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40-765: For centuries, until the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, the town belonged to Lelów County of the Kraków Voivodeship . Annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia as part of New Silesia in 1807, it was passed to the Duchy of Warsaw , and then Congress Poland . In 1918 it returned to Poland, and was part of Kielce Voivodeship . After World War II , Krzepice remained in Kielce Voivodeship until 1950, when it became part of Katowice Voivodeship . The name Krzepice, mentioned for

80-679: A Jewish community in dealings with the Nazi authorities . The Germans required Jews to form Judenräte across the occupied territories at local and sometimes national levels. Judenräte were particularly common in Nazi ghettos in Eastern Europe where in some cases, such as the Łódź Ghetto , and in Theresienstadt , they were known as the "Jewish Council of Elders" ( Jüdischer Ältestenrat or Ältestenrat der Juden ). Jewish communities themselves had established councils for self-government as early as

120-664: A close ally, for Prussian participation in the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France , because Russia had encouraged Prussian participation, and because Prussia had recently suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Valmy , Prussia should be compensated – preferably with parts of the Polish territory. Russia soon decided to accept the Prussian offer. On 23 January 1793, Prussia signed

160-598: A few over the rest of the community. Thus, the members of the community quickly became highly critical of, or even outright opposed their Judenrat . Tadeusz Piotrowski cites Jewish survivor Baruch Milch stating "Judenrat became an instrument in the hand of the Gestapo for extermination of the Jews... I do not know of a single instance when the Judenrat would help some Jew in a disinterested manner," though Piotrowski cautions that "Milch's

200-535: A treaty with Russia, agreeing that Polish reforms would be revoked and both countries would receive broad swaths of Commonwealth territory. Russian and Prussian troops took control of the territories they claimed, with Russian troops already present, and Prussian troops meeting only limited resistance. In 1793, deputies to the Grodno Sejm , the last Sejm of the Commonwealth, in the presence of Russian forces, agreed to

240-740: Is a particular account of a particular place and time... the behavior of Judenrat members was not uniform." The question of whether participation in the Judenrat constituted collaboration with the Germans remains a controversial issue to this day. The view that Jewish councils collaborated in the Holocaust has been challenged by Holocaust historians including Isaiah Trunk in his 1972 book, Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation . Summarizing Trunk's research, Holocaust scholar Michael Berenbaum writes: "In

280-506: The Judenräte included turning over community members for deportation. Ultimately, these policies and the cooperation of Jewish authorities led to massive Jewish deaths with few German casualties because of the minimal resistance. Once under Nazi control and checked for weapons, large numbers of Jews could ultimately be easily murdered or enslaved. The sadness of the catastrophically large number of deaths because of this lack of resistance led to

320-702: The Kiev Voivodeship , Bracław Voivodeship , Podole Voivodeship and Minsk Voivodeship , and parts of the Vilnius Voivodeship , Nowogródek Voivodeship , Brest Litovsk Voivodeship and the Volhynian Voivodeship . This was accepted by the Grodno Sejm on 22 July. Russia reorganized its newly acquired territories into Minsk Viceroyalty and Izyaslav Viceroyalty (which in 1795 was split into Podolian and Volhynian Viceroyalties ). Prussia received

360-640: The Kościuszko Uprising began. The defeat of the Uprising in November that year resulted in the final Third Partition of Poland , ending the existence of the Commonwealth. Judenrat A Judenrat ( German: [ˈjuːdn̩ˌʁaːt] , lit.   ' Jewish council ' ) was an administrative body established in German-occupied Europe during World War II which purported to represent

400-788: The Middle Ages . The Jewish community used the Hebrew term Kahal (קהל) or Kehillah (קהילה), whereas the German authorities generally used the term Judenräte . The structure and missions of the Judenräte under the Nazi regime varied widely, often depending upon whether meant for a single ghetto , a city or a whole region. Jurisdiction over a whole country, as in Nazi Germany , was maintained by Reichsvereinigung der Juden in Deutschland (Reich's Association of

440-572: The Reichskanzler , a German People's Ward was then to assume responsibility of this group. As the leading Jewish organization, it was envisioned that this association would have a 25-member council called the Judenrat . However, the report was not officially acted upon. The Israeli historian Dan Michman found it likely that the commission, which considered the legal status and interactions of Jews and non-Jews before their emancipation , reached back to

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480-566: The Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia . The division was ratified by the coerced Polish parliament ( Sejm ) in 1793 (see the Grodno Sejm ) in a short-lived attempt to prevent the inevitable complete annexation of Poland, the Third Partition. By 1790, on the political front, the Commonwealth had deteriorated into such a helpless condition that it was forced into an alliance with its enemy, Prussia. The Polish-Prussian Pact of 1790

520-624: The Soviet Union . The Judenräte were to serve as a means to enforce the occupation force's anti-Jewish regulations and laws in the western and central areas of Poland, and had no authority of their own. Ideally, a local Judenrat was to include rabbis and other influential people of their local Jewish community. Thus, enforcement of laws could be better facilitated by the German authorities by using established Jewish authority figures and personages, while undermining external influences. Further Judenräte were established on 18 November 1939, upon

