169-823: Khawarij or Kharijite Rebellion may refer to: The Najdat revolt in Arabia (684–693) The Azariqa revolt in Persia (684–698) The revolt of Shabib ibn Yazid al-Shaybani in Iraq (696–698) The Berber Revolt in the Maghreb and al-Andalus (739–743) The rebellion of al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Shaybani in Iraq (745–746) The Ibadi revolt in Arabia (747–748) The rebellion of al-Walid ibn Tarif al-Shaybani in al-Jazira (794–795) The Zanj Rebellion in Iraq and al-Ahwaz (869–883) The Kharijite Rebellion in al-Jazira (866–896) Topics referred to by
338-694: A UNESCO World Heritage site , dramatically illustrates that the incense constituted testimony to South Arabian civilizations. During the 8th century BCE, it is believed that the Yaarub, the descendant of Qahtan , ruled the entire region of Yemen, including Oman. Wathil bin Himyar bin Abd-Shams (Saba) bin Yashjub ( Yaman ) bin Yarub bin Qahtan later ruled Oman. It is thus believed that
507-766: A high-income economy and as of 2023 Oman ranks as the 48th most peaceful country in the world according to the Global Peace Index . The oldest known written mention of "Oman" is on a tomb in the Mleiha Archeological Center in the United Arab Emirates. The name "Oman" is thought to be several centuries older than Pliny the Elder ’s reference to "Omana" or Ptolemy 's reference to "Omanon". ( Ὄμανον ἐμπόριον in Greek ), Both of those references are probably to
676-598: A sultan , with power passed down through the male line. Qaboos bin Said was the Sultan from 1970 until his death on 10 January 2020. Qaboos, who died childless, had named his cousin, Haitham bin Tariq , as his successor in a letter, and the ruling family confirmed him as the new Sultan of Oman. Formerly a maritime empire, Oman is the oldest continuously independent state in the Arab world . It
845-799: A 12th-century work by al-Qalhati, is another example of Ibadi heresiographies and discusses the origins of the Kharijites and the divisions within the Kharijite movement. The Kharijites were the first sect to arise within Islam . They originated during the First Fitna, the struggle for political leadership over the Muslim community ( umma ), following the assassination in 656 of the third caliph Uthman ( r. 644–656 ). The later years of Uthman's reign were marked by growing discontent from multiple groups within
1014-689: A 2,000-strong Basran force in Ahwaz , he fell to a larger army of 3,000 or 4,000 in Fars in southern Persia. His fate is said to have aroused the quietists and contributed to the increased Kharijite militancy in the subsequent period. After the death of Mu'awiya in 680, civil war ensued over leadership of the Muslim community. The people of the Hejaz (where Mecca and Medina are located) rebelled against Mu'awiya's son and successor, Yazid . The Mecca-based Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr ,
1183-635: A continuous tribal influx from Arabia, diminishing revenue from the conquests , and the growing influence of the pre-Islamic tribal nobility. Opposition by the Iraqi early-comers, who became known as the qurra (which probably means 'the Qur'an reciters'), and the Egyptians turned into open rebellion in 656. Encouraged by the disaffected Medinese elite, the rebels marched on Medina, killing Uthman in June 656. His murder sparked
1352-465: A grave sin, and the most militant declared killing of such unbelievers to be licit, unless they repented. Many Kharijites were skilled orators and poets, and the major themes of their poetry were piety and martyrdom . The Kharijites of the eighth and ninth centuries participated in theological debates and, in the process, contributed to mainstream Islamic theology . What is known about Kharijite history and doctrines derives from non-Kharijite authors of
1521-419: A major threat to Kufa and its suburbs under Shabib. With a small army of a few hundred warriors, Shabib defeated several thousands-strong Umayyad armies in 695–696, looted Kufa's treasury and occupied al-Mada'in. From his base in al-Mada'in, Shabib moved to capture Kufa. Hajjaj had already requested Syrian troops from Abd al-Malik, who sent a 4,000-strong army which defeated Shabib outside Kufa. Shabib drowned in
1690-678: A new caliph. Ali defeated them in November 656 at the Battle of the Camel . Later, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan , Uthman's kinsman and the governor of Syria , denounced Ali's election, holding that Uthman's murderers were in Ali's camp and evaded punishment. The two faced each other at the Battle of Siffin in July 657. On the verge of defeat, Mu'awiya ordered his soldiers to hoist leaves of the Qur'an ( masahif ) on their lances,
1859-417: A reconstruction of 'what actually happened' and the true motives of the Kharijites, which is free of later interpolations, especially difficult. According to the historians Hannah-Lena Hagemann and Peter Verkinderen, the sources sometimes used the Kharijites as a literary tool to address other issues, which were otherwise unrelated to the Kharijites, such as "the status of Ali, the dangers of communal strife, or
SECTION 10
#17328517059632028-576: A result of monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean, leaving the summer air saturated with cool moisture and heavy fog. Summer temperatures in Salalah range from 20 to 30 °C (68.0 to 86.0 °F)—relatively cool compared to northern Oman. The mountain areas receive more rainfall, and annual rainfall on the higher parts of the Jabal Akhdar probably exceeds 400 millimetres (16 in). Low temperatures in
2197-560: A result of these repressive measures, some of the Kharijites abandoned military action, adopting political quietism and concealing their religious beliefs. Of the quietists, the best known was Abu Bilal Mirdas ibn Udayya al-Tamimi . One of the earliest Kharijites who had seceded at Siffin, he was held in the highest esteem by the Basran quietists. Provoked by the torture and murder of a Kharijite woman by Ibn Ziyad, Abu Bilal abandoned Basra and revolted in 680/681 with 40 men. Shortly after defeating
2366-570: A river during his flight, his band was destroyed, but the Kharijites continued to maintain a presence in the Jazira. Distinct Sufriyya and Ibadiyya sects are attested from the early eighth century in North Africa and Oman. The two differed in association with different tribal groups and competed for popular support. During the last days of the Umayyad empire, a major Sufri revolt erupted in Iraq in 744. It
2535-449: A signal to stop the fight and negotiate peace. The qurra in Ali's army were moved by the gesture, which they interpreted as an appeal to the Book of God, and demanded that Ali halt the fighting immediately. Although initially unwilling, he yielded under pressure and threats of violence against him by the qurra . An arbitration committee composed of representatives of Ali and Mu'awiya
2704-478: A son of Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, was the most prominent Hejazi opponent of Yazid. When Yazid sent an army to suppress the rebellion in 683 and Mecca was besieged , Kharijites from Basra reinforced Ibn al-Zubayr. After Yazid's death in November, Ibn al-Zubayr proclaimed himself caliph and publicly condemned Uthman's murder. Both acts prompted the Kharijites to abandon his cause. The majority, including Nafi ibn al-Azraq and Najda ibn Amir al-Hanafi , went to Basra, while
2873-467: A son of the late Sayyid Said bin Sultan, and brother of Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar , who Britain deemed to be more acceptable. Oman's Imam Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar , an area of modern-day Pakistan. The British empire was keen to dominate southeast Arabia to stifle the growing power of other European states and to curb the Omani maritime power that grew during
3042-465: A system of indirect governance. By the end of the 19th century, and with the loss of its African dominions and its revenues, British influence increased to the point that the sultans became heavily dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult the British government on all important matters. The Sultanate thus came de facto under the British sphere. Zanzibar was a valuable property as
3211-453: A town close to Ibn al-Zubayr's capital Mecca, leaving the latter cornered in the Hejaz, as Najda controlled most of Arabia. Not long after, his followers became disillusioned with him for his alleged correspondence with the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik , irregular pay to his soldiers, his refusal to punish a soldier who had consumed wine, and his release of a captive granddaughter of caliph Uthman. He
3380-876: Is a member of the United Nations , the Arab League , the Gulf Cooperation Council , the Non-Aligned Movement , and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . It has oil reserves ranked 22nd globally. In 2010, the United Nations Development Programme ranked Oman as the most-improved country in the world in terms of development during the preceding 40 years. A portion of its economy involves tourism and trading fish, dates and other agricultural produce. The World Bank categorizes Oman as
3549-554: Is a part, separate the country into two distinct regions: the interior, and the coastal area dominated by the capital, Muscat. The British imperial development over Muscat and Oman during the 19th century led to the renewed revival of the cause of the Imamate in the interior of Oman, which has appeared in cycles for more than 1,200 years in Oman. The British Political Agent, who resided in Muscat, owed
SECTION 20
