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92-597: When the reservation system began in Arizona, the local Apache peoples were among the first to be subjugated. Throughout most of the Old West period, the reservations were undersupplied, which led to starvation, and their operators tended to be corrupt. This led to conflicts such as Geronimo's War , beginning in 1881, during which Geronimo and his band of Apaches left their assigned reservations and evaded capture until 1886. The Apache Kid, or Haskay-bay-nay-ntayl , had for most of

184-537: A Captain Bullis at San Carlos who in turn notified General Nelson A. Miles . Over the next several months, until October 1890, American militias , bounty hunters , and United States Army troops searched the Arizona desert for the escaped prisoners, all of whom were eventually caught or killed except the Kid. Between 1889 and 1894, several murders and skirmishes occurred between settlers and Apaches, most of which were blamed on

276-994: A conviction that carries an appropriate potential sentence when a serious crime has been committed. Our role as the primary prosecutor of serious crimes makes our responsibility to citizens in Indian Country unique and mandatory. Accordingly, public safety in tribal communities is a top priority for the Department of Justice. Emphasis was placed on improving prosecution of crimes involving domestic violence and sexual assault. Passed in 1953, Public Law 280 (PL 280) gave jurisdiction over criminal offenses involving Indians in Indian Country to certain States and allowed other States to assume jurisdiction. Subsequent legislation allowed States to retrocede jurisdiction, which has occurred in some areas. Some PL 280 reservations have experienced jurisdictional confusion, tribal discontent, and litigation, compounded by

368-619: A dry wash (now called the Tom Mix Wash) in Florence, Arizona. Mix, who was a regular tenant in the Ross/Fryer–Cushman House, was returning to Florence from Tucson. There is a 2-foot–tall iron statue of a riderless horse with a plaque on the site of the accident. Florence is located at 33°2′32″N 111°23′4″W  /  33.04222°N 111.38444°W  / 33.04222; -111.38444 (33.042204, −111.384521). According to

460-422: A few cases voluntary moves based on mutual agreement. The removal caused many problems such as tribes losing the means of livelihood by being restricted to a defined area, poor quality of land for agriculture, and hostility between tribes. The first reservation was established by Easton Treaty with the colonial governments of New Jersey and Pennsylvania on August 29, 1758. Located in southern New Jersey , it

552-737: A five-year approval before 1850. Article two of the treaty claims "the reserves on the river Angrais and at Rifle river, of which said Indians are to have the usufruct and occupancy for five years." Indigenous people had restraints pushed on them by the five-year allowance. Scholarly author Buck Woodard used executive papers from Governor William H. Cabell in his article, "Indian Land sales and allotment in Antebellum Virginia" to discuss Indigenous reservations in America before 1705, specifically in Virginia. He claims "the colonial government again recognized

644-676: A forced mass migration that came to be known as the Trail of Tears . Some of the lands these tribes were given to inhabit following the removals eventually became Indian reservations. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in Indian Territory (which became Oklahoma). Relations between white settlers and Natives had grown increasingly worse as

736-482: A lighthouse. The President of the United States of America was directly involved in the creation of new treaties regarding Indian Reservations before 1850. Van Buren stated that indigenous reservations are "all their reserves of land in the state of Michigan, on the principle of said reserves being sold at the public land offices for their benefit and the actual proceeds being paid to them." The agreement dictated that

828-550: A major role in Florence's economy. All of the federal land transactions for Southern Arizona were conducted in Florence until 1881, when the Federal Land Office was moved to Tucson . One of the most notable gunfights in the Old Southwest occurred in Florence. Sheriff Pete Gabriel hired thirty-nine year old Joseph (Joe) Phy as his deputy in 1883. Gabriel decided to not run for sheriff in 1886 and supported his deputy Phy for

920-417: A new identification system. The Kid is not known to have had a tattoo like this but Mickey Free, who knew the Kid personally, said he did. In 1890, some Mexican Rurales killed an Apache and recovered Sheriff Reynolds' pistol and watch, initially leading them to believe they had killed the Kid. But the dead man was said to be much older than the Kid. In 1896, John Horton Slaughter also claimed to have killed

1012-487: A section of the road outside of town known as Kelvin Grade, and also left his horse Tex behind so as to ride in the coach with Holmes. The road was very steep and with the coach loaded with nine prisoners, the horses were not strong enough to pull the wagon up, especially since it had been raining heavily the night before. In order to ascend Kelvin Grade, Reynolds decided the prisoners would have to be offloaded and then walk up. When