560-711: The Commonwealth. The Empress Catherine II was angered; arguing that Poland had fallen prey to the radical Jacobinism then at high tide in France, Russian forces invaded the Commonwealth in 1792. During the Polish–Russian War of 1792 in Defense of the Constitution, the Polish forces supporting the Constitution fought against the Imperial Russian Army , invited by the pro-Russian alliance of Polish magnates , known as

600-466: The Germans requiring them to deliver community members for forced labor or deportation to concentration camps , placed them in the position of cooperating with the German occupiers. To resist such orders was to risk summary execution , or quick replacement and inclusion in the next concentration-camp shipment. In a number of cases, such as the Minsk ghetto and the Łachwa ghetto , Judenräte cooperated with

640-582: The Jews in Germany) established on 4 July 1939. In the beginning of April 1933, shortly after the National Socialist government took power, a report by a German governmental commission on fighting the Jews was presented. This report recommended the creation of a recognized 'Association of Jews in Germany' ( Verband der Juden in Deutschland ), to which all Jews in Germany would be forced to associate. Appointed by

680-564: The Medieval Era for the term Judenräte . This illuminates the apparent intent to make the Jewish emancipation and assimilation invalid, and so return Jews to the status they held during the Medieval Era. The first actual Judenräte were established in occupied Poland under Reinhard Heydrich 's orders on 21 September 1939, during the German assault on Poland , and later in the occupied territories of

720-401: The Nazi occupiers and their Jewish communities. In general, the Judenräte represented the elite from their Jewish communities. Often, a Judenrat had a group for internal security and control, a Jewish Ghetto Police (German: Jüdische Ghetto-Polizei or Jüdischer Ordnungsdienst). They also attempted to manage the government services normally found in a city, such as those named above. However,

760-626: The Polish nation ); the town was then occupied by Germany until 1945. Krzepice had a sizeable Jewish community, 43% of the town's population, before World War II. In early 1940, the Germans set up an open type ghetto there with about 1,800 inmates, along with Judenrat and the Jewish police . The Jews were forced to perform slave labor until the liquidation of the ghetto in June and July 1942, when most of them were sent by train to Auschwitz extermination camp and murdered. Those who remained were deported to

800-498: The Polish–Lithuanian lands. What was left of the Commonwealth was a small buffer state with a puppet king, and Russian garrisons keeping an eye on the reduced army . Targowica confederates, who did not expect another partition, and the king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, who joined them near the end, both lost much prestige and support. The reformers, on the other hand, were attracting increasing support. In March 1794

840-621: The Russian and Prussian territorial demands. The Grodno Sejm became infamous not only as the last sejm of the Commonwealth, but because its deputies had been bribed and coerced by the Russians (Russia and Prussia wanted legal sanction from Poland for their demands). Imperial Russia annexed 250,000 square kilometres (97,000 sq mi), while Prussia took 58,000 square kilometres (22,000 sq mi). The Commonwealth lost about 307,000 km , being reduced to 215,000 km . Russia received

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880-531: The Targowica Confederation, as demanded by the Russians. Russia invaded Poland to ensure the defeat of the Polish reforms, with no overt goal of another partition (it viewed Poland as its protectorate , and saw little need to give up chunks of Poland to other countries). Frederick William II of Prussia , however, saw those events as an opportunity to strengthen his country. Frederick demanded from Catherine that for his country's abandoning Poland as

920-463: The Targowica Confederation. The conservative nobility (see also, szlachta ) believed that the Russians would help them restore their Golden Liberty . Abandoned by their Prussian allies, the badly outnumbered Polish pro-Constitution forces fought under Prince Józef Poniatowski a defensive war with some measure of success, but were ordered to abandon their efforts by their supreme commander, King Stanisław August Poniatowski . The King decided to join

960-410: The boundaries of the town. In its center there was a main market square, with six streets, and with parish church of St. Jacob. Due to convenient location, near the border with Silesia (which at that time was part of Kingdom of Bohemia ), Krzepice became a local trade center, with fairs , and three market squares. This corner of the Kingdom of Poland was located away from main military conflicts, and

1000-575: The cities of Gdańsk (Danzig) and Toruń (Thorn), and Gniezno Voivodeship , Poznań Voivodeship , Sieradz Voivodeship , Kalisz Voivodeship , Płock Voivodeship , Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship , Inowrocław Voivodeship , Dobrzyń Land , and parts of the Kraków Voivodeship , Rawa Voivodeship and Masovian Voivodeship . This was accepted by the Grodno Sejm on 23 September or 25 September (sources vary). Prussia organized its newly acquired territories into South Prussia . The Commonwealth lost about 5 million people; only about 4 million people remained in

1040-408: The councils were often determined by the occupiers. While the German occupiers only minimally involved themselves in the voting, those whom the Germans first chose often refused participation to avoid becoming exploited by the occupiers. As a rule, therefore, the traditional speaker of the community was named and elected, preserving the community continuity. The Nazis systematically sought to weaken