#17328517059633718-489: Is asserted as the leader of the movement following Abu Bilal Mirdas. Modern historians consider Ibn Saffar to be a legendary figure, and assert that the Sufriyya and Ibadiyya sects did not exist during the seventh century. The heresiographers, whose aim was to categorize the divergent beliefs of the Kharijites, most likely invented the Sufriyya to accommodate those groups who did not fit neatly anywhere else. As such, there
3887-511: Is based on the works of earlier historians like Abu Mikhnaf (d. 773), Abu Ubayda (d. 825), and al-Mada'ini (d. 843). The authors of the heresiographical category include al-Ash'ari (d. 935), al-Baghdadi (d. 1037), Ibn Hazm (d. 1064), al-Shahrastani (d. 1153), and others. Notable among the surviving Ibadi works is the eighth-century heresiographical writing of Salim ibn Dhakwan. It distinguishes Ibadism from other Kharijite groups which it treats as extremists. Al-Kashf wa'l-Bayan ,
4056-499: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Khawarij The Kharijites ( Arabic : الخوارج , romanized : al-Khawārij , singular Arabic : خارجي , romanized : khārijī ) were an Islamic sect which emerged during the First Fitna (656–661). The first Kharijites were supporters of Ali who rebelled against his acceptance of arbitration talks to settle
4225-457: The mawali (sing. mawla ; non-Arab, free Muslims of conquered lands, especially Iraq and Persia) with the Arabs . The Najdat chose a mawla , a fruit seller named Thabit, as their leader after Najda's execution. This choice, however, conflicted with their feelings of ethnic solidarity and they soon asked him to step down and choose an Arab leader for them; he chose Abu Fudayk. The leader of
4394-540: The Arab Spring uprisings that were taking place throughout the region, protests occurred in Oman during the early months of 2011. While they did not call for the ousting of the regime, demonstrators demanded political reforms, improved living conditions and the creation of more jobs. They were dispersed by riot police in February 2011. Sultan Qaboos reacted by promising jobs and benefits. In October 2011, elections were held to
4563-478: The Battle of Nahrawan (July 658), in which al-Rasibi and most of his supporters were slain. Around 1,200 Kharijites surrendered and were spared. The bloodshed sealed the split of the Kharijites from Ali's followers, and they continued to launch insurrections against the caliphate. Five small Kharijite revolts following Nahrawan, involving about 200 men each, were suppressed during Ali's rule. The Kharijite calls for revenge ultimately led to Ali's assassination by
4732-508: The Fujairah coast. 52 crew members died, with the sole survivor, Matrosengefreiter Günther Schmidt, taken aboard HMIS Hiravati near Khor Fakkan and made a prisoner of war . The wreck is now a popular recreational diving site. The December 1951 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation (covering commerce, oil reserves and navigation) between Oman and the United Kingdom recognized
4901-566: The Fujairah road. Within the Madha exclave is a UAE enclave called Nahwa , belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah , situated about 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) west of the town of New Madha, and consisting of about forty houses with a clinic and telephone exchange. The central desert of Oman is a source of meteorites for scientific analysis. Like the rest of the Persian Gulf, Oman generally has one of
5070-554: The Seljuk Empire . During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Omani coast was in the sphere of influence of the Seljuk Empire . They were expelled in 1154, when the Nabhani dynasty came to power. The Nabhanis ruled as muluk , or kings, while the Imams were reduced to largely symbolic significance. The capital of the dynasty was Bahla . The Banu Nabhan controlled the trade in frankincense on
5239-690: The Strait of Hormuz (which it shares with Iran) and the Gulf of Oman forming Musandam's coastal boundaries. From the 17th century, the Omani Sultanate was an empire , vying with the Portuguese and British empires for influence in the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani influence and control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to Iran and Pakistan, and as far south as Zanzibar . In
Kharijite Rebellion - Misplaced Pages Continue
5408-522: The Tigris . Some five hundred of their Basran comrades were informed and joined them in Nahrawan, numbering reportedly up to 4,000 men. They declared Ali and his followers as unbelievers, and are held to have killed several people who did not share their views. In the meantime, the arbitrators declared that Uthman had been killed unjustly by the rebels. They could not agree on any other substantive matters and
5577-588: The United Arab Emirates , and Yemen . The capital and largest city is Muscat . Oman has a population of about 5.28 million as of 2024, which is a 4.60% population increase from 2023. and is the 123rd most-populous country . The coast faces the Arabian Sea on the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The Madha and Musandam exclaves are surrounded by United Arab Emirates on their land borders, with
5746-711: The Zubayrid governor of Basra in early 685 defeated the Azariqa, and Ibn al-Azraq was killed. The Azariqa chose Ubayd Allah ibn Mahuz as their new leader, regrouped, forced the Zubayrid army to retreat, and resumed their raids. After more defeats, Ibn al-Zubayr deployed his most able commander, Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra , against the Azariqa. Muhallab defeated them at the battle of Sillabra in May 686 and killed Ibn Mahuz. The Azariqa retreated to Fars. In late 686, Muhallab discontinued his campaign as he
5915-604: The northern Arabs were the overwhelming majority. Only six or seven revolts led by a southern Arab have been reported, their leaders hailing from the tribes of Tayy , Azd , and Kinda . Among the northern Arabs, the Rabi'a group produced most of the Kharijite leaders. Of the 48 identified Rabi'a leaders, 46 were from the Bakr ibn Wa'il branch (17 from the Shayban sub-tribe, 12 from Yashkur , five from Hanifa, and 12 from other sub-tribes). Among
6084-603: The 'Question of Oman' and report back to the General Assembly. The UN General Assembly adopted the 'Question of Oman' resolution in 1965, 1966 and again in 1967 that called upon the British government to cease all repressive action against the locals, end British control over Oman and reaffirmed the inalienable right of the Omani people to self-determination and independence. In the Dhofar War , which began in 1963, pro- Soviet forces were pitted against government troops. As
6253-627: The 1650s in expelling the Portuguese from their coastal domains in Oman. The Omanis over time established a maritime empire that pursued the Portuguese and expelled them from all their possessions in East Africa, which were then incorporated into the Omani domains. To capture Zanzibar Saif bin Sultan , the Imam of Oman, pressed down the Swahili Coast . A major obstacle to his progress was Fort Jesus , housing
6422-629: The 17th century. The British empire over time, starting from the late 18th century, began to establish a series of treaties with the sultans with the objective of advancing British political and economic interest in Muscat, while granting the sultans military protection. In 1798, the first treaty between the British East India Company and the Albusaidi dynasty was signed by Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed. The treaty aimed to block commercial competition of
6591-574: The 20th century, the sultanate came under the influence of the United Kingdom . For over 300 years, the relations built between the two empires were based on mutual benefit. The UK recognized Oman's geographical importance as a trading hub that secured British trading-lanes in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean and protected London's interests in the Indian sub-continent. Oman is an absolute monarchy led by
6760-582: The Arab tribes but also the region's original inhabitants. In the 7th century CE, Omanis came in contact with and accepted Islam . The conversion of Omanis to Islam is ascribed to Amr ibn al-As , who was sent by the prophet Muhammad during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha (Hisma) . Amr was dispatched to meet with Jaifer and Abd, the sons of Julanda who ruled Oman. They appear to have readily embraced Islam. Omani Azd used to travel to Basra for trade, which
6929-612: The Arab world's longest-serving ruler, died on 10 January 2020. Leaving no heir on succession, on 11 January 2020 Qaboos was succeeded by his first cousin Haitham bin Tariq . Haitham bin Tariq is the current Sultan of Oman. On 12 January 2021, Theyazin bin Haitham , Sultan Haithan's oldest son became the crown prince as first in line to succeed his father under new fundamental law. Oman lies between latitudes 16th parallel north and 28th parallel north , and longitudes 52nd meridian east and 60th meridian east . A gravel desert plain covers most of central Oman, with mountain ranges along
Kharijite Rebellion - Misplaced Pages Continue
7098-466: The Azariqa, Ibn al-Azraq, is said to have been the son of a mawla of Greek origin. The imams of the North African Kharijites from 740 onwards were all non-Arabs. The Kharijites also advocated for the equality of women with men. On the basis of women fighting alongside Muhammad, the Kharijites viewed jihad as incumbent upon women. The warrior and poet Layla bint Tarif is a famous example. Shabib's wife Ghazala participated in his battles against