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1104-516: A series of disputes over sovereignty. Florence, Arizona Florence ( O'odham : S-auppag ) is a town in Pinal County , Arizona , United States. Florence, which is the county seat of Pinal County, is one of the oldest towns in that county and includes a National Historic District with over 25 buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The population of Florence

1196-495: A storm and ran over its banks. Most of the small town was wiped out and the residents moved to Florence. The area where the town was established is now a ghost town and is currently within the boundaries of Florence. At the junction of Highway 79 and 287 there is a historical marker about Adamsville. A canal was built in the 1880s which enabled water from the Gila River to be diverted for irrigation. Farming and ranching then played

1288-597: A surprise attack on Apache Juan’s stronghold in the Sierra Madre. She had been one of the trail guards for the Apaches and had sounded the warning that had allowed the other members of the band to escape. Initially, many thought she was the granddaughter of Geronimo, while others said her father was Apache Juan. However, Guadalupe herself claimed that her father was the Apache Kid. Sightings of the Kid occurred as late as 1935 when he

1380-476: Is 56,200,000 acres (22,700,000 ha; 87,800 sq mi; 227,000 km ), approximately 2.3% of the total area of the United States and about the size of the state of Idaho . While most reservations are small compared to the average U.S. state, twelve Indian reservations are larger than the state of Rhode Island . The largest reservation, the Navajo Nation Reservation , is similar in size to

1472-644: Is a gas station and general store at Fort Hall Indian Reservation, Idaho , and a museum at Foxwoods, on the Mashantucket Pequot Indian Reservation in Connecticut ). Tribal citizens may utilize several resources held in tribal tenures such as grazing range and some cultivable lands. They may also construct homes on tribally held lands. As such, members are tenants-in-common , which may be likened to communal tenure. Even if some of this pattern emanates from pre-reservation tribal customs, generally

1564-558: Is a legal designation. It comes from the conception of the Native American nations as independent sovereigns at the time the U.S. Constitution was ratified. Thus, early peace treaties (often signed under conditions of duress or fraud), in which Native American nations surrendered large portions of their land to the United States, designated parcels which the nations, as sovereigns, " reserved " to themselves, and those parcels came to be called "reservations". The term remained in use after

1656-595: The American Civil War , founded the town of Florence on the south bank of the Gila River. He came to Arizona Territory in 1866 as a U.S. Indian Agent. Recognizing the agricultural potential of the valley, he found an easily fordable crossing on the Gila River and surveyed a townsite there. With the aid of Governor R.C. McCormick , he secured a post office in August of the same year. Ruggles held numerous public offices including that of Territorial Legislator . Florence became

1748-667: The Indian Removal Act in 1830". A third act pushed through was "the federal government relocated "portions of [the] 'Five Civilized Tribes' from the southeastern states in the Non-Intercourse Act of 1834 ." All three of these laws set into motion the Indigenous Reservation system in the United States of America, resulting in the forceful removal of Indigenous peoples into specific land Reservations. Scholarly author James Oberly discusses "The Treaty of 1831 between

1840-576: The Office of Indian Affairs (now the Bureau of Indian Affairs) as a division of the United States Department of War (now the United States Department of Defense ), to solve the land problem with 38 treaties with American Indian tribes. Indian Treaties, and Laws and Regulations Relating to Indian Affairs (1825) was a document signed by President Andrew Jackson in which he states that "we have placed

1932-563: The Rurales , Emilio Kosterlitzky , claimed the same when his men killed three Apaches. In 1924, after a band of Apaches crossed into Arizona to raid for horses, the Kid’s nephew, Private Joe Adley of Fort Huachuca , confided to Lieutenant John H. Healy of the 10th Cavalry that the Apache Kid was still alive in Mexico. This was mostly substantiated by Guadalupe Fimbres Muñoz, who was captured in 1915 during

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2024-713: The U.S. state government in which it is located. Some of the country's 574 federally recognized tribes govern more than one of the 326 Indian reservations in the United States , while some share reservations, and others have no reservation at all. Historical piecemeal land allocations under the Dawes Act facilitated sales to non–Native Americans, resulting in some reservations becoming severely fragmented, with pieces of tribal and privately held land being treated as separate enclaves. This intersection of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties. The total area of all reservations

