood matters through an elected village head ( lurah or kepala desa ). Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua , Central Papua , Highland Papua , South Papua , Southwest Papua , and West Papua —are granted
15720-518: The widespread concern about cast iron under bridges on the rail network in Britain. Cast-iron columns , pioneered in mill buildings, enabled architects to build multi-storey buildings without the enormously thick walls required for masonry buildings of any height. They also opened up floor spaces in factories, and sight lines in churches and auditoriums. By the mid 19th century, cast iron columns were common in warehouse and industrial buildings, combined with wrought or cast iron beams, eventually leading to
15851-523: The world's most populous island , is home to more than half of the country's population. Indonesia is a presidential republic with an elected legislature . It has 38 provinces , of which nine have special autonomous status . The country's largest city, Jakarta , is the world's second-most-populous urban area . Indonesia shares land borders with Papua New Guinea , East Timor , and the eastern part of Malaysia , as well as maritime borders with Singapore , Peninsular Malaysia , Vietnam , Thailand ,
15982-656: Was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Indonesia is a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group , the World Trade Organization (WTO), and a former member of OPEC . Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967, and recently, the country established its first overseas aid programme in late 2019. Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include
16113-575: Was achieved in 2005. Indonesia is the southernmost country in Asia. The country lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E . A transcontinental country spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania, it is the world's largest archipelagic state , extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south. The country's Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at
16244-457: Was also produced. Numerous testimonies were made by early European missionaries of the Luba people pouring cast iron into molds to make hoes. These technological innovations were accomplished without the invention of the blast furnace which was the prerequisite for the deployment of such innovations in Europe and Asia. The technology of cast iron was transferred to the West from China. Al-Qazvini in
16375-450: Was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno , Suharto was appointed president in March 1968. His US-backed "New Order" administration encouraged foreign direct investment , which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. Indonesia was
16506-624: Was compelled to merge with its long time rival Aker ASA . During 2004, Kværner was amalgamated into the newly formed subsidiary of Aker ASA - Aker Kværner, which was renamed Aker Solutions on 3 April 2008. On 6 May 2011, Kværner re-emerged when the EPC (engineering, procurement and construction) part of Aker Solutions took the Kværner name. The new Kværner company was listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange on 8 July 2011. However, during 2020, Aker Solutions opted to restructure and merge with Kvaerne. Kvaerner Brug
16637-449: Was founded in Oslo in 1853 by industrialist Oluf A. Onsum (1820-1899). Early on, the primary activity of the business was its involvement in the production of cast iron stoves . In 1870, Kvaerner built its first hydroelectric turbine . During the early 1900s, Kvaerner power turbines remained the principal product line, which also included bridges, cranes, and pumps. Kvaerner was listed on
16768-401: Was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada , its influence stretched over much of present-day Indonesia. This period is often referred to as the "Golden Age" in Indonesian history. The earliest evidence of Islamized populations in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra . Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was
16899-410: Was more desirable, cast iron was cheaper and thus was more commonly used for implements in ancient China, while wrought iron or steel was used for weapons. The Chinese developed a method of annealing cast iron by keeping hot castings in an oxidizing atmosphere for a week or longer in order to burn off some carbon near the surface in order to keep the surface layer from being too brittle. Deep within
17030-453: Was restructured to become a holding company, with operating activities concentrated in Aker Kværner and Aker Yards . During 2005, Kværner ASA was merged with Aker Maritime Finance AS, a wholly owned company of Aker ASA, as a result of which the Kværner corporation ceased to exist. During 2008, Aker Kvaerner changed its name to Aker Solutions ASA . In December 2010, Aker Solutions announced
17161-511: Was used in ancient China to mass-produce weaponry for warfare, as well as agriculture and architecture. During the 15th century AD, cast iron became utilized for cannons and shot in Burgundy , France, and in England during the Reformation . The amounts of cast iron used for cannons required large-scale production. The first cast-iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III , and
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