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69-621: Ibn Arabi wrote al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya twice—a first draft completed in 1231 and a revision—the Konya manuscript— completed in 1238. The manuscript was once part of the waqf of Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi , now kept at the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum in Istanbul (MS Evkaf Muzesi) 1845–1881). The Amiri Press in Bulaq published three editions of al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya , in 1269–1274, in 1876, and in 1911. While

138-451: A waqf must be objects of a valid contract. The objects should not themselves be haram (e.g. wine or pork ). These objects should not already be in the public domain: public property cannot be used to establish a waqf. The founder cannot also have pledged the property previously to someone else. These conditions are generally true for contracts in Islam. The property dedicated to waqf

207-467: A waqf and a trust, "property is reserved, and its usufruct appropriated, for the benefit of specific individuals, or for a general charitable purpose; the corpus becomes inalienable ; estates for life in favor of successive beneficiaries can be created" and "without regard to the law of inheritance or the rights of the heirs; and continuity is secured by the successive appointment of trustees or mutawillis ." The only significant distinction between

276-467: A building, plot of land or other assets for Muslim religious or charitable purposes with no intention of reclaiming the assets. A charitable trust may hold the donated assets. The person making such dedication is known as a waqif ('donor') who uses a mutawalli ('trustee') to manage the property in exchange for a share of the revenues it generates. A waqf allows the state to provide social services in accordance with Islamic law while contributing to

345-455: A man dies, only three deeds will survive him: continuing alms, profitable knowledge, and a child praying for him." Islamic law places several legal conditions on the process of establishing a waqf . A waqf is a contract; therefore, the founder (called al-wāqif or al-muḥabbis in Arabic) must be capable of entering into a contract. For this, the founder must: Although waqf

414-628: A means to legally safeguard properties under conditions of debt. In donating assets to the public, the aristocracy managed to preserve their wealth while providing land, financial support and community spaces such as mosques to the general public. When Zanzibar became a British protectorate in 1890, almost half the island was waqf property. In order to establish control, the British realised that they would either have to privatise waqf or gain administrative control over them. A series of decrees were subsequently issues to incorporate all waqf properties into

483-585: A new government under the helm of the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP). An important part of the revolution was the prosecution of the Zanzibari elite of Arabic descent. This left a significant portion of land, much of which was waqf , to be nationalised by the newly independent state as part of their socialist development programme. The revolution highlights a crucial turn point in waqf institutions in Zanzibar, namely

552-563: A perpetual element; the waqf must specify its beneficiaries in case. The declaration of founding is usually a written document, accompanied by a verbal declaration, though neither are required by most scholars. Whatever the declaration, most scholars (those of the Hanafi, Shafi'i, some of the Hanbali and the Imami Shi'a schools) hold that it is not binding and irrevocable until actually delivered to

621-903: A person as the brother or sister of their notable ancestor: "This is similar to the saying, `O brother of Tamim,' to one who is from the Tamimi tribe, and `O brother of Mudar,' to one who is from the Mudari tribe." Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Yaqoub has reported from Ibrahim bin Abdullah Al-Saadi, who told us Muhammad bin Khalid bin Uthma, told us Musa bin Yaqoub, told me Abu Al-Huwairith, that Muhammad bin Jubayr bin Mut’im told him, that he heard Ali - may God be pleased with him - addresses

690-635: A soup kitchen, and two traveler and pilgrim inns. The earliest pious foundations in Egypt were charitable gifts, and not in the form of a waqf . The first mosque built by ' Amr ibn al-'As is an example of this: the land was donated by Qaysaba bin Kulthum , and the mosque's expenses were then paid by the Bayt al-mal . The earliest known waqf , founded by financial official Abū Bakr Muḥammad bin Ali al-Madhara'i in 919 (during

759-400: A source of charity and thereby public welfare while doubling as a tool of domination used by the ruling class to maintain the dependence of the lower classes. While the former was somewhat preserved as a scripture-based normative foundation of waqf institutions, the nature and dynamics of the latter was contingent on the nature and dynamics of regime changes in Zanzibar. Under Omani rule, waqf