7267-410: The Azariqa. In 694 the commander Hajjaj ibn Yusuf was appointed governor of Iraq and reinstated Muhallab to lead the war against the Azariqa. Muhallab forced their retreat to Kirman, where they split into two groups and were subsequently destroyed in 698–699. During his time in Ahwaz, Najda broke with Ibn al-Azraq over the latter's extremist ideology. Najda, with his followers, moved to the Yamama,
7436-432: The Barr al-Hikman. Archaeological remains are particularly numerous for the Bronze Age Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods. At the archaeological sites of Bat, Al-Janah, and Al-Ayn wheel-turned pottery, hand-made stone vessels, metals industry artifacts, and monumental architecture have been preserved. There is considerable agreement in sources that frankincense was used by traders in 1500 BCE. The Land of Frankincense ,
7605-441: The Consultative Assembly, to which Sultan Qaboos promised greater powers. The following year, the government began a crackdown on internet criticism. In September 2012, trials began of 'activists' accused of posting "abusive and provocative" criticism of the government online. Six were given jail terms. In 2013, Oman achieved its status as the elimination of malaria diagnoses, according to the World Health Organization . Qaboos,
7774-411: The French and the Dutch as well as obtain a concession to build a British factory at Bandar Abbas . A second treaty was signed in 1800, which stipulated that a British representative shall reside at the port of Muscat and manage all external affairs with other states. As the Omani Empire weakened, the British influence over Muscat grew throughout the nineteenth century. In 1854, a deed of cession of
7943-522: The Great over Oman in 536 BCE. Sumerian tablets referred to Oman as " Magan " and in the Akkadian language "Makan", a name that links Oman's ancient copper resources. Over centuries tribes from western Arabia settled in Oman, making a living by fishing, farming, herding or stock breeding, and many present day Omani families trace their ancestral roots to other parts of Arabia. Arab migration to Oman started from northern-western and south-western Arabia and those who chose to settle had to compete with
8112-482: The Gulf of Oman and the northern Arabian Sea , while No. 209 Squadron RAF , No. 265 Squadron RAF , and No. 321 Squadron RAF flew Consolidated PBY Catalinas out of Umm Ruşayş on Masirah Island. On October 16, 1943, the German U-Boat U-533 was sunk in the Gulf of Oman after being struck by depth charges dropped by a Bristol Blenheim from No. 244 Squadron RAF. The wreck settled at a depth of 108 meters (354 feet) approximately 25 nautical miles (46 kilometres) off
8281-426: The Ibadis in Oman and Africa are estimated to be around 2.5 million and 200,000 respectively. The Kharijites did not have a uniform and coherent set of doctrines. Different sects and individuals held different views. Based on these divergences, heresiographers have listed more than a dozen minor Kharijite sects, in addition to the four main sects discussed above. In addition to their insistence on rule according to
8450-417: The Ibadi–Sufri distinction emergent in this period, the groups with no Ibadi affiliation were associated with the Sufriyya. Around 740, the Sufriyya under the leadership of Maysara al-Matghari had revolted in Tangiers and captured the city from the Umayyads. They marched onto the provincial capital Kairouan , but were unable to capture it. Nevertheless, Sufri disturbances in North Africa continued throughout
8619-475: The Imamate right after the death of Imam Alkhalili, thus taking advantage of any potential instability that might occur within the Imamate when elections were due, to the British government. The British political agent in Muscat believed that the only method of gaining access to the oil reserves in the interior was by assisting the sultan in taking over the Imamate. In 1946, the British government offered arms and ammunition, auxiliary supplies and officers to prepare
SECTION 50
#17328517059638788-677: The Imamate. IPC offered financial support to the sultan to raise an armed force against any potential resistance by the Imamate. Upon the outbreak of World War II , the sultan of Oman declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939. During the war, Oman had a strategic role in the defence of the United Kingdom's trade routes. Oman was never attacked during the war. In 1943, the Royal Air Force established stations on Masirah Island ( RAF Masirah ) and at Ras al Hadd . Air-sea rescue units were also stationed in Oman. No. 244 Squadron RAF flew Bristol Blenheim V light bombers and Vickers Wellington XIIIs out of RAF Masirah on anti-submarine duties in
8957-446: The Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljim . The latter killed Ali with a poisoned sword while Ali was leading morning prayers on 26 January 661 in the Great Mosque of Kufa . The accession of Mu'awiya, the original enemy of the Kharijites, to the caliphate in August 661 provided the new impetus for Kharijite rebellion. Those Kharijites at Nahrawan who had been unwilling to fight Ali and had left the battlefield, rebelled against Mu'awiya. Under
9126-429: The Kharijites for their radical ideology and militancy. On the other hand, some modern Arab historians have stressed the egalitarian and proto-democratic tendencies of the Kharijites. Modern, academic historians are generally divided in attributing the Kharijite phenomenon to purely religious motivations, economic factors, or a Bedouin (nomadic Arab) challenge to the establishment of an organized state, with some rejecting
9295-401: The Kharijites from the rear. Nearly all of them were slain. Kufan Kharijism died out around 663, and Basra became the center of Kharijite disturbances. Ziyad ibn Abihi and his son Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad , who successively became governors of Iraq, dealt harshly with the Kharijites, and five Kharijite revolts, usually involving around 70 men, were suppressed. Notable among these was that of
9464-431: The Kharijites of the Second Muslim Civil War and beyond, condemning them as extremists. The Kharijites believed that any Muslim, irrespective of his descent or ethnicity, qualified for the role of caliph , provided he was morally irreproachable. It was the duty of Muslims to rebel against and depose caliphs who sinned. Most Kharijite groups branded as unbelievers ( kuffar ; sing. kafir ) Muslims who had committed
9633-486: The Majlis al-Shura, the Consultative Assembly of Oman . Two women were duly elected to the body. In 2002, voting rights were extended to all citizens over the age of 21, and the first elections to the Consultative Assembly under the new rules were held in 2003. In 2004, the Sultan appointed Oman's first female minister with portfolio, Sheikha Aisha bint Khalfan bin Jameel al-Sayabiyah , to the post of National Authority for Industrial Craftsmanship. Despite these changes, there
9802-407: The Muslim community. His favoritism and enrichment of his Umayyad relatives was disdained by the Muslim elite in Medina . The early Muslim settlers of the garrison towns of Kufa and Fustat , in the conquered regions of Iraq and Egypt, felt their status threatened by several factors during this period. These were Uthman's interference in provincial affairs, overcrowding of the garrison towns by
9971-514: The Najdat stance to practical necessities which they encountered while governing Arabia, as the administration of a large area required flexibility and allowance for human imperfection. The Sufriyya and Ibadiyya held that while the establishment of a legitimate dominion was desirable, it was legal to employ taqiyya and continue living among the non-Kharijites if rebellion was not possible. The Kharijites espoused that all Muslims were equals, regardless of ethnicity and advocated for equal status of
10140-417: The Najdat's philosophy as an early form of anarchism . The Kharijites also asserted that faith without accompanying deeds is useless, and that anyone who commits a major sin is an unbeliever ( kafir ; pl. kuffar ) and must repent to restore the true faith. However, the Kharijite notion of unbelief ( kufr ) differed from the mainstream Muslim definition, which understood a kafir as someone who
10309-413: The Omani Kuria Muria islands to Britain was signed by the sultan of Muscat and the British government. The British government achieved predominating control over Muscat, which, for the most part, impeded competition from other nations. Between 1862 and 1892, the Political Residents, Lewis Pelly and Edward Ross, played an instrumental role in securing British supremacy over the Persian Gulf and Muscat by
SECTION 60
#173285170596310478-422: The Persian forces eventually rebelled against the Yaruba in 1743. The Persian empire then tried to take possession of the coast of Oman until 1747. After the Omanis expelled the Persians , Ahmed bin Sa'id Albusaidi became the elected Imam of Oman in 1749, with Rustaq serving as the capital. Since the revival of the Imamate with the Yaruba dynasty, the Omanis continued with the elective system but, provided that
10647-402: The Portuguese built up and fortified the city. Remnants of Portuguese architectural style still exist. Later, several more Omani cities were colonized in the early 16th century by the Portuguese, to control the entrances of the Persian Gulf and trade in the region as part of a web of fortresses in the region, from Basra to Hormuz Island . However, in 1552 an Ottoman fleet briefly captured
