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70-585: The Khairy Pasha Palace was built in the 1860s by Khairy Pasha, Minister of Education in the Khedivate of Egypt . The residence was part of the early development of a new Downtown Cairo district, north of the historical commercial and government centers of Old Cairo and the Cairo Citadel that were the city's core for centuries and millennia. It was designed the neo-Mameluk style , and the completed tall and striking mediaeval Islamic faux crenelated palace inspired

140-614: A coastal strip but expanded subsequently inland into territory controlled by the Ethiopian emperor. Here Ismail occupied regions originally claimed by the Ottomans when they had established the Habesh Eyalet in the 16th century. New economically promising projects, like huge cotton plantations in the Barka delta , were started. In 1872, Bogos (with the city of Keren ) was annexed by the governor of

210-588: A faster route to India. This made Egypt increasingly reliant on Britain for both military and economic aid. Isma'il made no effort to reconcile with the European powers, who pressured the Ottoman sultan into removing him from power. Isma'il was succeeded by his eldest son Tewfik , who, unlike his younger brothers, had not been educated in Europe. He pursued a policy of closer relations with Britain and France but his authority

280-525: A fight; the Shaigiya Confederation immediately beyond the province of Dongola were defeated; the remnant of the Mamluks dispersed; and Sennar was reduced without a battle. Muhammad Bey , the defterdar , with another force of about the same strength, was then sent by Muhammad Ali against Kordofan with like result, but not without a hard-fought engagement. In October 1822, Ismaʿil, with his retinue,

350-446: A fleet and in training, under the supervision of French instructors, native officers and artificers; though it was not till 1829 that the opening of a dockyard and arsenal at Alexandria enabled him to build and equip his own vessels. By 1823, moreover, he had succeeded in carrying out the reorganization of his army on European lines, the turbulent Turkish and Albanian elements being replaced by Sudanese and fellahin . The effectiveness of

420-470: A formidable mutiny in Cairo. Muhammad Ali's life was endangered, and he sought refuge by night in the citadel, while the soldiery committed many acts of plunder. The revolt was reduced by gifts to the chiefs of the insurgents, and Muhammad Ali ordered compensation from the treasury for those who had suffered in the disturbances. The Nizam-i Cedid (New System) project was, in consequence of this mutiny, abandoned for

490-554: A government of the Khedive and international controls which were in place to streamline Egyptian financing since 1876. Egyptian Fundamental Ordinance of 1882, a constitution, followed an abortive attempt to promulgate a constitution in 1879 . The document was limited in scope and was effectively more of an organic law of the Consultative Council to the khedive than an actual constitution. British occupation ended nominally with

560-413: A regional design style. Its Mamluk mediaeval Egyptian revival style, along with Moorish Revival and other traditions of Islamic Revival architecture , were integrated with European Beaux-Arts , Second Empire , and Art Nouveau style influences were used throughout modernizing Cairo in creating the vision of the 19th-century ruler Khedive Ismail , who commissioned the new downtown district's 'Paris on

630-615: A result of the Convention of London (1840) , Muhammad Ali gave up all conquered lands with the exception of the Sudan and was, in turn, granted the hereditary governorship of the Sudan. By 1848, Muhammad Ali was old and senile enough for his tuberculosis-ridden son, Ibrahim , to demand his accession to the governorship. The Ottoman sultan acceded to the demands, and Muhammad Ali was removed from power. However, Ibrahim died of his disease months later, outlived by his father, who died in 1849. Ibrahim

700-552: A small Egyptian force. In the autumn of 1824, a fleet of 60 Egyptian warships carrying a large force of 17,000 disciplined troops concentrated in Suda Bay , and, in the following March, with Ibrahin as commander-in-chief landed in the Morea . His naval superiority wrested from the Greeks the command of a great deal of the sea, on which the fate of the insurrection ultimately depended, while on land

770-575: A strong military figure, Field Marshal Sir Edmund Allenby (later created 1st Viscount Allenby in October of that year), one of the greatest British heroes of World War I . He was named special high commissioner and arrived in Egypt on 25 March. The next day, he met with a group of Egyptian nationalists and ulama . After persuading Field Marshal Allenby to release the Wafd leaders and to permit them to travel to Paris,