2116-676: The Umatilla Indian Reservation , after the individual parcels were granted out of reservation land, the reservation area was reduced by giving the "excess land" to white settlers. The individual allotment policy continued until 1934 when it was terminated by the Indian Reorganization Act . The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, also known as the Howard-Wheeler Act , was sometimes called the Indian New Deal and

2208-566: The United States Census Bureau , the town has a total area of 8.3 square miles (21 km ), all land, situated in the lower Sonoran Desert . The town has the typical hot desert climate of lowland Arizona, with sweltering hot summers and mild winters. Like most of Arizona, Florence receives half of its average summer rainfall in the months of July, August, and September, during the North American monsoon season, with August being

2300-415: The "New York Indians". This Treaty from 1831 is the cause of conflicts and is disputed because the land was good hunting grounds. The Trade and Intercourse Act of 1834 says "In the 1834 Indian Trade and Intercourse Act, the United States defined the boundaries of Indian County." Also, "For Unrau, Indigenous Country is less on Indigenous homeland and more a place where the U.S. removed Indians from east of

2392-644: The 1880s served as an Indian scout for the U.S. Army in the Apache Wars , having been involved in the mutiny during the Battle of Cibecue Creek and the Crawford Affair . Though many people at the time believed that the Apache Kid did not kill any of the soldiers at Cibecue, he left the reservation system in 1887 after an incident at the San Carlos Reservation . The Kid was also a friend of Al Sieber , Chief of

2484-469: The Apache Kid and his friend Massai , another former army scout who was said to have been killed by a posse in September 1906. At one point the bounty hunter Mickey Free told Al Sieber that he had trailed the Kid for three months before killing him and carving a tattoo of the letter "W" as proof. The "W" had been tattooed in blue ink on the foreheads of about 100 San Carlos Apaches before the army introduced

2576-460: The Apache Kid in the Sierra Madre of Chihuahua , Mexico, where Apache bands were still holding out as late as 1915. But because Slaughter had crossed the international border, he kept quiet about the incident out of fear of getting into trouble with his superiors. A native named Wallapai Clark also said he shot the Kid while he was trying to steal his horse from a corral, and in 1899, the colonel of

2668-511: The Apaches since 1881. Reynolds also collected $ 400 from the county clerk to pay the expenses of the trip. Accompanying Reynolds and Middleton was Sheriff William A. "Hunkydory" Holmes. When the prisoners were loaded into the coach the party headed north for Globe. Sheriff Reynolds rode his horse, Tex, while Middleton and Holmes rode in the coach. The trip was long; Holmes spent the time target-shooting with his rifle, while Middleton sang and drank whiskey. After stopping at Pioneer, Arizona for lunch,

2760-515: The Arizona State Prison in Florence. The sentence she received raised debate about capital punishment. Her death sentence was overturned after a ten-day hearing found her mentally incompetent; she was then sent to Arizona State Asylum for the Insane on April 24, 1933. In 1940, the cowboy movie star Tom Mix was killed when he lost control of his speeding Cord Phaeton convertible and rolled into

2852-693: The Army Scouts, who allegedly betrayed him after the Cibecue affair. Sometime in 1888 the Apache Kid was caught, put on trial in Globe for various crimes, and sentenced to spend the next seven years in Yuma Territorial Prison . The Kid had already served over a year of prison time at San Carlos and Alcatraz Island , so the prospect of going to the prison at Yuma was intolerable and he conspired with his fellow inmates to escape whenever and wherever possible. After

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2944-665: The Bureau (Office) of Indian Affairs. Under federal law, the government patented reservations to tribes, which became legal entities that at later times have operated in a corporate manner. Tribal tenure identifies jurisdiction over land-use planning and zoning, negotiating (with the close participation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs) leases for timber harvesting and mining. Tribes generally have authority over other forms of economic development such as ranching, agriculture, tourism, and casinos. Tribes hire both members, other Indians and non-Indians in varying capacities; they may run tribal stores, gas stations, and develop museums (e.g., there

3036-726: The Dawes Act. However, the vast fragmentation of reservations occurred from the enactment of this act up to 1934, when the Indian Reorganization Act was passed. However, Congress authorized some allotment programs in the ensuing years, such as on the Palm Springs/Agua Caliente Indian Reservation in California. Allotment set in motion a number of circumstances: The demographic factor, coupled with landownership data, led, for example, to litigation between