10816-480: The Qur'an, the view common to all Kharijite groups was that any Muslim was qualified to become caliph, regardless of origin, if he had the credentials of belief and piety . They rejected Qurayshite descent or close kinship with Muhammad as a prerequisite for the office, a view espoused by most Muslims at the time. This differs from the position of both Sunnis, who accepted the leadership of those in power provided that they were Qurayshite, and Shi'a, who asserted that
10985-535: The Qur'an, for they considered its content to be worldly and frivolous. Many Kharijites were well-versed in traditional Arabic eloquence and poetry, which the orientalist Giorgio Levi Della Vida attributes to the majority of their early leaders being from Bedouin stock. The sermons and poems of many Kharijite leaders were compiled into collections ( diwans ). Kharijite poetry is mainly concerned with religious beliefs, with piety and activism, martyrdom , selling life to God ( shira ), and afterlife being some of
11154-481: The Qur'an, which was then abrogated . A hadith is ascribed to Umar, asserting the existence of this verse in the Qur'an. These Kharijites rejected the authenticity of such a verse. The heresiographer al-Ash'ari attributed this position to the Azariqa, who held a strict scripturalist position in legal matters (i.e. following only the Qur'an and rejecting commonly held views if they had no Qur'anic basis), and thus also refused to enforce legal punishment on slanderers when
11323-440: The Qur'anic verse: And if two groups of believers fight each other, then make peace between them. But if one of them transgresses against the other, then fight against the transgressing group until they ˹are willing to˺ submit to the rule of Allah. If they do so, then make peace between both ˹groups˺ in all fairness and act justly. Surely Allah loves those who uphold justice. They held that in agreeing to arbitration, Ali committed
11492-435: The Safavid empire. The result of the battle was a draw but it resulted in the loss of Portuguese influence in the Gulf. The Ottoman Empire temporarily captured Muscat from the Portuguese again in 1581 and held it until 1588. During the 17th century, the Omanis were reunited by the Yaruba Imams . Nasir bin Murshid became the first Yaarubah Imam in 1624, when he was elected in Rustaq. Imam Nasir and his successor succeeded in
11661-478: The Sultanate as the defence secretary and chief of intelligence, chief adviser to the sultan and all ministers except for two were British. In 1937, an agreement between the sultan and Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), a consortium of oil companies that was 23.75% British owned, was signed to grant oil concessions to IPC. After failing to discover oil in the Sultanate, IPC was intensely interested in some promising geological formations near Fahud , an area located within
11830-431: The Sultanate of Muscat and Oman as a fully independent state. In 1955, the exclave coastal Makran strip acceded to Pakistan and was made a district of its Balochistan province , while Gwadar remained in Oman. On 8 September 1958, Pakistan purchased the Gwadar enclave from Oman for US$ 3 million. Gwadar then became a tehsil in the Makran district. Sultan Said bin Taimur expressed his interest in occupying
11999-443: The Sultanate's forces occupied the mountain in a surprise operation. Imam Ghalib, his brother Talib and Sulaiman managed to escape to Saudi Arabia , where the Imamate's cause was promoted until the 1970s. The exiled partisans of the now abolished Imamate of Oman presented the case of Oman to the Arab League and the United Nations. On 11 December 1963, the UN General Assembly decided to establish an Ad-Hoc Committee on Oman to study
12168-684: The Umayyad period. Around 750, the Sufri Midrarids established a dynasty in Sijilmasa , in modern Morocco. The dynasty survived until the Fatimid capture of the city in 909. Nonetheless, the Midrarids continued governing the city under intermittent Fatimid suzerainty until 976. The North African Sufriyya later disappeared, and their remnants were absorbed into the Ibadiyya around the tenth or 11th century. In
12337-687: The Umayyad rulers, and all non-Kharijites in general, were unbelievers, it was unlawful to continue living under their rule ( dar al-kufr ), for that was in itself an act of unbelief. It was thus obligatory to emigrate, in emulation of Muhammad's Hijra to Medina, and establish a legitimate dominion of their own ( dar al-hijra ). The Azariqa prohibited the practice of dissimulation of their faith ( taqiyya ) and branded non-activist Kharijites (i.e. those who did not emigrate to their camp) as unbelievers. The Najdat allowed taqiyya and quietism, but labeled their practitioners as hypocrites. The Islamicist Montgomery Watt attributes this moderation of
12506-629: The Umayyads in 750, Sufri revolts in the eastern parts of the empire continued for almost two centuries, though at a small scale and were easily put down. However, in revolts led by Abd al-Hamid al-Bajali in 866–877 and by Harun ibn Abd Allah al-Bajali in 880–896, the Kharijites gained control of northern Mesopotamia from the Abbasids and collected taxes. By the mid-8th century, the quietist Kharijites appeared in North Africa. They were mostly of Berber origin and were recruited through missionary activity. With
12675-539: The Umayyads in 696–699. In the 740s, large-scale Kharijite rebellions broke out across the caliphate, but all were eventually suppressed. Although the Kharijite revolts continued into the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), the most militant Kharijite groups were gradually eliminated. They were replaced by the non-activist Ibadiyya , who survive to this day in Oman and some parts of North Africa. They, however, deny any links with
12844-469: The United Nations, as did Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. In 1981, Oman became a founding member of the six-nation Gulf Cooperation Council . Political reforms were eventually introduced. The country adopted its present national flag in 1995, resembling the previous flag but with a thicker stripe. In 1997, a royal decree was issued granting women the right to vote, and stand for election to
13013-663: The Yaarubah from Qahtan, which belong to an older branch, were the first settlers of Oman from Yemen, and then came the Azd. The Azd settlers in Oman are descendants of Nasr bin Azd and were later known as "the Al-Azd of Oman". Seventy years after the first Azd migration, another branch of Alazdi under Malik bin Fahm, the founder of Kingdom of Tanukhites on the west of Euphrates , is believed to have settled in Oman. According to Al-Kalbi, Malik bin Fahm
13182-473: The Yaarubah were the first settlers in Oman from Yemen. In the 1970s and 1980s, scholars like John C. Wilkinson believed by virtue of oral history that in the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids exerted control over the Omani peninsula, most likely ruling from a coastal centre such as Suhar . Central Oman has its own indigenous Samad Late Iron Age cultural assemblage named eponymously from Samad al-Shan . In
13351-519: The alienation of the interior of Oman to the vast influence of the British government over Muscat, which he described as being completely self-interested and without any regard to the social and political conditions of the locals. In 1913, Imam Salim Alkharusi instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion that lasted until 1920 when the Sultanate established peace with the Imamate by signing the Treaty of Seeb . The treaty
13520-724: The ancient Sohar . The city or region is typically etymologized in Arabic as deriving from ʿāmin or ʿamūn ('settled' people, as opposed to the nomadic Bedouin ). Although some have proposed one or another eponymous founder (Oman bin Ibrahim al-Khalil, Oman bin Siba' bin Yaghthan bin Ibrahim, Oman bin Qahtan), others have suggested that "Oman" derives from the name of a valley in Yemen at Ma'rib , presumed to be
13689-448: The arbitration proposal despite his reservations. They acknowledged that they had sinned but insisted that they repented and asked him to do the same, which Ali then did in general and ambiguous terms. The troops at Harura subsequently restored their allegiance to Ali and returned to Kufa, on the condition that the war against Mu'awiya be resumed within six months. Ali refused to denounce the arbitration proceedings, which continued despite
13858-537: The army and set up camp in Harura, a place near Kufa. They thus became known as the Harurites. They held that Uthman had deserved his death because of his nepotism and not ruling according to the Qur'an, and that Ali was the legitimate caliph, while Mu'awiya was a rebel. They believed that the Qur'an clearly stated that as a rebel Mu'awiya was not entitled to arbitration, but rather should be fought until he repented, pointing to
14027-542: The ascetic Salih ibn Mussarih and the tribal leader Shabib ibn Yazid al-Shaybani are associated with the Sufriyya, as well as the revolt of Dahhak ibn Qays al-Shaybani during the Third Fitna (744–750). After Ibn Ibad's death, the Ibadiyya are considered to have been led into the late Umayyad period successively by Jabir ibn Zayd and Abu Ubayda Muslim ibn Abi Karima. Jabir, a respected scholar and traditionist, had friendly relations with Abd al-Malik and Hajjaj. Following
14196-491: The authors tend to portray their own sect as the true representative of original Islam and are consequently hostile to the Kharijites. Although the authors in both categories used earlier Kharijite as well as non-Kharijite sources, which are no longer extant, their rendering of the events has been heavily altered by literary topoi . Based on a hadith (saying or tradition attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad ) prophesying