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840-523: A time. While Ibrahim was engaged in the second Arabian campaign the pasha turned his attention to strengthening the Egyptian economy. He created state monopolies over the chief products of the country. He set up factories and began digging in 1819 a new canal to Alexandria called the Mahmudiyya after the sultan. The old canal had long fallen into decay and the necessity of a safe channel between Alexandria and

910-653: The Battle of Tel el-Kebir . Urabi was tried for treason and sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to exile. After the revolt, the Egyptian army was reorganized on a British model and commanded by British officers. Meanwhile, a religious rebellion had broken out in the Sudan, led by Muhammad Ahmed , who proclaimed himself the Mahdi . The Mahdist rebels had seized the regional capital of Kordofan and annihilated two British-led expeditions sent to quell it. The British soldier-adventurer Charles George Gordon , an ex-governor of

980-709: The British High Commissioner . They demanded complete independence with the proviso that Britain be allowed to supervise the Suez Canal and the public debt. They also asked permission to go to London to put their case before the British government. On the same day, the Egyptians formed a delegation for this purpose, Al Wafd al Misri (known as the Wafd ), headed by Saad Zaghlul . The British administration in Egypt refused to allow

1050-685: The Kingdom of Hejaz . The United Kingdom invaded and took control in 1882. In 1914, the Ottoman Empire connection was ended and Britain established a protectorate called the Sultanate of Egypt . Upon the conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, the country was governed as an Ottoman province . The Ottoman Porte (government) was content to permit local rule to remain in

1120-520: The Nile was much felt. The conclusion in 1838 of a commercial treaty with Turkey, negotiated by Henry Bulwer , struck a death blow to the system of monopolies, though the application of the treaty to Egypt was delayed for some years. Another notable fact in the economic progress of the country was the development of the cultivation of cotton in the Delta in 1822 and onwards. The cotton grown had been brought from

1190-653: The Red Sea , and secure the rich gold mines which he believed to exist in Sennar . He also saw in the campaign a means of getting rid of his disaffected troops, and of obtaining a sufficient number of captives to form the nucleus of the new army. The forces destined for this service were led by Ismail, the youngest son of Muhammad Ali. They consisted of between 4000 and 5000 men, being Albanians, Turks and Egyptians. They left Cairo in July 1820. The Funj Sultanate of Nubia submitted without

1260-483: The Turco-Egyptian Sudan by Maho Bey and the organization of the new industry from which in a few years Muhammad Ali was enabled to extract considerable revenues. Efforts were made to promote education and the study of medicine. To European merchants, on whom he was dependent for the sale of his exports, Muhammad Ali showed much favor and under his influence, the port of Alexandria again rose into importance. It

1330-837: The AUC relocated its undergraduate and graduate programs to the new 'AUC New Cairo Campus' in New Cairo , a new 2001 satellite city around 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of the 'AUC Downtown' campus. The university's continuing education programs remained at the 7.8 acres (32,000 m) 'AUC Downtown' with the main building still the converted Khairy Pasha palace. 30°02′34″N 31°14′14″E  /  30.04278°N 31.23722°E  / 30.04278; 31.23722 Khedivate of Egypt The Khedivate of Egypt ( Arabic : الْخُدَيْوِيَّةُ الْمِصْرِيَّةُ or خُدَيْوِيَّةُ مِصْرَ , Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [xedeˈwejjet mɑsˤɾ] ; Ottoman Turkish : خدیویت مصر Hıdiviyet-i Mısır )

1400-555: The British High Commissioner, understood the strength of the nationalist forces and the threat the Wafd represented to British control over Egypt and had tried to persuade the British Government to allow the Wafd to travel to Paris. However, the British Government remained hostile to Zaghlul and the nationalists and adamant in rejecting Egyptian demands for independence. General Wingate was recalled to London for talks on