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828-764: A thing to stop or stand still. According to Islamic law, once an asset has been donated as waqf it cannot be sold, transferred or given as a gift. Once a waqif has verbally or in writing declared a waqf property, it is legally conceived as the property of Allah and must be used to "fulfill public of family needs" as a charitable social service. A waqf property can fall into one of two categories: movable or immovable. A 'movable' asset includes money or shares which are used to finance educational, religious or cultural institutions such as madrasahs (Islamic schools) or mosques . The madrasahs and mosques themselves are an example of an 'immovable' asset which refers to land or structures open for public use. An important function of

897-502: A thousand angels with the Messenger of God - may God bless him and grant him peace - and the second wind was Michael who descended among a thousand angels to the right of the Messenger of God - may God bless him and his family and grant them peace - and Abu Bakr was On his right, and the third wind was Israfil. He descended with a thousand angels on the side of the Messenger of God - may God’s prayers and peace be upon him and his family - and I

966-580: Is 33,229. In the 16th century, the Haseki Sultan Complex charitable complex was founded by the wife of Suleyman the Magnificent and serviced 26 villages; the institution also included shops, a bazaar, two soap plants, 11 flour mills and two bathhouses located in Ottoman Syria and Lebanon . For several centuries, the income generated by these businesses contributed in the maintenance of a mosque,

1035-433: Is an Islamic institution, being a Muslim is not required to establish a waqf , and dhimmis may establish a waqf . Finally, if a person is fatally ill, the waqf is subject to the same restrictions as a will in Islam. Some of the founders of Ottoman waqfs were women, with their establishments having a crucial impact on their communities' economic life. Out of 30,000 waqf certificates documented by

1104-662: Is certainly well known to Allah." Their formal conception in Islamic society has been derived from a number of hadiths . It is said that during the time of Muhammad, after the Hijrah , the first waqf was composed of a grove of 600 date palms. The proceeds of this waqf were meant to feed Medina's poor. In one tradition, it is said that: "Ibn Umar reported, Umar Ibn Al-Khattab got land in Khaybar , so he came to Muhammad and asked him to advise him about it. Muhammad said, 'If you like, make

1173-549: Is clear that there are eighteen centuries between the Biblical ‘Amram and the father of Maryam. Similarly, Stowasser concludes that "to confuse Mary the mother of Jesus with Mary the sister of Moses and Aaron in Torah is completely wrong and in contradiction to the sound Hadith and the Qur'anic text as we have established". Rather it serves as a pun for the name Miriam , daughter of Amram and

1242-691: Is dedicated by the Donor ( Wakif ) for the benefit of their kith and kin and for any purpose recognised by Muslim law as pious, religious or charitable. After the enactment Wakf Act 1954, the Union government directed to all the states governments to implement the Act for administering the wakf institutions like mosques, dargahs , hussainiyas , graveyards, takhiyas , eidgah , anjumans , and various religious and charitable institutions. A statutory body under Government of India, which also oversees State Wakf Boards . In turn

1311-613: Is difficult to pinpoint the historical origins of waqf in East Africa, the practice began to formalize in the 17th Century after the Sultan of Oman, Sayyid Saïd , had cemented his control over Zanzibar and the East African coastline. Until this point, archeological evidence has unearthed several old mosques along the Swahili Coast which are believed to be informal waqf dating as far back as

1380-400: Is generally immovable, such as an estate. All movable goods can also form waqf , according to most Islamic jurists. The Hanafis, however, also allow most movable goods to be dedicated to a waqf with some restrictions. Some jurists have argued that even gold and silver (or other currency) can be designated as waqf . Documents listing endowments (waqfiyyas) often include the name of

1449-467: Is named after the family of Imran (Joachim), which includes Imran , Saint Anne (wife of Imran), Mary , and Jesus . Regarding the timing and contextual background of the asbāb al-nuzūl or circumstances of revelation, the chapter is believed to have been either the second or third of the Medinan surahs , as it references both the events of the battles of Badr and Uhud . Almost all of it also belongs to

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1518-478: Is synonymous with ḥabs ( حَبْس , also called ḥubs حُبْس or ḥubus حُبْوس and commonly rendered habous in French). Habs and similar terms are used mainly by Maliki jurists. In Twelver Shiism , ḥabs is a particular type of waqf , in which the founder reserves the right to dispose of the waqf property. The person making the grant is called al-waqif (or al-muhabbis ) while

1587-470: Is the institution(s) providing services as committed in the vakıf deed, such as madrasas , public kitchens ( imarets ), karwansarays , mosques, libraries, etc. Generally, the waqf must fulfill three primary constraints: Although there is no direct Quranic injunction regarding waqf , it can be inferred from Surah Al-i'-Imran (3:92): "You will never achieve righteousness until you donate some of what you cherish. And whatever you give