14365-476: The best. Similarly, Ali's assassin Ibn Muljam was exalted by the poet Ibn Abi Mayyas al-Muradi in the following: You upon whom be blessings, we have struck Ḥaydar ['the lion'; a nickname for Ali] Abū Ḥasan [Ali] with a blow to the head and he was split apart. Kharijite poetry has survived mainly in the non-Kharijite sources, and hence may have been subject to alteration by its transmitters. Nevertheless,
14534-584: The central Oman, whereas his successor Rashid ibn Sa'id al-Yahmadi ( r. 1029–1053 ) drove the then Abbasid patrons Buyids out of the coastal region, thereby restoring the Ibadi control of Oman. Internal splits led to fall of the third Ibadi imamate in the late 12th century. Ibadi imamates were reestablished in subsequent centuries. Ibadis form the majority of the Omani population to date. Ibadi missionary activity met with considerable success in North Africa. In 757, Ibadis seized Tripoli and captured Kairouan
14703-445: The city's governor. Umar drove out Ibn al-Azraq's men from Basra and they escaped to Ahwaz. From Ahwaz, Ibn al-Azraq raided Basra's suburbs. His followers are called Azariqa after their leader, and are described in the sources as the most fanatic of the Kharijite groups, for they approved the doctrine of isti'rad : indiscriminate killing of the non-Kharijite Muslims, including their women and children. An army sent against them by
14872-419: The civil war. Afterward, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali became caliph with the help of the people of Medina and the rebels. He was soon challenged by Muhammad's widow, A'isha , and Muhammad's early companions, Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam , who held that his election was invalid as it involved Uthman's murderers and hence a shura (consultative assembly) had to be called to elect
15041-430: The conflict with his challenger, Mu'awiya , at the Battle of Siffin in 657. They asserted that "judgment belongs to God alone," which became their motto, and that rebels such as Mu'awiya had to be fought and overcome according to Qur'anic injunctions. Ali defeated the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan in 658, but their insurrection continued. Ali was assassinated in 661 by a Kharijite dissident seeking revenge for
15210-424: The country, removed "Muscat and" from the country's name, embarked on economic reforms, and followed a policy of modernisation marked by increased spending on health, education and welfare. Saudi Arabia invested in the development of the Omani education system, sending Saudi teachers on its own expense. Slavery , once a cornerstone of the country's trade and development, was outlawed in 1970. In 1971, Oman joined
15379-712: The cousins Qarib ibn Murra al-Azdi and Zuhhaff ibn Zahr al-Tayyi . In 672/673 they rebelled in Basra with a 70-strong band. They are reported to have been involved in the random killing ( isti'rad ) of people in the streets and mosques of Basra before being cornered in a house, where they were eventually killed and their bodies crucified. Afterward, Ziyad is reported to have severely persecuted their followers. Ibn Ziyad jailed any Kharijite whom he suspected of being dangerous and executed several Kharijite sympathizers who had publicly denounced him. Between their successive reigns, Ziyad and his son are said to have killed 13,000 Kharijites. As
15548-448: The death of Abd al-Malik, relations between the Ibadiyya leaders and Hajjaj deteriorated, as the former became inclined towards activism ( khuruj ) . Hajjaj consequently exiled some of them to Oman and imprisoned others. Abu Ubayda, who was released after the death of Hajjaj in 714, became the next leader of the Ibadiyya. After unsuccessfully attempting to win over the Umayyad caliphs to the Ibadi doctrine, he sent missionaries to propagate
15717-614: The defeat at Nahrawan. After Mu'awiya established the Umayyad Caliphate in 661, his governors kept the Kharijites in check. The power vacuum caused by the Second Fitna (680–692) allowed for the resumption of the Kharijites' anti-government rebellion, and the Kharijite factions of the Azariqa and Najdat came to control large areas in Persia and Arabia . Internal disputes and fragmentation weakened them considerably before their defeat by
15886-486: The doctrine in different parts of the empire. Almost simultaneously, the Sufriyya also spread into North Africa and southern Arabia through missionary activity. Through absorption into the Ibadiyya, the Sufriyya eventually became extinct. Ibadi sources too are more or less in line with this scheme, where the Ibadiyya appear as the true successors of the original Medinese community and the early, pre-Second-Fitna Kharijites, though Ibn Ibad does not feature prominently and Jabir
16055-460: The early eighth century, a proto-Ibadi movement emerged from the Basran moderates. Missionaries were sent to propagate the doctrine in different parts of the empire including Oman, Yemen, Hadramawt, Khurasan , and North Africa. During the final years of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Ibadi propaganda movement caused several revolts in the periphery of the empire, though the leaders in Basra adopted
16224-457: The emergence of 73 sects in Islam, of which one would be saved ( al-firqa al-najiya ) and the rest doomed as deviant, the heresiographers were mainly concerned with classifying what they considered to be deviant sects and their heretical doctrines. Consequently, views of certain sects were altered to fit into classification schemes, and sometimes fictitious sects were invented. Moreover, the reports are often confused and contradictory, rendering
16393-459: The entire 19th century, in addition to Imam Said bin Ahmed who retained the title until he died in 1803, Azzan bin Qais was the only elected Imam of Oman. His rule started in 1868. However, the British refused to accept Imam Azzan as a ruler, as he was viewed as inimical to their interests. This view played an instrumental role in supporting the deposition of Imam Azzan in 1871 by his cousin, Sayyid Turki,
16562-512: The first elected Imam of Oman, in 751 CE. The first Imamate reached its peak power in the ninth century CE. The Imamate established a maritime empire whose fleet controlled the Gulf, during the time when trade with the Abbasid Dynasty , the Far East, and Africa flourished. The authority of the Imams started to decline due to power struggles, the constant interventions of Abbasid, and the rise of
16731-505: The fort in Muscat , during their fight for control of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, but soon departed after destroying the surroundings of the fortress. Later in the 17th century, using its bases in Oman, Portugal engaged in the largest naval battle ever fought in the Persian Gulf . The Portuguese force fought against a combined armada of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and English East India Company supported by
16900-659: The garrison of a Portuguese settlement at Mombasa . After a two-year siege, the fort fell to Imam Saif bin Sultan in 1698. Saif bin Sultan occupied Bahrain in 1700. The rivalry within the house of Yaruba over power after the death of Imam Sultan in 1718 weakened the dynasty. With the power of the Yaruba Dynasty dwindling, Imam Saif bin Sultan II eventually asked for help against his rivals from Nader Shah of Persia. A Persian force arrived in March 1737 to aid Saif. From their base at Julfar,
17069-660: The governor al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba . The best known of these revolts was that of al-Mustawrid ibn Ullafa , who was recognized as caliph by the Kufan Kharijites in 663. With about 300 followers, he left Kufa and moved to Behrasir . There, he confronted the deputy governor Simak ibn Ubayd al-Absi and invited him to denounce Uthman and Ali "who had made innovations in the religion and denied the holy book". Simak refused and al-Mustawrid, instead of engaging him directly, decided to exhaust and fragment Simak's forces by forcing them into pursuit. Moving onto Madhar near Basra, al-Mustawrid
17238-481: The grave sin of rejecting God's judgment ( hukm ) and attempted to substitute human judgment for God's clear injunction, which prompted their motto 'judgment belongs to God alone'. From this expression, which they were the first to adopt as a motto, they became known as the Muhakkima . Ali visited the Harura camp and attempted to regain the dissidents' support, arguing that it was they who had forced him to accept
17407-426: The historian Fred Donner believes that Kharijite poetry may have suffered a lesser and "different kind" of interpolation than the historical accounts about the Kharijites. According to Hagemann, poetry is seemingly "the only genuinely Khārijite material" in existence. A modern compilation of Kharijite poetry was published by Ihsan Abbas in 1974. Most Kharijite leaders in the Umayyad period were Arabs. Of these,
17576-496: The historiographical category include the History of al-Tabari (d. 923), Ansab al-Ashraf of al-Baladhuri (d. 892), al-Kamil of al-Mubarrad (d. 899), and Muruj al-Dhahab of al-Mas'udi (d. 956). Other notable sources include the histories of Ibn Athir (d. 1233), and Ibn Kathir (d. 1373), but these have drawn most of their material from al-Tabari. The core of the information in these historiographical sources