1470-441: The Egyptian group agreed to sign a statement urging the people to stop demonstrating. Allenby, who was convinced that this was the only way to stop the revolt, then had to persuade the British government to agree. On 7 April, Zaghlul and his colleagues were released and set out for Paris. In May 1919, Lord Milner was appointed to head a mission to investigate how Egypt could be granted "self-governing institutions" while maintaining

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1540-586: The Egyptian populace. After the war, the Egyptian economy felt the adverse effects of soaring prices and unemployment. Upon Hussein Kamel's death, his only son, Prince Kamal el Dine Hussein , declined the succession, and Hussein Kamel's brother Ahmed Fuad ascended the throne as Fuad I . When the war ended, Egyptian nationalists began to press the British government again for independence. In addition to their other reasons,

1610-557: The Egyptian situation, while Sir Milne Cheetham was appointed Acting High Commissioner in January 1919. When the 1919 Revolution began, Cheetham soon realised that he was powerless to stop the demonstrations and admitted that matters were completely out of his control. Nevertheless, the government in London ordered him not to give in to the Wafd and to restore order, a task that he was unable to accomplish. London decided to replace Wingate with

1680-800: The Egyptians were influenced by American president Woodrow Wilson , who was advocating self-determination for all nations. In September 1918, Egypt made the first moves toward the formation of a wafd, or delegation, to voice its demands for independence at the Paris Peace Conference . The idea for a wafd had originated among prominent members of the Umma Party , including Lutfi as Sayyid, Saad Zaghlul , Muhammad Mahmud Pasha , Ali Sharawi , and Abd al Aziz Fahmi . On 13 November 1918, thereafter celebrated in Egypt as Yawm al Jihad (Day of Struggle), Zaghlul , Fahmi, and Sharawi were granted an audience with General Sir Reginald Wingate ('Wingate Pasha '),

1750-675: The Greek irregular bands, having largely soundly beaten the Porte's troops, had finally met a worthy foe in Ibrahim's disciplined troops. The history of the events that led up to the battle of Navarino and the liberation of Greece is told elsewhere; the withdrawal of the Egyptians from the Morea was ultimately due to the action of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington , who early in August 1828 appeared before Alexandria and induced

1820-636: The Nile' design. The building briefly became the headquarters of the Egyptian University in the early 1900s, now Cairo University in Giza . The Khairy building was acquired by the American Mission in Egypt in 1919, and opened as the original 1920 American University at Cairo campus structure in downtown Cairo. It was dedicated to being a center for the cultural enrichment and modernization of Egypt. In 2008

1890-498: The Ottoman Empire and proclaimed himself as Sultan. Though presented as the re-establishment of the pre-Ottoman Egyptian sultanate , the newly created Sultanate was to be a British protectorate , with effective political and military power vested in British officials. This brought to an end the de jure Ottoman sovereignty over Egypt , which had been largely nominal since Muhammad Ali 's seizure of power in 1805. Opposition to European interference in Egyptian affairs resulted in

1960-633: The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers against Britain and France. Britain now removed the nominal role of Constantinople, proclaimed a Sultanate of Egypt and abolished the Khedivate on 5 November 1914. Abbas II , who supported the Central Powers and was in Vienna for a state visit, was deposed from the Khedivate throne in his absence by the enforcement of the British military authorities in Cairo and

2030-493: The Sudan, was sent to the Sudanese capital, Khartoum , with orders to evacuate its minority of European and Egyptian inhabitants. Instead of evacuating the city, Gordon prepared for a siege and held out from 1884 to 1885. However, Khartoum eventually fell, and he was killed. The British Gordon Relief Expedition was delayed by several battles and was thus unable to reach Khartoum and save Gordon. The fall of Khartoum resulted in

2100-455: The Wafd to proceed to London. On 8 March, Zaghlul and three other members of the Wafd were arrested and jailed in the Qasr an Nil prison. The next day, they were deported to Malta , an action that sparked the popular uprising of March/April 1919 in which Egyptians of all social classes participated. There were violent clashes in Cairo and the provincial cities of Lower Egypt , especially Tanta, and