3128-672: The Devils Lake Sioux and the State of North Dakota, where non-Indians owned more acreage than tribal members even though more Native Americans resided on the reservation than non-Indians. The court decision turned, in part, on the perception of Indian character , contending that the tribe did not have jurisdiction over the alienated allotments. In a number of instances—e.g., the Yakama Indian Reservation—tribes have identified open and closed areas within reservations. One finds

3220-678: The Europeans encountered the New World, the American colonial government determined a precedent of establishing the land sovereignty of North America through treaties between countries. This precedent was upheld by the United States government. As a result, most Native American land was purchased by the United States government, a portion of which was designated to remain under Native sovereignty. The United States government and Native Peoples do not always agree on how land should be governed, which has resulted in

3312-563: The Indian Country Law Enforcement Initiative which recognizes problems with law enforcement on Indian reservations and assigns top priority to solving existing problems. The Department of Justice recognizes the unique legal relationship that the United States has with federally recognized tribes. As one aspect of this relationship, in much of Indian Country, the Justice Department alone has the authority to seek

3404-499: The Indian agencies on reservations in order to teach Christianity to the Native American tribes. The Quakers were especially active in this policy on reservations. The policy was controversial from the start. Reservations were generally established by executive order . In many cases, white settlers objected to the size of land parcels, which were subsequently reduced. A report submitted to Congress in 1868 found widespread corruption among

3496-623: The Indians would be properly consulted when ascertaining and defining the boundaries of colonial settlement. The private contracts that once characterized the sale of Indian land to various individuals and groups—from farmers to towns—were replaced by treaties between sovereigns. This protocol was adopted by the United States Government after the American Revolution. On March 11, 1824, U.S. Vice President John C. Calhoun founded

3588-661: The Menominee Nation and the United States" in his article, "Decision on Duck Creek: Two Green Bay Reservations and Their Boundaries, 1816–1996", showing yet another treaty regarding Indigenous Reservations before 1850. There is a conflict between the Menomee Nation and the State of Wisconsin and "the 1831 Menomee Treaty … ran the boundary between the lands of the Oneida, known in the Treaty as

3680-458: The Mexican in the group. Gradually two of the Apaches moved in close to the unsuspecting Reynolds, and after the coach had pulled out of sight, they suddenly pounced on the sheriff to wrest his shotgun from him. At the same time another pair of Apaches attacked Holmes and took his rifle. The prisoner Pas-Lau-Tau shot Reynolds, who died instantly; Holmes subsequently died of a heart attack. Just after

3772-1262: The Mississippi River and applied unique laws." The United States of America applied laws on Indigenous Reservations depending on where they were located like the Mississippi River . This act came too, because "the federal government began to compress Indigenous lands because it needed to send troops to Texas during the Mexican-American War and protect American immigration traveling to Oregon and California." The Federal Government of America had their own needs and desires for Indigenous Land Reservations. He says, "the reconnaissance of explorers and other American officials understood that Indigenous Country possessed good land, bountiful game, and potential mineral resources." The American Government claimed Indigenous land for their own benefits with these creations of Indigenous Land Reservations . States such as Texas had their own policy when it came to Indian Reservations in America before 1850. Scholarly author George D. Harmon discusses Texas' own reservation system which "Prior to 1845, Texas had inaugurated and pursued her own Indian Policy of

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3864-602: The Nottoway's land rights by treaty in 1713, at the conclusion of the Tuscaro War ." The indigenous peoples of America had land treaty agreements as early as 1713. The American Indigenous Reservation system started with "the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , where Great Britain set aside an enormous resource for Indians in the territory of the present United States." The United States put forward another act when "Congress passed

3956-661: The U.S. entered the war, were also interned nearby at the Gila River War Relocation Center . The prisoners were paid 50 cents an hour to pick cotton. The men were not allowed to buy cigarettes with their prison wages. However, they could buy tobacco which they rolled themselves. McFarland State Historic Park on Ruggles Ave. has a display and information on this period of Arizona history. The City of Coolidge operates Central Arizona Regional Transit (CART), which provides transportation between Florence, Coolidge , Central Arizona College and Casa Grande . Florence