17745-504: The homeland of his Banu Hanifa tribe. He became leader of Abu Talut's Kharijite faction, which became known as the Najdat after him. Najda took control of Bahrayn , repulsing a 14,000-strong Zubayrid army deployed against him. His lieutenant, Atiyya ibn al-Aswad , captured Oman from the local Julanda rulers, though the latter reasserted their control after a few months. Najda seized Hadramawt and Yemen in 687 and later captured Ta'if ,
17914-527: The hottest climates in the world—with summer temperatures in Muscat and northern Oman averaging 30 to 40 °C (86.0 to 104.0 °F). Oman receives little rainfall , with annual rainfall in Muscat averaging 100 mm (3.9 in), occurring mostly in January. In the south, the Dhofar Mountains area near Salalah has a tropical-like climate and receives seasonal rainfall from late June to late September as
18083-450: The indigenous population for the best arable land. When Arab tribes started to migrate to Oman, there were two distinct groups. One group, a segment of the Azd tribe migrated from Yemen in 120 /200 CE following the collapse of Marib Dam , while the other group migrated a few centuries before the birth of Islam from Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia ), named Nizari . Other historians believe that
18252-625: The interior led by Imam Ghalib Alhinai, Talib Alhinai, the brother of the Imam and the Wali (governor) of Rustaq, and Suleiman bin Hamyar, who was the Wali (governor) of Jebel Akhdar, defended the Imamate in the Jebel Akhdar War against British-backed attacks by the Sultanate. In July 1957, the Sultan's forces were withdrawing, but they were repeatedly ambushed, sustaining heavy casualties. Sultan Said, however, with
18421-510: The intervention of British infantry (two companies of the Cameronians ), armoured car detachments from the British Army and RAF aircraft, was able to suppress the rebellion. The Imamate's forces retreated to the inaccessible Jebel Akhdar . Colonel David Smiley , who had been seconded to organise the Sultan's Armed Forces, managed to isolate the mountain in autumn 1958 and found a route to
18590-405: The khurūj [rebellion]". The poet Abu'l-Wazi al-Rasibi addressed Ibn al-Azraq, before the latter became activist, with the lines: Your tongue does no harm to the enemy you will only gain salvation from distress by means of your two hands. The government was often labelled as tyrannical and obedience to it was criticized. The Kharijite poet Isa ibn Fatik al-Khatti thus sang: You obeyed
18759-416: The latter are the main sources of information and date to later periods, the Kharijite material has suffered alterations and distortions during transmission, collection, and classification. Non-Kharijite sources fall mainly into two categories: histories and heresiographical works—the so-called firaq (sects) literature. The histories were written significantly later than the actual events, and many of
18928-488: The leader authority over the community. If the leader committed a sin and deviated from the right path or failed to manage Muslims' affairs through justice and consultation, he was obliged to acknowledge his mistake and repent, or else he forfeited his right to rule and was subject to deposition. In the view of the Azariqa and the Najdat, Muslims had the duty to revolt against such a ruler. Almost all Kharijite groups considered
19097-471: The leadership belonged to Ali and his descendants. The Kharijites held that the first four caliphs had not been elected for their Qurayshite descent or kinship with Muhammad, but because they were among the most eminent and qualified Muslims for the position, and hence were all legitimate caliphs. In particular, they had a high regard for Abu Bakr ( r. 632–634 ) and Umar ( r. 634–644 ) as, according to them, they governed justly. Uthman, on
19266-566: The leadership of Farwa ibn Nawfal al-Ashja'i of the Banu Murra , some 500 of them attacked Mu'awiya's camp at Nukhayla (a place outside Kufa) where he was taking the Kufans' oath of allegiance . In the ensuing battle, the Kharijites repelled the initial sortie by Mu'awiya's troops, but were eventually defeated and most of them killed. Seven more Kufan Kharijite uprisings, with rebel numbers in individual revolts varying between 20 and 400, were defeated by
19435-639: The legal aspects of rebellion". The Ibadi sources, on the other hand, are hagiographical and are concerned with preserving the group identity. Toward this purpose, stories are sometimes created, or real events altered, in order to romanticize and valorize early Kharijite revolts and their leaders as the anchors of the group identity. These too are hostile to other Kharijite groups. The sources, whether Ibadi, historiographical, or heresiographical, do not necessarily report events as they actually happened. They rather show how their respective authors viewed, and wanted their readers to view, these events. The sources in
19604-569: The main slave market of the Swahili Coast as well as being a major producer of cloves, and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the Sayyid Sa'id bin Sultan , to make it the capital of the empire in 1837. In 1856, under British arbitration, Zanzibar and Muscat became two different sultanates. The Hajar Mountains , of which the Jebel Akhdar
19773-547: The members of the agreement established Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC). On 13 November 1931, Sultan Taimur bin Faisal abdicated. Said bin Taimur became the sultan of Muscat officially on 10 February 1932. The rule of sultan Said, a very complex character, was backed by the British government, and has been characterised as being feudal , reactionary and isolationist. The British government maintained vast administrative control over
19942-569: The moderate movement. The moderates further split into the true Sufriyya and Ibadiyya only during the eighth century, with the main difference being tribal affiliations rather than doctrinal differences. During the Second Fitna, the moderates remained inactive. However, in the mid-690s they also started militant activities in response to persecution by Hajjaj. The first of their revolts was led in 695 by Ibn Musarrih, and ended in defeat and Ibn Musarrih's death. Afterward, this Kharijite group became
20111-529: The moderates, the Sufriyya and Bayhasiyya considered all non-Kharijite Muslims as unbelievers, but also abstained from taking up arms against them, unless necessary, and allowed intermarriage with them. The Ibadiyya, on the other hand, did not declare the non-Kharijites as polytheists or unbelievers in the general sense, rather as hypocrites ( kuffar bil-nifaq ), or ungrateful for God's blessings ( kuffar bil-ni'ma ). They also permitted marriages outside their own sect. The Azariqa and Najdat held that since
20280-569: The most prominent themes, though the themes of heroism and courage are also evident. Referring to his rebellion, Abu Bilal Mirdas said: "Fear of God and the dread of the fire made me go out, and selling my soul for which has no price [paradise]". Some poems encouraged militant activism. Imran ibn Hittan , whom the Arabist Michael Cooperson calls the greatest Kharijite poet, sang after Abu Bilal's death: "Abū Bilāl has increased my disdain for this life; and strengthened my love for
20449-916: The next year. Driven out by an Abbasid army in 761, Ibadi leaders founded a state, which became known as the Rustamid dynasty , in Tahart . It was overthrown in 909 by the Fatimids. Ibadi communities continue to exist today in the Nafusa Mountains in northwestern Libya, Djerba island in Tunisia and the M'zab valley in Algeria. In East Africa they are found in Zanzibar . Ibadi missionary activity also reached Persia, India, Egypt, Sudan, Spain and Sicily, although Ibadi communities in these regions disappeared over time. The total numbers of
20618-433: The ninth and tenth centuries and is hostile toward the sect. The absence of the Kharijite version of their history has made unearthing their true motives difficult. Traditional Muslim historical sources and mainstream Muslims viewed the Kharijites as religious extremists who left the Muslim community . The term Kharijites is often used by modern mainstream Muslims to describe Islamist extremist groups that have been compared to
20787-415: The north ( Hajar Mountains ) and southeast coast ( Dhofar Mountains ), where the country's main cities are located: the capital city Muscat , Sohar and Sur in the north, and Salalah in the south and Musandam . Oman's climate is hot and dry in the interior and humid along the coast. The peninsula of Musandam (Musandem), strategically located on the Strait of Hormuz , is an exclave separated from
20956-587: The northeast and Horn of Africa . Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old. This supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene . In recent years surveys have uncovered Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites on the eastern coast. Main Palaeolithic sites include Saiwan-Ghunaim in
21125-716: The northern Arab Mudar group, the Tamim accounted for the majority, with 16 of the 21 Mudar leaders hailing from the tribe; the other leaders were from the Qays . Three or four revolts were led by a mawla or a Berber. Oman Oman , officially the Sultanate of Oman , is a country on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia . It overlooks the mouth of the Persian Gulf . It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia ,