2170-467: The confiscation, begun in 1808, of almost all the lands belonging to private individuals, who were forced to accept instead inadequate pensions. By this revolutionary method of land nationalization Muhammad Ali became proprietor of nearly all the soil of Egypt, an iniquitous measure against which the Egyptians had no remedy. The pasha also attempted to reorganize his troops on European lines, but this led to

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2240-535: The country. A British naval bombardment of Alexandria had little effect on the opposition which led to the landing of a British expeditionary force at both ends of the Suez Canal in August 1882. The British succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at Tel El Kebir in September and took control of the country putting Tewfiq back in control. The purpose of the invasion had been to restore political stability to Egypt under

2310-545: The defeat of the French, the Porte assigned Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha as the new Wāli (governor) of Egypt, tasking him to kill or imprison the surviving Egyptian Mamluk beys . Many of these were freed by or fled with the British, while others held Minya between Upper and Lower Egypt . Amid these disturbances, Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha attempted to disband his Albanian bashi-bazouks (soldiers) without pay. This led to rioting that drove Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha from Cairo. During

2380-400: The deposition of the last khedive Abbas II on 5 November 1914 and the establishment of a British protectorate , with the installation of sultan Hussein Kamel on 19 December 1914. By Isma'il's reign, the Egyptian government, headed by the minister Nubar Pasha , had become dependent on Britain and France for a healthy economy. Isma'il attempted to end this European dominance, while at

2450-693: The early 19th сentury the Egyptians tried multiple attempts to take full control of the Nile River and with that take control of the Horn of Africa which was a Key route to enter the Southern Arabian peninsula. After failing multiple times to take control of the Bogos / Hamassien however these attempted invasions were repelled by the emperor at the time Tewedros . Sa'id ruled for only nine years, and his nephew Isma'il , another grandson of Muhammad Ali, became wali. In 1866

2520-723: The emergence of a nationalist movement that coalesced and spread. British actions during the First World War, including the purchase of cotton stocks and requisitioning of animal fodder at below-market prices, the conscription of 55,000 Egyptians into the Egyptian Labour Corps and the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force and the stationing of large numbers of Allied troops in Egypt caused widespread resentment among

2590-425: The empire he had so laboriously built up might at any time have to be defended by force of arms against his master Sultan Mahmud II , whose whole policy had been directed to curbing the power of too-ambitious vassals, and who was under the influence of the personal enemies of the pasha of Egypt, notably Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha , the grand vizier , who had never forgiven his humiliation in Egypt in 1803. Mahmud also

2660-400: The ensuing turmoil, the Porte sent Muhammad Ali Pasha to Egypt. However, Muhammad Ali seized control of Egypt , declared himself ruler and quickly consolidated an independent local power base. After repeated failed attempts to remove and kill him, in 1805 the Porte officially recognised Muhammad Ali as Wāli of Egypt. Demonstrating his grander ambitions, Muhammad Ali Pasha claimed for himself

2730-642: The entire Nile including its diverse sources, and over the whole African coast of the Red Sea . This, together with rumours about rich raw material and fertile soil, led Ismail to expansive policies directed against the Ethiopian Empire under Yohannes IV . In 1865, the Ottoman Sublime Porte ceded Habesh Eyalet to Isma'il, with Massawa and Suakin at the Red Sea as the main cities of that province. This province, which neighboured Ethiopia, first consisted of

2800-624: The hands of the Mamluks , the Egyptian military led by Circassian - Turkic leaders who had held power in Egypt since the 13th century. Save for military expeditions to crush Mamluk uprisings seeking to reestablish the independent Egyptian sultanate, the Ottomans largely ignored Egyptian affairs until the French campaign in Egypt and Syria in 1798. Between 1799 and 1801, the Porte, working at times with France's main enemy, Great Britain, undertook various campaigns to restore Ottoman rule in Egypt. By August 1801,

2870-477: The higher title of Khedive (Viceroy), ruling the self-proclaimed (but not recognised) Khedivate of Egypt. He murdered the remaining Mamluk beys in 1811, solidifying his control of Egypt. He is regarded as the founder of modern Egypt because of the dramatic reforms he instituted in the military, agricultural, economic and cultural spheres. During Muhammad Ali's absence in Arabia his representative at Cairo had completed

