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44-566: Kresge Auditorium (MIT Building W16) is an auditorium structure at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , located at 48 Massachusetts Avenue , Cambridge, Massachusetts . It was designed by the Finnish-American architect Eero Saarinen , with ground-breaking in 1953 and dedication in 1955. The building was named for its principal funder, Sebastian S. Kresge , founder of S. S. Kresge Stores (corporate predecessor of Kmart ) and

88-451: A learning space . The term is taken from Latin (from audītōrium , from audītōrius ("pertaining to hearing")); the concept is taken from the Greek auditorium, which had a series of semi-circular seating shelves in the theatre , divided by broad 'belts', called diazomata , with eleven rows of seats between each. The audience in a modern theatre are usually separated from the performers by

132-462: A circular red brick platform, the dome contains a concert hall (with seating for 1,226 people), plus a lower level that houses a small theater (seating 177), two rehearsal rooms, dressing rooms, offices, bathrooms, and lounges. The main stage is paneled with warm-colored vertical wood elements that echo the vertical glass panels of the building's facade. The concert hall also contains a Holtkamp acoustic pipe organ , whose pipes visually resonate as

176-445: A partially lax phonation called breathy voice or murmured voice (transcribed in IPA with a subscript umlaut ◌̤ ), while Burmese has vowels with a partially tense phonation called creaky voice or laryngealized voice (transcribed in IPA with a subscript tilde ◌̰ ). The Jalapa dialect of Mazatec is unusual in contrasting both with modal voice in a three-way distinction. (Mazatec

220-493: A sequence of vertical elements of varying heights. The opening ceremony in 1955 featured that organ, including a piece of music that was commissioned for the event, Aaron Copland 's Canticle of Freedom . Every seat in the concert hall has an unobstructed view, since there are no interior supports for the overarching dome. Working with acoustical architects Bolt, Beranek and Newman , architect Saarinen employed free-hanging acoustic "clouds" that absorb and direct sound, instead of

264-537: A traditional plaster ceiling. These clouds also contain lights, loudspeakers , and ventilation . There is excellent acoustic isolation between the main auditorium and the Kresge Little Theater directly below it. Performances can occur simultaneously in the two spaces, without interference. For many decades, the Little Theater was the primary on-campus small performance space for theatrical productions, and

308-450: A voiceless one. For the pairs of English stops , however, the distinction is better specified as voice onset time rather than simply voice: In initial position, /b d g/ are only partially voiced (voicing begins during the hold of the consonant), and /p t k/ are aspirated (voicing begins only well after its release). Certain English morphemes have voiced and voiceless allomorphs , such as:

352-408: Is voiceless phonation, and is extremely common with obstruents . If the arytenoids are pressed together for glottal closure , the vocal cords block the airstream, producing stop sounds such as the glottal stop . In between there is a sweet spot of maximum vibration. Also, the existence of an optimal glottal shape for ease of phonation has been shown, at which the lung pressure required to initiate

396-545: Is a tonal language, so the glottis is making several tonal distinctions simultaneously with the phonation distinctions.) Javanese does not have modal voice in its stops , but contrasts two other points along the phonation scale, with more moderate departures from modal voice, called slack voice and stiff voice . The "muddy" consonants in Shanghainese are slack voice; they contrast with tenuis and aspirated consonants. Although each language may be somewhat different, it

440-482: Is also affected by the pressure drop across the larynx, which is mostly affected by the pressure in the lungs, and will also vary with the distance between the vocal folds. Variation in fundamental frequency is used linguistically to produce intonation and tone . There are currently two main theories as to how vibration of the vocal folds is initiated: the myoelastic theory and the aerodynamic theory . These two theories are not in contention with one another and it

484-451: Is based on the Bernoulli energy law in fluids . The theory states that when a stream of breath is flowing through the glottis while the arytenoid cartilages are held together (by the action of the interarytenoid muscles), a push-pull effect is created on the vocal fold tissues that maintains self-sustained oscillation. The push occurs during glottal opening, when the glottis is convergent, and