4048-665: The U.S." Texas was one of the States before 1850 that chose to create their own reservation system as seen in Harmon's article, "The United States Indian Policy in Texas, 1845–1860." The State of "Texas had given only a few hundred acres of land in 1840, for the purpose of colonization". However, "In March 1847, … [a] special agent [was sent] to Texas to manage the Indian affairs in the State until Congress should take some definite and final action." The United States of America allowed its states to make up their own treaties such as this one in Texas for

4140-508: The United States. By 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes began phasing out the policy, and by 1882 all religious organizations had relinquished their authority to the federal Indian agency. In 1887, Congress undertook a significant change in reservation policy by the passage of the Dawes Act , or General Allotment (Severalty) Act. The act ended the general policy of granting land parcels to tribes as-a-whole by granting small parcels of land to individual tribe members. In some cases, for example,

4232-420: The age of 18 living with them, 53.3% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.6% were non-families. 28.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.06. In the town, the population was spread out, with 13.2% under

4324-486: The age of 18, 86.8% from 18 years and over, and 17.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. The median income for a household in the town was $ 47,891. About 12.3% of families and 16.8% of the population were below the poverty line , including 24.7% of those under age 18 and 10.6% of those age 65 or over. In 1909, the Yuma Territorial Prison (memorialized in the movie ' 3:10 to Yuma ')

4416-464: The basis for hotel and conference facilities, to draw visitors and revenue to reservations. Successful gaming operations on some reservations have greatly increased the economic wealth of some tribes, enabling their investment to improve infrastructure, education, and health for their people. Serious crime on Indian reservations has historically been required (by the 1885 Major Crimes Act , 18 U.S.C. §§1153, 3242, and court decisions) to be investigated by

4508-478: The county seat in the newly formed Pinal County. Silver was discovered in 1875 in the nearby mountains which led to the creation of the famous Silver King Mine. In 1870, Fred Adams founded a farming community two miles west of the original Florence townsite. The farming town had stores, homes, a post office, a flour mill, and water tanks, It was named Adamsville. In the 1900s (decade), the Gila River overflowed after

4600-535: The federal Native American agencies and generally poor conditions among the relocated tribes. Many tribes ignored the relocation orders at first and were forced onto their limited land parcels. Enforcement of the policy required the United States Army to restrict the movements of various tribes. The pursuit of tribes in order to force them back onto reservations led to a number of wars with Native Americans which included some massacres. The most well-known conflict

4692-454: The federal government began to forcibly relocate nations to parcels of land to which they often had no historical or cultural connection. Compared to other population centers in the U.S., reservations are disproportionately located on or near toxic sites hazardous to the health of those living or working in close proximity, including nuclear testing grounds and contaminated mines. The majority of American Indians and Alaska Natives live outside

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4784-736: The federal government, usually the Federal Bureau of Investigation , and prosecuted by United States Attorneys of the United States federal judicial district in which the reservation lies. Tribal courts were limited to sentences of one year or less, until on July 29, 2010, the Tribal Law and Order Act was enacted which in some measure reforms the system permitting tribal courts to impose sentences of up to three years provided proceedings are recorded and additional rights are extended to defendants. The Justice Department on January 11, 2010, initiated

4876-411: The forms of government found outside the reservation. With the establishment of reservations, tribal territories diminished to a fraction of their original areas; customary Native American practices of land tenure were sustained only for a time, and not in every instance. Instead, the federal government established regulations that subordinated tribes to the authority, first, of the military, and then of

4968-489: The idea before it was fully implemented, five tribes were terminated—the Coushatta , Ute , Paiute , Menominee and Klamath —and 114 groups in California lost their federal recognition as tribes. Many individuals were also relocated to cities, but one-third returned to their tribal reservations in the decades that followed. Federally recognized Native American tribes possess limited tribal sovereignty and are able to exercise

5060-575: The indigenous tribe sell their land to build a lighthouse. A treaty signed by John Forsyth, the Secretary of State on behalf of Van Buren, also dictates where indigenous peoples must live in terms of the reservation system in America between the Oneida People in 1838. This treaty allows the indigenous peoples five years on a specific reserve "the west shores of Saganaw bay". The creation of reservations for indigenous people of America could be as little as