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2940-632: The largest demonstration of the 1919 Revolution . More than 10,000 teachers, students, workers, lawyers, and government employees started marching at Al Azhar and wound their way to Abdin Palace where they were joined by thousands more, who ignored British roadblocks and bans. Soon, similar demonstrations broke out in Alexandria, Tanta, Damanhur, Al Mansurah, and Al Fayyum. By the summer of 1919, more than 800 Egyptians had been killed, as well as 31 European civilians and 29 British imperial soldiers. General Wingate,

3010-470: The mission. Milner realised that a direct approach to Zaghlul was necessary, and in the summer of 1920 private talks between the two men took place in London. As a result of the so-called Milner-Zaghlul Agreement, the British government announced in February 1921 that it would accept the abolition of the protectorate as the basis for negotiation of a treaty with Egypt. On 4 April 1921, Zaghlul's return to Egypt

3080-467: The most dangerous opposition coming from the army. A large military demonstration in September 1881 forced the Khedive Tewfiq to dismiss his Prime Minister. In April 1882 France and Great Britain sent warships to Alexandria to bolster the Khedive amidst a turbulent climate, spreading fear of invasion throughout the country. By June Egypt was in the hands of nationalists opposed to European domination of

3150-527: The new "Province of Eastern Sudan and the Red Sea Coast", Werner Munzinger Pasha. In October 1875 Ismail's army tried to occupy the adjacent highlands of Hamasien , which were then tributary to the Ethiopian Emperor, and suffered defeat at the Battle of Gundet . In March 1876, Ismail's army tried again and suffered a second dramatic defeat by Yohannes' army in the Battle of Gura . Ismail's son Hassan

3220-539: The new force was demonstrated in the suppression of an 1823 revolt of the Albanians in Cairo by six disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Mehemet Ali was no more troubled with military mutinies. His foresight was rewarded by the invitation of the sultan to help him in the task of subduing the Greek insurgents, offering as reward the pashaliks of the Morea and of Syria. Muhammad Ali had already, in 1821, been appointed by him governor of Crete , which he had occupied with

3290-686: The original members of the Wafd and organiser of the Egyptian Feminist Union; and Muna Fahmi Wissa. Women of the lower classes demonstrated in the streets alongside the men. In the countryside, women engaged in activities like cutting rail lines. The upper-class women participating in politics for the first time assumed key roles in the movement when the male leaders were exiled or detained. They organised strikes, demonstrations, and boycotts of British goods and wrote petitions, which they circulated to foreign embassies protesting British control in Egypt. The women's march of 16 March preceded by one day

3360-588: The pasha, by no means sorry to have a reasonable excuse, by a threat of bombardment, to sign a convention undertaking to recall Ibrahim and his army. But for the action of European powers, it is suspected by many that the Ottoman Empire might have defeated the Greeks. Although Muhammad Ali had only been granted the title of wali , he proclaimed himself khedive , or hereditary viceroy, early on during his rule. The Ottoman government, although irritated, did nothing until Muhammad Ali invaded Ottoman-ruled Syria in 1831 . The governorship of Syria had been promised to him by

3430-444: The police, and strikes by students and government employees that affected Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said, Suez, and provincial towns like Tanta, Zifta, Az Zaqaziq, and Jirja. On 28 February 1922, Britain unilaterally declared Egyptian independence , which proved controversial with Egyptian nationalists. Four matters were "absolutely reserved to the discretion" of the British government until agreements concerning them could be negotiated:

3500-558: The polity occupied the Emirate of Harar . In 1867, the Ottoman sultan acknowledged Isma'il's use of the title khedive . In 1874, Ismail Pasha ordered the deputation of warships to patrol Tadjoura whereafter for ten years, the Khedivate was established from Zeila to Berbera , until their withdrawal in April 1884 and failed attempts to establish themselves beyond Berbera and the eastern littoral of Somalia. Ismail dreamt of expanding his realm across