21294-589: The northern part of the Oman Peninsula the Recent Pre-Islamic Period begins in the 3rd century BCE and extends into the 3rd century CE. Whether or not Persians brought south-eastern Arabia under their control is a moot point, since the lack of Persian archeological finds speak against this belief. Armand-Pierre Caussin de Perceval suggests that Shammir bin Wathil bin Himyar recognized the authority of Cyrus
21463-436: The orders of the stubborn tyrant but no obedience is due to oppressors. Many poems were written to eulogize fallen Kharijite activists, and thus represent the romanticized version of actual historical events. The Muhakkima are thus valorized and remembered at many places. The poet Aziz ibn al-Akhnas al-Ta'i eulogized them in the following lines: I complain to God that from every tribe of people, battle has annihilated
21632-525: The original home of the city's founders, the Azd , an ancient Bedouin tribe mentioned in the pre-Islamic inscriptions — specifically, Sabaic inscriptions from Sha'r Awtar 's reign ( 210 – 230 CE). At Aybut Al Auwal, in the Dhofar Governorate of Oman, a site was discovered in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools, belonging to a regionally specific African lithic industry —the late Nubian Complex—known previously only from
21801-401: The other hand, had deviated from the path of justice and truth in the latter half of his caliphate and was thus liable to be killed or deposed, whereas Ali committed a grave sin when he agreed to the arbitration with Mu'awiya. In contrast to the Umayyad idea that their rule was ordained by God, the Kharijite idea of leadership lacked any divine sanctioning; only correct attitude and piety granted
21970-518: The overland route via Sohar to the Yabrin oasis, and then north to Bahrain, Baghdad and Damascus. The mango-tree was introduced to Oman during the time of Nabhani dynasty, by ElFellah bin Muhsin. The Nabhani dynasty started to deteriorate in 1507 when Portuguese colonisers captured the coastal city of Muscat , and gradually extended their control along the coast up to Sohar in the north and down to Sur in
22139-479: The person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a member of the ruling family. Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, Said bin Ahmed became the elected Imam. His son, Seyyid Hamed bin Said, overthrew the representative of his father the Imam in Muscat and obtained the possession of Muscat fortress. Hamed ruled as "Seyyid". Afterwards, Seyyid Sultan bin Ahmed, the uncle of Seyyid Hamed, took over power. Seyyid Said bin Sultan succeeded Sultan bin Ahmed. During
22308-545: The plateau from Wadi Bani Kharus. On 4 August 1957, the British Foreign Secretary gave the approval to carry out air strikes without prior warning to the locals residing in the interior of Oman. Between July and December 1958, the British RAF made 1,635 raids, dropping 1,094 tons and firing 900 rockets at the interior of Oman targeting insurgents, mountain top villages, water channels and crops. On 27 January 1959,
22477-478: The policy of kitman (also called taqiyya ); concealing beliefs so as to avoid persecution. In 745, Abd Allah ibn Yahya al-Kindi established the first Ibadi state in Hadramawt, and captured Yemen in 746. His lieutenant, Abu Hamza Mukhtar ibn Aws al-Azdi , later conquered Mecca and Medina . The Umayyads defeated and killed Abu Hamza and Ibn Yahya in 748 and the first Ibadi state collapsed. An Ibadi state
22646-405: The position of a leader (imam) to be necessary. Many Kharijite leaders adopted the title of amir al-mu'minin , which was usually reserved for caliphs. An exception are the Najdat, who, as a means of survival, abandoned the requirement of war against non-Kharijites after their defeat in 692, and rejected that the imamate was an obligatory institution. The historian Patricia Crone has described
22815-450: The post- Ottoman Empire region, which included the Arabian peninsula, with each of the four major companies holding 23.75 percent of the shares while Calouste Gulbenkian held the remaining 5 percent shares. The agreement stipulated that none of the signatories was allowed to pursue the establishment of oil concessions within the agreed on area without including all other stakeholders. In 1929,
22984-437: The process collapsed. Ali denounced the conduct of Abu Musa and Mu'awiya's lead arbitrator Amr ibn al-As as contrary to the Qur'an and the sunna , and rallied his supporters for a renewed war against Mu'awiya. He invited the Kharijites to join him as before. They refused, pending his acknowledgement of having gone astray and his repentance. Seeing no chance of reconciliation, Ali decided to depart for Syria without them. On
23153-483: The radical Azariqa and Najdat on the question of rebellion and separation from the non-Kharijites. Ibn Saffar and Ibn Ibad then disagreed amongst themselves as to the faith of the non-Kharijites, and thus came the two other sects: the Sufriyya and Ibadiyya. All the other uncategorized Kharijite subgroups are considered offshoots of the Sufriyya. In this scheme, the Kharijites of the Jazira region (north-western Iraq), including
23322-530: The rebellion threatened the Sultan's control of Dhofar , Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed in a bloodless coup in 1970 by his son Qaboos bin Said with British support. Qaboos expanded the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces , modernized the state's administration and introduced social reforms. The uprising was finally put down in 1976 with the help of forces from Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan and Britain. After deposing his father in 1970, Sultan Qaboos opened up
23491-401: The reconciliation with the troops at Harura. In March 658, Ali sent a delegation, led by Abu Musa al-Ash'ari , to carry out the talks. The troops opposed to the arbitration thereafter condemned Ali's rule and elected the pious Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi as their caliph. In order to evade detection, they moved out of Kufa in small groups and went to a place called Nahrawan on the east bank of
23660-552: The remainder left for the Yamama , in central Arabia, under the leadership of Abu Talut Salim ibn Matar . In the meantime, Ibn Ziyad was expelled by tribal chiefs in Basra, where inter-tribal strife ensued. Ibn al-Azraq and other militant Kharijites took over the city, killed the deputy left by Ibn Ziyad and freed 140 Kharijites from prison. Soon afterwards, the Basrans recognized Ibn al-Zubayr, who appointed Umar ibn Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar as
23829-558: The rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates . Madha , another exclave, is an enclave within UAE territory located halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the main body of Oman. Madha, part of the Musandam governorate, covers approximately 75 square kilometres (29 sq mi). Madha's boundary was settled in 1969, with the north-east corner of Madha barely 10 metres (33 ft) from
23998-434: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Kharijite Rebellion . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kharijite_Rebellion&oldid=924252647 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
24167-524: The singular Khariji . They called themselves al-Shurat ("the Exchangers"), which they understood within the context of Islamic scripture ( Quran 2:207 ) and philosophy to mean "those who have traded the mortal life ( al-Dunya ) for the other life [with God] ( al-Akhirah )". Almost no primary Kharijite sources survive, except for works by authors from the sole surviving Kharijite sect of Ibadiyya , and excerpts in non-Kharijite works. As
24336-441: The slander was targeted at a male. The Azariqa instituted the practice of testing the faith of new recruits ( mihna ), which is said to have involved giving them a prisoner to kill. It was either an occasional practice, as held by Watt, or a later distortion by the heresiographers, as held by Lewinstein. One of the Kharijite groups also refused to recognize the sura (Qur'anic chapter) of Yusuf as being an original part of
24505-505: The southeast. Other historians argue that the Nabhani dynasty ended earlier in 1435 CE when conflicts between the dynasty and Alhinawis arose, which led to the restoration of the elective Imamate. A decade after Vasco da Gama succeeded in his voyage around the Cape of Good Hope and to India in 1497–1498, the Portuguese arrived in Oman and occupied Muscat for a 143-year period, from 1507 to 1650. In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes,
24674-498: The sultan to attack the interior of Oman. In May 1954, Imam Alkhalili died and Ghalib Alhinai was elected Imam. Relations between the Sultan Said bin Taimur, and Imam Ghalib Alhinai frayed over their dispute about oil concessions. In December 1955, Sultan Said bin Taimur sent troops of the Muscat and Oman Field Force to occupy the main centres in Oman, including Nizwa , the capital of the Imamate of Oman, and Ibri . The Omanis in
24843-447: The theological and political disputes among the early Muslims had been settled by then. As representatives of the emerging orthodoxy, the Sunni as well as Shia authors of these works looked upon the original events through the lens of this orthodox viewpoint. The bulk of information regarding the Kharijites, however, comes from the second category. These sources are outright polemical, as
25012-423: The traditional account of the movement having started at Siffin. The term al-Khariji was used as an exonym by their opponents for leaving the army of Caliph Ali during the First Fitna . The term comes from the Arabic root خ ر ج , which has the primary meaning "to leave" or "to get out", as in the basic word خرج , ḵẖaraja , "to go out". The term Khawarij is anglicized to 'Kharijites' from