5152-403: The job. Later Gabriel withdrew his support because of personal differences with Phy. The two friends became bitter enemies and had a confrontation on May 31, 1888, in the Tunnel Saloon. A gunfight ensued and spread to the street. Both men received gunshot wounds. Phy died a few hours after the gunfight, but Gabriel survived the encounter and died 10 years later. The second Pinal County Courthouse

5244-562: The lack of data on crime rates and law enforcement response. As of 2012, a high incidence of rape continued to impact Native American women. A survey of death certificates over a four-year period showed that deaths among Indians due to alcohol are about four times as common as in the general U.S. population and are often due to traffic collisions and liver disease with homicide , suicide , and falls also contributing. Deaths due to alcohol among American Indians are more common in men and among Northern Plains Indians. Alaska Natives showed

5336-400: The land reserves in a better state for the benefit of society" with approval of Indigenous reservations before 1850. The letter is signed by Isaac Shelby and Jackson. It discusses several regulations regarding the Native Americans and the approval of Indigenous segregation and the reservation system. President Martin Van Buren negotiated a treaty with the Saginaw Chippewas in 1837 to build

5428-559: The least incidence of death. Under federal law, alcohol sales are prohibited on Indian reservations unless the tribal councils allow it. Gang violence has become a major social problem. A December 13, 2009, article in The New York Times about growing gang violence on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation estimated that there were 39 gangs with 5,000 members on that reservation alone. As opposed to traditional "Most Wanted" lists, Native Americans are often placed on regional Crime Stoppers lists offering rewards for their whereabouts. When

5520-487: The majority of non-Indian landownership and residence in the open areas and, contrariwise, closed areas represent exclusive tribal residence and related conditions. Indian country today consists of tripartite government—i. e., federal, state and/or local, and tribal. Where state and local governments may exert some, but limited, law-and-order authority, tribal sovereignty is diminished. This situation prevails in connection with Indian gaming, because federal legislation makes

5612-413: The party continued on to the Gila River in a rainstorm. Just beyond the Gila was the little town of Kelvin, or Riverside Station, where the party stopped for the night. On the next morning, Saturday, November 2, Sheriff Reynolds woke the others early so as to leave by 5:00 AM, in order to make Casa Grande that night before the train was scheduled to leave. Around this time Reynolds expressed concern about

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5704-455: The party reached the grade, seven of the prisoners were taken off as planned, but the Apache Kid and one other man were considered too dangerous and left on board. Middleton stayed on as well, to drive the coach, while Reynolds led the prisoners with Holmes in the rear. The coach proceeded up the grade first and was followed by the line of prisoners and sheriffs. The prisoners were all in handcuffs and bound together in pairs, except for Jesus Avott,

5796-495: The prisoners' escape, and the foreman sent a group of cowboys to guard the dead bodies. For his part in all of this, Avott was pardoned and did not have to serve time in Yuma. Sometime before the cowboys arrived at the murder scene, Middleton found the strength to stand up, but found that he could not lift himself onto the coach or a horse so was forced to walk and crawl the long distance back to Riverside Station. When Middleton reached Riverside he received medical treatment and told

5888-405: The purpose of colonization. The passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 marked the systematization of a U.S. federal government policy of moving Native populations away from European-populated areas, whether forcibly or voluntarily. One example was the Five Civilized Tribes , who were removed from their historical homelands in the Southeastern United States and moved to Indian Territory , in

5980-453: The remaining prisoners came up and released Kid from inside the coach. One of the fugitives, El-cahn , was going to smash Middleton's head with a rock while he lay on the ground helpless, but Kid prevented it, possibly recalling that Middleton had shared his cigarettes with the Kid the night before. After the massacre, the Apache Kid and the others robbed the dead sheriffs and Middleton of their clothes, jewelry, and weapons. Next they fled into

6072-436: The reservation (e.g., Enabling Act of 1910 at Section 20 ). As a general practice, such land may sit idle or be used for cattle grazing by tribal ranchers. In 1979, the Seminole tribe in Florida opened a high-stakes bingo operation on its reservation in Florida. The state attempted to close the operation down but was stopped in the courts. In the 1980s, the case of California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians established

6164-434: The reservations, mainly in the larger western cities such as Phoenix and Los Angeles . In 2012, there were more than 2.5 million Native Americans , with 1 million living on reservations. From the beginning of the European colonization of the Americas , Europeans often removed Indigenous peoples from their homelands. The means varied, including treaties made under considerable duress, forceful ejection, violence, and in