3570-494: The proclamation of an Islamic state , ruled over first by the Mahdi and then by his successor Khalifa Abdullahi . In 1896, during the reign of Tewfik's son, Abbas II , a massive Anglo-Egyptian force, under the command of General Herbert Kitchener , began the conquest of the Sudan not long after the death of the Mahdi , Muhammad Ahmad , to typhus . The Mahdists were defeated in the battles of Abu Hamed and Atbara . The campaign

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3640-537: The protectorate and safeguarding British interests. The mission arrived in Egypt in December 1919 but was boycotted by Egyptian nationalists, who opposed the continuation of the protectorate. The arrival of the Milner Mission was followed by strikes in which students, lawyers, professionals, and workers participated. Merchants closed their shops, and organizers distributed leaflets urging the Egyptians not to co-operate with

3710-625: The remaining French forces of General Jacques-François Menou withdrew from Egypt. The period between 1801 and 1805 was, effectively, a three-way civil war in Egypt between the Egyptian Mamluks, the Ottoman Turks, and Albanian troops the Ottoman Porte dispatched from Rumelia (the Empire's European province), under the command of Muhammad Ali Pasha , to restore the Empire's authority. Following

3780-412: The same time pursuing an aggressive domestic policy. Under Isma'il, 112 canals and 400 bridges were built in Egypt. Because of his efforts to gain economic independence from the European powers, Isma'il became unpopular with many British and French diplomats, including Evelyn Baring and Alfred Milner , who claimed that he was "ruining Egypt." In 1869, the completion of the Suez Canal gave Britain

3850-427: The security of communications of the British Empire in Egypt; the defence of Egypt against all foreign aggressors or interference, direct or indirect; the protection of foreign interests in Egypt and the protection of minorities; and Sudan. Britain subsequently exercised power over a nominally independent Egypt informally, as it had between 1882 and 1914. Sultan Ahmad Fuad became King Fuad I , and his son, Faruk ,

3920-520: The streets shouting pro-Wafdist slogans and demanding independence. Violence erupted during the revolution between British forces and Egyptian protestors, which resulted in numerous people killed and wounded on both sides. On 16 March, between 150 and 300 upper-class Egyptian women in veils staged a demonstration against the British occupation, an event that marked the entrance of Egyptian women into public life. The women were led by Safia Zaghlul, wife of Wafd leader Saad Zaghlul; Huda Sharawi, wife of one of

3990-407: The sultan, Mahmud II , for his assistance during the Greek War of Independence , but the title was not granted to him after the war. This caused the Ottomans, allied with the British, to counter-attack in 1839 . In 1840, the British bombarded Beirut and an Anglo-Ottoman force landed and seized Acre. The Egyptian army was forced to retreat back home, and Syria again became an Ottoman province. As

4060-515: The uprising spread to the south, culminating in violent confrontations in Asyut Province in Upper Egypt . The deportation of the Wafdists also triggered student demonstrations and escalated into massive strikes by students, government officials, professionals, women, and transport workers. Within a week, all of Egypt was paralysed by general strikes and rioting. Railway and telegraph lines were cut, taxi drivers refused to work, lawyers failed to appear for court cases, and demonstrators marched through

4130-440: Was a British protectorate in Egypt which existed from 1914, after the outbreak of World War I , to 1922, when it ceased to exist as a result of the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence . Soon after the start of the First World War, Khedive Abbas II of Egypt was removed from power by the British due to his pro- Ottoman positions. He was replaced by his uncle Hussein Kamel , who declared Egypt's independence from

4200-488: Was already planning reforms borrowed from the West, and Muhammad Ali, who had had plenty of opportunity of observing the superiority of European methods of warfare, was determined to anticipate the sultan in the creation of a fleet and an army on European lines, partly as a precaution, partly as an instrument for the realization of yet wider schemes of ambition. Before the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence in 1821, he had already expended much time and energy in organizing

4270-417: Was also under Muhammad Ali's encouragement that the overland transit of goods from Europe to India via Egypt was resumed. In 1820, Muhammad Ali gave orders to commence the conquest of Ottoman Tripolitania . He first sent an expedition westward in February, which conquered and annexed the Siwa Oasis . Ali's intentions for Sudan were to extend his rule southward, capture the valuable caravan trade bound for