25181-403: The troops of Hajjaj. The Kharijites had a scrupulous attitude towards non-Muslims, respecting their dhimmi (protected) status more seriously than others. Some of the Kharijites rejected the punishment of adultery with stoning , which is prescribed in other Islamic legal schools . Although the Qur'an does not prescribe this penalty, Muslims of other sects hold that such a verse existed in
25350-400: The war, taking over the governance of Oman. The first elective Imamate of Oman is believed to have been established shortly after the fall of the Umayyad Dynasty in 750/755 CE, when Janaħ bin ʕibadah Alħinnawi was elected. Other scholars claim that Janaħ bin Ibadah served as a Wāli (governor) under the Umayyad dynasty (and later ratified the Imamate), and that Julanda bin Masud was
25519-402: The way, however, he received news of the Kharijites' murder of a traveler, which then was followed by murder of his envoy, who had been sent to investigate. He was urged by his followers, who feared for their families and property in Kufa, to deal with the Kharijites first. After the Kharijites refused to surrender the murderers, Ali's men attacked their camp, inflicting a heavy defeat on them at
25688-518: The year 650; the Omani Azd in Iraq would subsequently adopt this as their predominant faith. Later, al-Hajjaj , the governor of Iraq, came into conflict with the Ibadis, which forced them back to Oman. Among those who returned was the scholar Jaber bin Zaid . His return (and the return of many other scholars) greatly enhanced the Ibadhi movement in Oman. Alhajjaj also made an attempt to subjugate Oman, then ruled by Suleiman and Said (the sons of Abbad bin Julanda). Alhajjaj dispatched Mujjaah bin Shiwah, who
25857-420: Was a centre of Islam, during the Umayyad empire. Omani Azd were granted a section of Basra, where they could settle and attend to their needs. Many of the Omani Azd who settled in Basra became wealthy merchants and, under their leader al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra , started to expand their influence of power eastwards towards Khorasan . Ibadism originated in Basra through its founder, Abd Allah ibn Ibad , around
26026-464: Was a non-Muslim. To the Kharijites, kufr implied a defective Muslim, or pseudo-Muslim, who rejected true Islam. The Azariqa held a more extreme position that such unbelievers were in fact polytheists and apostates who could not reenter Islam and could be killed, along with their women and children. Intermarriage between the Kharijites and such unbelievers was forbidden in the Azariqa doctrine. The Najdat allowed marriages with non-Kharijites. Of
26195-515: Was at first led by Sa'id ibn Bahdal al-Shaybani, and after his death from plague, Dahhak ibn Qays al-Shaybani. Joined by many more Sufriyya from other parts of the empire, he captured Kufa in April 745 and later Wasit , which had replaced Kufa as the regional capital under Hajjaj. At this stage even some Umayyad officials, including two sons of former caliphs ( Sulayman , son of Hisham and Abd Allah , son of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz ), recognized him as caliph and joined his ranks. Dahhak captured Mosul, but
26364-420: Was brokered by Britain, which had no economic interest in the interior of Oman during that point of time. The treaty granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior of Oman and recognized the sovereignty of the coast of Oman, the Sultanate of Muscat . In 1920, Imam Salim Alkharusi died and Muhammad Alkhalili was elected. On 10 January 1923, an agreement between the Sultanate and the British government
26533-461: Was confronted by Said bin Abbad. This confrontation devastated Said's army, after which he and his forces retreated to the Jebel Akhdar (mountains). Mujjaah and his forces went after Said, successfully flushing them out from hiding in Wadi Mastall. Mujjaah later moved towards the coast, where he confronted Suleiman bin Abbad. The battle was won by Suleiman's forces. Alhajjaj, however, sent another force (under Abdulrahman bin Suleiman); he eventually won
26702-458: Was established in Oman in 750 after the fall of Abu Yahya, but fell to the Abbasids in 752. It was followed by the establishment of another Ibadi state in 793, which survived for a century until the Abbasid recapture of Oman in 893. Abbasid influence in Oman was mostly nominal, and Ibadi imams continued to wield considerable power. Around a century later, Ibadi leader al-Khalil ibn Shathan al-Kharusi ( r. 1016–1029 ) reasserted control over
26871-479: Was established with a mandate to settle the dispute according to the Qur'an and the sunna . While most of Ali's army accepted the agreement, one group, which included many Tamim tribesmen, vehemently objected to the arbitration and raised the slogan 'judgment belongs to God alone' ( la hukma illa li-llah ). As Ali marched back to his capital at Kufa, widespread resentment toward the arbitration developed in his army. As many as 12,000 dissenters seceded from
27040-501: Was eventually killed along with 6,000 followers in 692 by Umayyad forces in Bahrayn. Politically exterminated, the Najdat retreated into obscurity and disappeared around the tenth century. According to the heresiographers' accounts, the original Kharijites split into four principal groups ( usul al-Khawarij ; the mother sects of all the later Kharijites sects), during the Second Fitna. A moderate group, headed by Abd Allah ibn Saffar (or Asfar) and Abd Allah ibn Ibad , disagreed with
27209-424: Was killed by the forces of the Caliph Marwan II in 746. His successor, Shayban ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Yashkuri, was driven out from Mosul by Marwan II and fled to Fars to join the Alid leader Abd Allah ibn Mu'awiya , who ruled in opposition to the Umayyads. Attacked there by the Umayyads, they dispersed and Shayban fled to Oman, where he was killed by the local leaders around 751. Under the Abbasids , who had toppled
27378-430: Was little change to the actual political makeup of the government. The Sultan continued to rule by decree. Nearly 100 suspected Islamists were arrested in 2005 and 31 people were convicted of trying to overthrow the government. They were ultimately pardoned in June of the same year. Before the Beijing Olympics , Oman became the stop of the Middle East's torch relay on 14 April 2008, covering 20 kilometres. Inspired by
27547-438: Was only one moderate Kharijite current, which might have been called "Sufri". According to the historian Keith Lewinstein, the term probably originated with the pious early Kharijites because of their pale-yellow appearance ( sufra ) caused by excessive worship. The moderates condemned the militancy of the Azariqa and Najdat, but otherwise lacked a set of concrete doctrines. Jabir and Abu Ubayda may have been prominent figures in
27716-408: Was overtaken by a 300-strong advance party of Simak's forces. Although al-Mustawrid was able to withstand this small force, he fled again toward Kufa when the main body of Simak's forces, under the command of Ma'qil ibn Qays, arrived. Eluding Ma'qil's advance guard of 600 men, al-Mustawrid led a surprise attack on Ma'qil's main force, destroying it. The advance guard returned in the meantime and attacked
27885-401: Was redeployed to suppress them. Although the Azariqa were not dislodged from Fars and Kirman, Muhallab prevented their advance into Iraq. Qatari minted his own coins and adopted the caliphal title amir al-mu'minin (commander of the faithful). After the Umayyads reconquered Iraq from the Zubayrids in 691, Umayyad princes took over the command from Muhallab, but were dealt severe defeats by
28054-417: Was sent to rein in the pro-Alid ruler of Kufa, Mukhtar al-Thaqafi , and was afterward appointed governor of Mosul to defend against possible Umayyad attacks from Syria. The Azariqa plundered al-Mada'in and then besieged Isfahan , but were defeated. They fled and eventually regrouped in Kirman . Reinvigorated by a new leader, Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a , the Azariqa attacked Basra's environs afterward and Muhallab
28223-529: Was signed in which the Sultanate had to consult with the British political agent residing in Muscat and obtain the approval of the High Government of India to extract oil in the Sultanate. On 31 July 1928, the Red Line Agreement was signed between Anglo-Persian Company (later renamed British Petroleum), Royal Dutch/Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later renamed Total), Near East Development Corporation (later renamed ExxonMobil) and Calouste Gulbenkian (an Armenian businessman) to collectively produce oil in
28392-481: Was the first settler of Alazd. He is said to have first settled in Qalhat . By this account, Malik, with an armed force of more than 6000 men and horses, fought against the Marzban , who served an ambiguously named Persian king in the battle of Salut in Oman and eventually defeated the Persian forces. This account is, however, semi-legendary and seems to condense multiple centuries of migration and conflict as well as an amalgamation of various traditions from not only
28561-428: Was thus deposed for having gone astray and subsequently executed in 691. Atiyya had already broken from Najda and moved to Sistan in eastern Persia, and was later killed there or in Sind . In Sistan, his followers split into various sects, including the Atawiyya and the Ajarida. In Arabia, Abu Fudayk Abd Allah ibn Thawr took over the leadership of the Najdat and defeated several Zubayrid and later Umayyad attacks. He
#962037