1656-434: The waqf during their lifetime. In some cases, however, the number of beneficiaries is quite limited. Thus, there is no need for an administrator, and the beneficiaries themselves can take care of the waqf . The administrator, like other persons of responsibility under Islamic law, must have the capacity to act and contract. In addition, trustworthiness and administrative skills are required. Some scholars require that

1725-590: The Abbasid period ), is a pond called Birkat Ḥabash together with its surrounding orchards, whose revenue was to be used to operate a hydraulic complex and feed the poor. Early references to waqf in India can be found in the 14th-century work Insha-i-Mahru by Aynul Mulk ibn Mahru. According to the book, Muhammad of Ghor dedicated two villages in favor of a congregational mosque in Multan , and, handed its administration to

1794-755: The Shaykh al-Islām (highest ecclesiastical officer of the Empire). In the coming years, several more waqf were created, as the Delhi Sultanate flourished. As per the Wakf Act 1954 (later Wakf Act 1995) enacted by the government of India, waqf are categorized as (a) waqf by user such as graveyards, Musafir Khanas (Sarai) and Chowltries etc., (b) waqf under Mashrutul-khidmat (Service Inam) such as Khazi service, Nirkhi service, Pesh Imam service and Khateeb service etc., and (c) Wakf Alal-aulad

1863-417: The 'public' ownership of these assets that disposed of the need for a waqif . In this way, waqf was further cemented as a political institution regulated by a centralized state while being managed by mutawallis . It allowed the poorest inhabitants of Stone Town to reside in waqf buildings that were previously reserved for the relatives of waqif families. While this may appear to be an act of good fortune,

1932-485: The 8th Century. The formalization of waqf can be traced back to 1820 when Sultan Said moved the Omani Sultanate to Stone Town, Zanzibar. This marked a shift from waqf as an Islamic scriptural imperative to a local and centralized institutional practice legitimated by the royal family. From this point onward, the urban development of the port city of the East African archipelago was shaped by waqf practices. As such,

2001-617: The 9th century, while a third one dates from the early 10th century, all three within the Abbasid Period. The oldest dated waqfiya goes back to 876 CE and concerns a multi-volume edition of the Qur'an currently held by the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum in Istanbul . A possibly older waqfiya is a papyrus held by the Louvre Museum in Paris , with no written date but considered to be from

2070-554: The GDPFA ( General Directorate of Pious Foundation in Ankara ), over 2,300 of them were registered to institutions that belonged to women. Of the 491 public fountains in Istanbul that were constructed during the Ottoman period and survived until the 1930s, nearly 30% of them were registered under waqfs that belonged to women. The property (called al-mawqūf or al-muḥabbas ) used to found

2139-509: The Islamic waqf and English trust was "the express or implied reversion of the waqf to charitable purposes when its specific object has ceased to exist", though this difference only applied to the waqf ahli (Islamic family trust) rather than the waqf khairi (devoted to a charitable purpose from its inception). Another difference was the English vesting of "legal estate" over the trust property in

Konya Manuscript - Misplaced Pages Continue

2208-424: The Islamic waqf law and madrassah foundations were firmly established by the 10th century, the number of Bimaristan hospitals multiplied throughout Islamic lands. By the 11th century, many Islamic cities had several hospitals. The waqf trust institutions funded the hospitals for various expenses, including the wages of doctors, ophthalmologists , surgeons, chemists , pharmacists , domestics and all other staff,

2277-512: The Muslim world. In West Africa, very few examples of the institution can be found, and were usually limited to the area around Timbuktu and Djenné in Massina Empire . Instead, Islamic west African societies placed a much greater emphasis on non-permanent acts of charity. According to expert Illife, this can be explained by West Africa's tradition of "personal largesse." The imam would make himself

2346-688: The Quran confuses Mary mother of Jesus with Mary the sister of Moses , by referring to Mary, the mother of Jesus' father as Imran, which is the Arabic version of Amram , who in Exodus 6:20 , is shown to be the father of Moses. Dawood, in a note to Surah 19:28, where Mary the Mother of Jesus is referred to as the "Sister of Aaron", and Aaron was the brother of Mary sister of Moses, states: "It Appears that Miriam, Aaron's sister, and Maryam (Mary), mother of Jesus, were according to