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528-408: Is called the phonation threshold pressure (PTP), and for humans with normal vocal folds, it is approximately 2–3 cm H 2 O. The motion of the vocal folds during oscillation is mostly lateral, though there is also some superior component as well. However, there is almost no motion along the length of the vocal folds. The oscillation of the vocal folds serves to modulate the pressure and flow of

572-414: Is clad with copper. It was originally covered with smooth, bright orastone which was then replaced with lead sheeting attached with stainless steel wires. The dome was originally supported only at the three corners, In 1980, cracks were found in the structure and the auditorium was closed immediately for repairs. Copper replaced the lead at that time, and the walls now carry part of the roof load. Sitting on

616-559: Is common; indeed, in Australian languages it is nearly universal. In phonology , a register is a combination of tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological parameter. For example, among its vowels, Burmese combines modal voice with low tone, breathy voice with falling tone, creaky voice with high tone, and glottal closure with high tone. These four registers contrast with each other, but no other combination of phonation (modal, breath, creak, closed) and tone (high, low, falling)

660-406: Is convenient to classify these degrees of phonation into discrete categories. A series of seven alveolar stops, with phonations ranging from an open/lax to a closed/tense glottis, are: The IPA diacritics under-ring and subscript wedge , commonly called "voiceless" and "voiced", are sometimes added to the symbol for a voiced sound to indicate more lax/open (slack) and tense/closed (stiff) states of

704-411: Is found. Among vocal pedagogues and speech pathologists, a vocal register also refers to a particular phonation limited to a particular range of pitch , which possesses a characteristic sound quality. The term "register" may be used for several distinct aspects of the human voice: Four combinations of these elements are identified in speech pathology: the vocal fry register , the modal register ,

748-780: Is heard in many productions of French oui! , and the "voiceless" vowels of many North American languages are actually whispered. It has long been noted that in many languages, both phonologically and historically, the glottal consonants [ʔ, ɦ, h] do not behave like other consonants. Phonetically, they have no manner or place of articulation other than the state of the glottis: glottal closure for [ʔ] , breathy voice for [ɦ] , and open airstream for [h] . Some phoneticians have described these sounds as neither glottal nor consonantal, but instead as instances of pure phonation, at least in many European languages. However, in Semitic languages they do appear to be true glottal consonants. In

792-451: Is limited to royal families or other distinguished personalities. In other countries, sports venues have luxury boxes , where access is open to anyone who can afford tickets. Additionally, some sports venues were themselves called auditoriums, such as the former Buffalo Memorial Auditorium . Phonation The term phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics . Among some phoneticians, phonation

836-434: Is no phonation during its occurrence. In speech, voiceless phones are associated with vocal folds that are elongated, highly tensed, and placed laterally (abducted) when compared to vocal folds during phonation. Fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch , can be varied through a variety of means. Large scale changes are accomplished by increasing the tension in the vocal folds through contraction of

880-412: Is quite possible that both theories are true and operating simultaneously to initiate and maintain vibration. A third theory, the neurochronaxic theory , was in considerable vogue in the 1950s, but has since been largely discredited. The myoelastic theory states that when the vocal cords are brought together and breath pressure is applied to them, the cords remain closed until the pressure beneath them,

924-500: Is still poorly understood. However, at least two supra-glottal phonations appear to be widespread in the world's languages. These are harsh voice ('ventricular' or 'pressed' voice), which involves overall constriction of the larynx, and faucalized voice ('hollow' or 'yawny' voice), which involves overall expansion of the larynx. The Bor dialect of Dinka has contrastive modal, breathy, faucalized, and harsh voice in its vowels, as well as three tones. The ad hoc diacritics employed in

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968-418: Is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the definition used among those who study laryngeal anatomy and physiology and speech production in general. Phoneticians in other subfields, such as linguistic phonetics, call this process voicing , and use the term phonation to refer to any oscillatory state of any part of the larynx that modifies

1012-405: The cricothyroid muscle . Smaller changes in tension can be effected by contraction of the thyroarytenoid muscle or changes in the relative position of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages , as may occur when the larynx is lowered or raised, either volitionally or through movement of the tongue to which the larynx is attached via the hyoid bone. In addition to tension changes, fundamental frequency