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4340-690: Was an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire , established and ruled by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty following the defeat and expulsion of Napoleon Bonaparte 's forces which brought an end to the short-lived French occupation of Lower Egypt . The Khedivate of Egypt had also expanded to control present-day Sudan , South Sudan , Eritrea , Djibouti , northwestern Somalia , northeastern Ethiopia , Lebanon , Jordan , Palestine , Syria , Greece , Cyprus , southern and central Turkey , in addition to parts from Libya , Chad , Central African Republic , Democratic Republic of Congo , and Uganda , as well as northwestern Saudi Arabia , parts of Yemen and

4410-409: Was banned from returning to Egypt. He was succeeded by his uncle Hussein Kamel , who took the title of Sultan on 19 December 1914. During the khedivate, the standard form of Egyptian currency was the Egyptian pound . Because of the gradual European domination of the Egyptian economy, the khedivate adopted the gold standard in 1885. Although the adoption of modern, Western industrial techniques

4480-683: Was begun under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century, the policy was continued under the khedives. Machines were imported into Egypt and by the abolition of the khedivate in 1914, the textile industry had become the most prominent one in the nation. In 1877 the Egyptian military contained: This amounted to 58,000 troops in the regular army; there were also 5,000 military and municipal police and various other irregular formations. 30°03′N 31°13′E  /  30.050°N 31.217°E  / 30.050; 31.217 Sultanate of Egypt The Sultanate of Egypt ( Arabic : السلطنة المصرية , romanized :  Salṭanat al-Miṣrīyya )

4550-401: Was burnt to death by Nimr, the makk (king) of Shendi . The defterdar, a man infamous for his cruelty, assumed the command of those provinces and exacted terrible retribution from the inhabitants. Khartoum was founded at this time, and in the following years, Egyptian rule was greatly extended and control of the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa obtained. Muhammad Ali understood that

4620-525: Was captured by the Ethiopians and only released after a large ransom. This was followed by a long cold war, only finishing in 1884 with the Anglo-Egyptian-Ethiopian Hewett Treaty , when Bogos was given back to Ethiopia. The Red Sea Province created by Ismail and his governor Munzinger Pasha was taken over by the Kingdom of Italy shortly thereafter and became the territorial basis for the Colony of Eritrea (proclaimed in 1890). In 1882 opposition to European control led to growing tension amongst native notables,

4690-460: Was concluded with the Anglo-Egyptian victory in the Battle of Omdurman , the Mahdist capital. Caliph Abdallahi ibn Muhammad was hunted down and killed in 1899 in the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat , and Anglo-Egyptian rule was restored to the Sudan. Abbas II became very hostile to the British as his reign drew on, and, by 1911, was considered by Lord Kitchener to be a "wicked little Khedive" worthy of deposition. In 1914, when World War I broke out,

4760-409: Was met by an unprecedented welcome, showing that the vast majority of Egyptians supported him. Allenby, however, was determined to break Zaghlul's political power and to build up a pro-British group of Egyptians to whom Britain could safely commit Egyptian independence. On 23 December, Zaghlul was deported to the Seychelles via Aden . His deportation was followed by demonstrations, violent clashes with

4830-478: Was succeeded by his nephew Abbas I , who undid many of Muhammad Ali's accomplishments. Abbas was assassinated by two of his slaves in 1854, and Muhammad Ali's fourth son, Sa'id , succeeded him. Sa'id brought back many of his father's policies but otherwise had an unremarkable reign. Ismail Pasha replaced Turkish with Arabic as the administrative and elite language, further reducing Turkish influence in Egypt and enhancing Egypt’s modernization and independence. In

4900-420: Was undermined in a rebellion led by his war minister, Urabi Pasha , in 1882. Urabi took advantage of violent riots in Alexandria to seize control of the government and temporarily depose Tewfik. British naval forces shelled and captured Alexandria, and an expeditionary force under General Sir Garnet Wolseley was formed in England. The British army landed in Egypt soon afterwards and defeated Urabi's army in

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