2415-472: The Quran, the same person." Although Islamic studies of the beginning of the 20th century tended to note genealogical discrepancies, in more recent Islamic Studies of the 21st century the general consensus is, according to Angelika Neuwirth , Nicolai Sinai and Michael Marx, that the Quran does not make a genealogical error but instead makes use of typology . This is, following Wensinck's conclusion, supported by

2484-507: The State Wakf Boards work towards management, regulation and protect the Wakf properties by constituting District Wakf Committees, Mandal Wakf Committees and Committees for the individual Wakf Institutions. As per the report of Sachar Committee (2006) there are about 500,000 registered Wakfs with 600,000 acres (2,400 km ) land in India, and Rs. 60 billion book value. While it

2553-503: The administrator of this Islamic religious institution be a Muslim, though the Hanafis drop this requirement. A waqf is intended to be perpetual and last forever. Nevertheless, Islamic law envisages conditions under which the waqf may be terminated: The practices attributed to Muhammad have promoted the institution of waqf from the earliest part of Islamic history. The two oldest known waqfiya (deed) documents are from

2622-555: The architectural configuration of Stone Town was entirely managed by the Sultanate and its network of nobility. This effectively allowed elites to practice zakat through waqf while doubling as a means to secure control over the local population. The East African archipelago underwent an economic recession from 1860 to 1880 that threatened the private property of the elite class. In a time when landowners were forced to sell or mortgage their properties to foreign investors, waqf became

2691-412: The beneficiaries or put to their use. Once in their use, however, the waqf becomes an institution in its own right. Usually, a waqf has a range of beneficiaries. Thus, the founder makes arrangements beforehand by appointing an administrator (called nāẓir or mutawallī or ḳayyim ) and lays down the rules for appointing successive administrators. The founder may choose to administer

2760-455: The collector and distributor of charity, thus building his personal prestige. According to Hamas, all of historic Palestine is an Islamic waqf. This belief, a relatively recent one, forms part of the group's mythology. In Southeastern Europe , there are several places in Bosnia and Herzegovina that were originally built under the waqf system, such as Gornji Vakuf , and Donji Vakuf . After

2829-518: The colonial bureaucracy. The Waqf Property Decree which formed the Waqf Commission in 1905 was composed of a majority of British officials and a minority of Islamic authorities to represent the Sultanate who maintained a degree of influence over the island. This shift marked the further formalization of waqf into the state apparatus, a move which allowed the English to directly control the preservation and maintenance of publicly used assets as well as

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2898-497: The economic function of the practice. After the British gained control of Zanzibar and further formalized waqf as a political institution, it was used to culturally subvert the local population and gradually rid it off its Arabic origins. This persisted after independence when the newly independent state sought to further eliminate Arabic influence by nationalizing all waqf properties as a means to gain control of private property. The waqf institutions were not popular in all parts of

2967-507: The elite class of the Omani aristocracy. In the context of growing inequality, the nobility used waqf to provide public housing to slaves and peasants as well mosques, madrasahs and land for free habitation and cultivation. For instance, all 66 mosques in Stone Town were waqf privately financed and owned by noble waqif as a display of social status and duty to their neighborhood. Under this system,

3036-512: The endowed assets are called al-mawquf (or al-muhabbas ). In older English-language law-related works in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, the word used for waqf was vakouf ; the word, also present in such French works, was used during the time of the Ottoman Empire, and is from the Turkish vakıf . The term waqf literally means 'confinement and prohibition', or causing

3105-503: The endower, the listed property or fiscal unit, the endowed fraction (in 24- qarats ), and a description of its boundary . The boundary descriptions start in Islamic direction of prayer and go counterclockwise by listing different landscape elements. Endowment deeds most often include the conditions of the endowment and its administration. The beneficiaries of the waqf can be individuals and public utilities. The founder can specify which persons are eligible for benefits (such as

3174-461: The father of Mary, mother of Jesus . As there is sparse evidence for Joachim being the name for the father of Mary, the Quranic account possibly alludes to the pun of Miriam , the daughter of Amram and sister of Aaron , for whom Muslim tradition believes Mary is named after. It also serves as a common focal point for Jewish and Christian audiences. According to Iraqi Jewish translator, N.J. Dawood ,