1080-531: The final analysis, the Judenräte had no influence on the frightful outcome of the Holocaust ; the Nazi extermination machine was alone responsible for the tragedy, and the Jews in the occupied territories, most especially Poland , were far too powerless to prevent it." This remains a topic of considerable scholarly disagreement. Judenräte were responsible for the internal administration of ghettos, standing between

1120-472: The first time in 1356 as Crzepycze , comes from a last name Krzepa ; most probably, members of this family lived in the area of the town. In a Latin language medieval document of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław ( Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis ), written in 1295–1305, Krzepice is spelled Crippicz antiquum . In the Middle Ages , Krzepice was a border town, guarding

1160-529: The ghetto in Sosnowiec . Only a handful survived the Holocaust ; most subsequently left Poland. The stone-and-brick synagogue in Krzepice, built around 1822, still stands, although unused and in a dilapidated state. The historic Jewish Cemetery is close by. Main highway connections from the Krzepice include those with Wieluń (to the north-west) and Częstochowa (to the south-east) via National road 43 . A bypass of

1200-552: The lower leagues. Second Partition of Poland The 1793 Second Partition of Poland was the second of three partitions (or partial annexations ) that ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795. The second partition occurred in the aftermath of the Polish–Russian War of 1792 and the Targowica Confederation of 1792, and was approved by its territorial beneficiaries,

1240-581: The mid-13th century. In 1370, King Louis I of Poland granted Krzepice as a temporary feudal fee to Duke Władysław Opolczyk . After a few years, the town was directly reintegrated with Poland. It was a royal town of the Polish Crown , administratively located in the Lelów County in the Kraków Voivodeship in the Lesser Poland Province . On March 15, 1552, King Sigismund II Augustus specified

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1280-476: The northwestern corner of Lesser Poland. In the 12th century, a wooden stronghold was built here, then it was replaced by a wooden castle, which in the 14th century was rebuilt into a stone complex. Today, only parts of a moat is all that remains of the castle. In 1357, King Casimir III the Great erected a parish church. Krzepice was most probably incorporated in 1357, but there is speculation that it had taken place in

1320-600: The occupier's forced measures and to win time. One way was to delay transfer and implementation of orders and to try playing conflicting demands of competing German interests against each other. They presented their efforts as indispensable for the Germans in managing the Jewish community, in order to improve the resources of the Jews and to move the Germans to repeal collective punishments. This had, however, very limited positive results. The generally difficult situations presented often led to perceived unfair actions, such as personality preferences, sycophancy , and protectionism of

1360-541: The orders of Hans Frank , head of the Generalgouvernment . These councils were to have 12 members for Jewish communities of 10,000 or fewer, and up to 24 members for larger Jewish communities. Jewish communities were to elect their own councils, and by the end of 1939 were to have selected an executive and assistant executive as well. Results were to be presented to the German city or county controlling officer for recognition. While theoretically democratic, in reality

1400-406: The resistance potential and opportunities of the Jews of Central and Eastern Europe . The early Judenräte were foremost to report numbers of their Jewish populations, clear residences and turn them over, present workers for forced labour, confiscate valuables, and collect tribute and turn these over. Failure to comply would incur the risk of collective punishments or other measures. Later tasks of

1440-479: The saying "never again". Through these occupation measures, and the simultaneous prevention of government services, the Jewish communities suffered serious shortages. For this reason, early Judenräte attempted to establish replacement service institutions of their own. They tried to organize food distribution, aid stations, old age homes, orphanages and schools. At the same time, given their restricted circumstances and remaining options, they attempted to work against

1480-580: The status of a village, as a reprisal for its inhabitants' participation in the January Uprising . In 1914, a dairy cooperative was founded in Krzepice. Krzepice regained its town status in 1919, when already it was part of Kielce Voivodeship of the Second Polish Republic . On September 3, 1939, during the German invasion of Poland which started World War II , German troops committed a massacre of 30 Poles in Krzepice (see Nazi crimes against

1520-572: The town prospered, especially in the period known as Polish Golden Age . It changed during the Swedish invasion of Poland (1655–1656), when both Krzepice and the ancient castle were destroyed by the Swedes. Ruins of the castle remained until 1927, when they were finally demolished. The town frequently burned (1450, 1527, 1656, 1867, 1881, 1903, 1904 1906), which was due to its wooden architecture. In 1870, Russian authorities of Congress Poland reduced Krzepice to

1560-512: The town was opened in 2009. Krzepice is linked by rail to Wieluń and Katowice , with a station, on a line from Herby Nowe to Wieluń, built in 1926. The officially protected traditional foods from Krzepice are local butter ( masło krzepickie ) and quark ( twaróg krzepicki ), as designated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland . The town is home to a football club, Liswarta Krzepice, established in 1946. It competes in

1600-468: Was signed, giving false hope that the Commonwealth might have at last found an ally that would shield it while it reformed itself. The May Constitution of 1791 enfranchised the bourgeoisie, established the separation of the three branches of government, and eliminated the abuses of the Repnin Sejm . Those reforms prompted aggressive actions on the part of its neighbours, wary of the potential renaissance of

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