1056-514: The proscenium arch , although other types of stage are common. The price charged for seats in each part of the auditorium (known in the industry as the house ) usually varies according to the quality of the view of the stage. The seating areas can include some or all of the following: Sports venues such as stadiums and racetracks also have royal boxes or enclosures, for example at the All England Club and Ascot Racecourse , where access

1100-419: The source–filter theory , the resulting sound excites the resonance chamber that is the vocal tract to produce the individual speech sounds. The vocal folds will not oscillate if they are not sufficiently close to one another, are not under sufficient tension or under too much tension, or if the pressure drop across the larynx is not sufficiently large. In linguistics, a phone is called voiceless if there

1144-586: The Kresge Foundation . Saarinen designed Kresge Auditorium in tandem with his nearby MIT Chapel ; the two buildings are separated by a green space called the Kresge Oval. The ensemble is recognized as one of the best examples of mid-century modern architecture in the United States. Though unassuming by today's standards, the buildings were part of an attempt to define MIT's social cohesion. The Auditorium

1188-408: The air through the larynx, and this modulated airflow is the main component of the sound of most voiced phones . The sound that the larynx produces is a harmonic series . In other words, it consists of a fundamental tone (called the fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch ) accompanied by harmonic overtones, which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. According to

1232-411: The airstream, of which voicing is just one example. Voiceless and supra-glottal phonations are included under this definition. The phonatory process, or voicing, occurs when air is expelled from the lungs through the glottis , creating a pressure drop across the larynx. When this drop becomes sufficiently large, the vocal folds start to oscillate. The minimum pressure drop required to achieve phonation

1276-471: The everyday actual usage of these spaces. The auditorium is defined by an elegant thin-shell structure of reinforced concrete, one-eighth of a sphere rising to a height of 50 feet (15 m), and sliced away by sheer glass curtain walls so that it comes to earth on only three points. Thin-shelled concrete technology was innovative for the times; the dome is proportionately thinner than an eggshell. The dome weighs only 1,200 short tons (1,100 t) and it

1320-523: The folds apart and the flow starts up again, causing the cycles to repeat. The textbook entitled Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation by Ingo Titze credits Janwillem van den Berg as the originator of the theory and provides detailed mathematical development of the theory. This theory states that the frequency of the vocal fold vibration is determined by the chronaxie of the recurrent nerve, and not by breath pressure or muscular tension. Advocates of this theory thought that every single vibration of

1364-620: The glottis, respectively. (Ironically, adding the 'voicing' diacritic to the symbol for a voiced consonant indicates less modal voicing, not more, because a modally voiced sound is already fully voiced, at its sweet spot, and any further tension in the vocal cords dampens their vibration.) Alsatian , like several Germanic languages, has a typologically unusual phonation in its stops. The consonants transcribed /b̥/, /d̥/, /ɡ̊/ (ambiguously called "lenis") are partially voiced: The vocal cords are positioned as for voicing, but do not actually vibrate. That is, they are technically voiceless, but without

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1408-416: The last few decades it has become apparent that phonation may involve the entire larynx, with as many as six valves and muscles working either independently or together. From the glottis upward, these articulations are: Until the development of fiber-optic laryngoscopy , the full involvement of the larynx during speech production was not observable, and the interactions among the six laryngeal articulators

1452-1025: The literature are a subscript double quotation mark for faucalized voice, [a͈] , and underlining for harsh voice, [a̠] . Examples are, Other languages with these contrasts are Bai (modal, breathy, and harsh voice), Kabiye (faucalized and harsh voice, previously seen as ±ATR ), Somali (breathy and harsh voice). Elements of laryngeal articulation or phonation may occur widely in the world's languages as phonetic detail even when not phonemically contrastive. For example, simultaneous glottal, ventricular, and arytenoid activity (for something other than epiglottal consonants ) has been observed in Tibetan , Korean , Nuuchahnulth , Nlaka'pamux , Thai , Sui , Amis , Pame , Arabic , Tigrinya , Cantonese , and Yi . In languages such as French and Portuguese , all obstruents occur in pairs, one modally voiced and one voiceless: [b] [d] [g] [v] [z] [ʒ] → [p] [t] [k] [f] [s] [ʃ]. In English , every voiced fricative corresponds to