3243-709: The figurative speech of the Quran and the Islamic tradition: Maryam is called a sister of Hārūn, and the use of these three names ‘Imrān, Hārūn, and Maryam has led to the supposition that the Qur'ān does not clearly distinguish between the two Maryams, of the Old and the New Testaments. ... It is not necessary to assume that these kinship links are to be interpreted in modern terms. The words "sister" and "daughter", like their male counterparts, in Arabic usage, can indicate extended kinship, descendance or spiritual affinity. ... Muslim tradition

3312-545: The first two editions were composite texts from Ibn Arab's first draft and revision, the third edition reproduced the text of the Konya Manuscript, thanks to the investigative efforts of Emir ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jazāʾirī . This third edition became the standard Cairo edition. The manuscript is a holograph ; it was written in the hand of Ibn Arabi, with the exception of volume 9. The work contains 28 images hand-drawn by Ibn Arabi: geometric figures representing and illustrating

3381-412: The founder may stipulate that half the proceeds go to their family, while the other half goes to the poor. Valid beneficiaries must satisfy the following conditions: There is dispute over whether the founder themselves can reserve exclusive rights to use waqf . Most scholars agree that once the waqf is founded, it cannot be taken back. The Ḥanafīs hold that the list of beneficiaries includes

3450-459: The founder's family, the entire community, only the poor, travelers). Public utilities such as mosques, schools, bridges, graveyards, and drinking fountains can be the beneficiaries of a waqf . Modern legislation divides the waqf into "charitable causes," where the beneficiaries are the public or the poor, and "family" waqf , where the founder designates their relatives as beneficiaries. There can also be multiple beneficiaries. For example,

3519-426: The hospitals every day and speak quietly to one another in the patients' hearing, remarking on their improvement and good colour". The waqf in Islamic law , which developed in the medieval Islamic world from the 7th to 9th centuries, bears a notable resemblance to the English trust law . Every waqf was required to have a waqif (founder), mutawillis (trustee), qadi (judge) and beneficiaries. Under both

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3588-653: The latter is also to provide shelter and community spaces to the poor, also known as the mawquf 'alayh (beneficiaries). Bahaeddin Yediyıldız defines waqf as a system comprising three elements: hayrat , akarat , and waqf . Hayrat , the plural form of hayr , means 'goodnesses' and refers to the motivational factor behind the vakıf organization; akarat refers to corpus and literally means 'real estates,' implying revenue-generating sources such as markets ( bedestens , arastas , hans , etc.), land, and baths; and waqf , in its narrow sense,

3657-410: The majority of greater Stone Town became waqf property made available for free habitation or cemeteries by noblemen, approximately 6.4% of which was public housing for the poor. It is important to note that economic changes in Zanzibar shaped waqf practices overtime. Under Omani rule slavery and the cash crop industry was booming, specifically because of the exportation of spices, which strengthened

3726-1050: The mid-9th century. The next oldest document is a marble tablet whose inscription bears the Islamic date equivalent to 913 CE and states the waqf status of an inn, but is in itself not the original deed; it is held at the Eretz Israel Museum in Tel Aviv . By the early 1800's, more than half of all arable land in the Ottoman Empire was classified as a waqf. In relation to present day countries, this figure included 75 percent of arable land in Turkey , one-fifth in Egypt, one-seventh in Iran, one-half in Algeria, one-third in Tunisia, and one-third in Greece. The total number of registered endowments in Saudi Arabia

3795-447: The nationalisation of all waqf assets led to the loss and destruction of many properties because of a lack of funding because the state did not have the means to preserve waqf as effectively as it were under the private control of waqif nobility. According to Bowen, when practicing Islam, Muslims "engage in a dialogue between potentially conflicting cultural orders: the universalistic imperatives of Islam (as locally understood) and

3864-405: The people, and he said: While I was leaving from the well of Badr, a strong wind came, the like of which I had never seen, then it left, then came a strong wind, the like of which I have never seen except for the one before it, then it went, then came a strong wind that I did not see before. I have never seen anything like it except for the one before it, and the first wind was Gabriel descended among

3933-466: The physical and the metaphysical. Reproductions of these images in published versions of the text were made carelessly and are not reliable. Waqf A waqf ( Arabic : وَقْف ; [ˈwɑqf] , plural awqaf أَوْقَاف ), also called a ḥabs ( حَبْس , plural ḥubūs حُبوس or aḥbās أَحْباس ), or mortmain property, is an inalienable charitable endowment under Islamic law . It typically involves donating

4002-479: The preservation of cultural and historical sites. Although the waqf system depended on several hadiths and presented elements similar to practices from pre-Islamic cultures, it seems that the specific full-fledged Islamic legal form of endowment called waqf dates from the 9th century AD (see § History and location below). In Sunni jurisprudence, waqf , also spelled wakf ( Arabic : وَقْف ; plural أَوْقاف , awqāf ; Turkish : vakıf )

4071-494: The property inalienable and give the profit from it to charity.' It goes on to say that Umar gave it away as alms, that the land itself would not be sold, inherited, or donated. He gave it away for the poor, the relatives, the slaves, the jihad , the travelers, and the guests. It will not be held against him who administers it if he consumes some of its yield in an appropriate manner or feeds a friend who does not enrich himself by means of it." In another hadith, Muhammad said, "When

4140-450: The purchase of foods and medicines ; hospital equipment such as beds, mattresses, bowls and perfumes; and repairs to buildings. The waqf trusts also funded medical schools, and their revenues covered various expenses such as their maintenance and the payment of teachers and students. From the more peculiar examples of healthcare-related waqfs, in the city of Tripoli, a man had set up a waqf which employed two people who would "walk through

4209-479: The rights of absentee Crusaders who had made temporary assignments of their lands to caretakers. It has been speculated that this development may have been influenced by the waqf institutions in the Middle East . Al Imran Al Imran ( Arabic : آل عِمْرَانَ , āl ʿimrān ; meaning: The Family of Imran ) is the third chapter ( sūrah ) of the Quran with two hundred verses ( āyāt ). This chapter

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4278-477: The sister of Aaron , venerated for helping to save her brother Moses as an infant. According to Muslim tradition, she serves as the forebearer of that name for Mary , mother of Jesus. This matter has been explained in the following Hadith : Mughira ibn Shu’ba reported: When I came to Najran, they (the Christians of Najran) asked me: You read" O sister of Harun" (i. e. Hadrat Maryam) in the Qur'an, whereas Moses

4347-469: The surplus revenues generated from them. It was also part of what Ali Mazrui calls the 'dis-Islamization' and 'de-Arabization' of Swahili culture by British colonialism, a strategy used to rid the territory of Omani influence. While Mazrui speaks of this in the context of the Swahili language, it can also be seen by the way in which the British deviated from the Islamic values underpinning waqf practices. What

4416-505: The third Hijri year , though a minority of its verses might have been revealed during the visit of the deputation of the Christian community of Najran at the event of the mubahala , which occurred around the 10th year of the Hijrah. The chapter takes its name from the family of Imran mentioned in verse 3:33 . According to Christian tradition , Joachim is the husband of Saint Anne and

4485-508: The trustee, though the "trustee was still bound to administer that property for the benefit of the beneficiaries." In this sense, the "role of the English trustee therefore does not differ significantly from that of the mutawalli ." Personal trust law developed in England at the time of the Crusades , during the 12th and 13th centuries. The Court of Chancery, under the principles of equity, enforced

4554-438: The values embedded in a particular society". While Bowen analyzes how Islamic rituals are practiced in context, this logic can arguably be applied to how the history of waqf in Zanzibar is shaped by "local cultural concerns and to universalistic scriptural imperatives". In fact, this conflict is evident in the way in which waqf has historically served a dual purpose in Zanzibar; to satisfy the inalienable Islamic law of waqf as

4623-455: Was born much before Jesus. When I came back to Allah's Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, I asked him about that, whereupon he said: The (people of the old age) used to give names (to their persons) after the names of Apostles and pious persons who had gone before them. Ibn Kathir (d.1373) also commented on this in his Quranic exegesis ( tafsir ), recalling the Arab tradition of addressing

4692-416: Was initially intended as a charitable practice that would provide social services was replaced by a focus on profit over public welfare. This ruptured the social and political relations that were formed between the upper and lower classes during Omani rule as the underlying values used to manage waqf were lost in translation. The Zanzibari Revolution which followed a year after independence in 1963 installed

4761-442: Was practiced by the aristocratic class as an outward demonstration of Islamic piety while simultaneously serving as a means to control slaves and the local population through social housing, educational facilities and religious institutions like mosques. When an economic recession threatened the position of the elite, noblemen used waqf to maintain ownership of their properties to avoid selling or mortgaging their land thereby altering

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