1496-488: The open glottis usually associated with voiceless stops. They contrast with both modally voiced /b, d, ɡ/ and modally voiceless /p, t, k/ in French borrowings, as well as aspirated /kʰ/ word initially. If the arytenoid cartiledges are parted to admit turbulent airflow, the result is whisper phonation if the vocal folds are adducted, and whispery voice phonation (murmur) if the vocal folds vibrate modally. Whisper phonation

1540-572: The other side speaking in as low a voice as a whisper . This so-called whispering gallery effect is produced by the curved geometrical shape and hard surfaces of the ceiling. The first professional recording at the Kresge Auditorium was a performance by soloist James Stagliano on the French horn , playing Mozart's 4 Concerti for Horn , accompanied by the Zimbler Sinfonietta. The recording

1584-408: The plural, verbal, and possessive endings spelled -s (voiced in kids /kɪdz/ but voiceless in kits /kɪts/ ), and the past-tense ending spelled -ed (voiced in buzzed /bʌzd/ but voiceless in fished /fɪʃt/ ). A few European languages, such as Finnish , have no phonemically voiced obstruents but pairs of long and short consonants instead. Outside Europe, the lack of voicing distinctions

1628-416: The pull occurs during glottal closing, when the glottis is divergent. Such an effect causes a transfer of energy from the airflow to the vocal fold tissues which overcomes losses by dissipation and sustain the oscillation. The amount of lung pressure needed to begin phonation is defined by Titze as the oscillation threshold pressure. During glottal closure, the air flow is cut off until breath pressure pushes

1672-437: The subglottic pressure, is sufficient to push them apart, allowing air to escape and reducing the pressure enough for the muscle tension recoil to pull the folds back together again. The pressure builds up once again until the cords are pushed apart, and the whole cycle keeps repeating itself. The rate at which the cords open and close, the number of cycles per second, determines the pitch of the phonation. The aerodynamic theory

1716-446: The vocal cord vibration is minimum. This is modal voice , and is the normal state for vowels and sonorants in all the world's languages. However, the aperture of the arytenoid cartilages, and therefore the tension in the vocal cords, is one of degree between the end points of open and closed, and there are several intermediate situations utilized by various languages to make contrasting sounds. For example, Gujarati has vowels with

1760-643: The vocal folds was due to an impulse from the recurrent laryngeal nerves and that the acoustic center in the brain regulated the speed of vocal fold vibration. Speech and voice scientists have long since abandoned this theory as the muscles have been shown to not be able to contract fast enough to accomplish the vibration. In addition, persons with paralyzed vocal folds can produce phonation, which would not be possible according to this theory. Phonation occurring in excised larynges would also not be possible according to this theory. In linguistic phonetic treatments of phonation, such as those of Peter Ladefoged , phonation

1804-426: Was considered to be a matter of points on a continuum of tension and closure of the vocal cords. More intricate mechanisms were occasionally described, but they were difficult to investigate, and until recently the state of the glottis and phonation were considered to be nearly synonymous. If the vocal cords are completely relaxed, with the arytenoid cartilages apart for maximum airflow, the cords do not vibrate. This

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1848-458: Was heavily overscheduled. With the 2018 opening of a new performance arts building (W97, 345 Vassar St) at the far western end of campus, many more spaces are available for shows and supporting logistic operations, such as set design and construction. The Kresge Little Theater will continue to be used as well. While standing on either side of the Kresge entry lobby , one can distinctly hear people on

1892-563: Was made using a single Telefunken microphone, positioned 10 feet from the concert platform, and recorded on an Ampex tape record. The performance was released on LP under the "Boston Records" label. Auditorium An auditorium is a room built to enable an audience to hear and watch performances. For movie theatres , the number of auditoriums is expressed as the number of screens . Auditoriums can be found in entertainment venues, community halls, and theaters, and may be used for rehearsal, presentation, performing arts productions, or as

1936-478: Was where MIT students and faculty could gather for formal events, and the Chapel was intended for marriages and memorials; the green that stretches between the two buildings, in the tradition of early-American urban planning, was to serve as the setting for civic events. Though the campus has grown around the buildings, the essential features of this idea are still easily legible, and the original intentions are reflected in

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