6256-586: The reservations. Likewise, over two million acres (8,000 km ) of land were returned to various tribes. Within a decade of Collier's retirement the government's position began to swing in the opposite direction. The new Indian Commissioners Myers and Emmons introduced the idea of the "withdrawal program" or " termination ", which sought to end the government's responsibility and involvement with Indians and to force their assimilation. The Indians would lose their lands but were to be compensated, although many were not. Even though discontent and social rejection killed

6348-424: The right of reservations to operate other forms of gambling operations. In 1988, Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act , which recognized the right of Native American tribes to establish gambling and gaming facilities on their reservations as long as the states in which they are located have some form of legalized gambling. Today, many Native American casinos are used as tourist attractions, including as

6440-524: The right of self-governance, including but not limited to the ability to pass laws, regulate power and energy, create treaties, and hold tribal court hearings. Laws on tribal lands may vary from those of the surrounding area. The laws passed can, for example, permit legal casinos on reservations. The tribal council, not the local government or the United States federal government , often has jurisdiction over reservations. Different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate

6532-461: The scuffle broke out, Avott ran ahead to warn Middleton who assumed the firing was nothing more than target practice. When Avott reached the coach Middleton told him to get in but instead he hid in some bushes. Bach-e-on-al was not far behind and shortly thereafter shot Middleton in the head. The bullet went in through the mouth, without hitting any teeth, and exited Middleton's neck. Amazingly, Middleton survived without losing consciousness. After that

6624-588: The settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West. In 1868, President Ulysses S. Grant pursued a "Peace Policy" as an attempt to avoid violence. The policy included a reorganization of the Indian Service, with the goal of relocating various tribes from their ancestral homes to parcels of lands established specifically for their inhabitation. The policy called for the replacement of government officials by religious men, nominated by churches, to oversee

6716-548: The state a party to any contractual or statutory agreement. Finally, occupancy on reservations can be by virtue of tribal or individual tenure. There are many churches on reservations; most would occupy tribal land by consent of the federal government or the tribe. Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) agency offices, hospitals, schools, and other facilities usually occupy residual federal parcels within reservations. Many reservations include one or more sections (about 640 acres) of land for schools, but such land typically remains part of

6808-405: The state of West Virginia . Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country, the majority being situated west of the Mississippi River and occupying lands that were first reserved by treaty ( Indian Land Grants ) from the public domain. Because recognized Native American nations possess tribal sovereignty , albeit of a limited degree, laws within tribal lands may vary from those of

6900-415: The surrounding and adjacent states. For example, these laws can permit casinos on reservations located within states which do not allow gambling, thus attracting tourism. The tribal council generally has jurisdiction over the reservation, not the U.S. state it is located in, but is subject to federal law. Court jurisdiction in Indian country is shared between tribes and the federal government, depending on

6992-436: The surrounding desert while Jesus Avott was still hiding. Once the Apaches were gone, Avott cut a horse loose from the coach so as to ride it to town, but it kicked him off. However, a nearby rancher, Andronico Lorona, who was driving some cattle through the area, noticed the stalled coach and decided to investigate it. There Lorona found Avott and gave him a horse to take into Florence . Lorona then left to tell his foreman about

7084-425: The town. There were 9,319 housing units in an incorporated are of 8.8 square miles. The racial makeup of the town was 82.2% White , 6.0% Black or African American , 4.5% Native American , 1.0% Asian , 0.3% Pacific Islander , 4.1% from other races , and 2.0% from two or more races. 36.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 6,832 households, out of which 22.7% had children under

7176-465: The townspeople what had happened. Shorty Sayler, a stagecoach driver, took Reynolds' horse Tex and rode it to Globe, forty miles away, to alert the authorities. Sayler stopped and changed horses at Pioneer and then made it to his destination in record time, arriving before noon the same day. The telegrapher at Globe was Dan Williams, who later said; "I happened to be the receiving operator and hastened to Al Sieber with terrible news, whose comment was, ‘I

7268-457: The trial, on the morning of November 1, 1889, Sheriff Glenn Reynolds arrived at the jail in Safford to pick up eight Apache prisoners and one Mexican who were to be transferred to Casa Grande by stagecoach , a two-day ride, and from there to Yuma by train. Sheriff Reynolds made arrangements to be taken to Casa Grande by stagecoach owner Eugene Middleton, who had survived several conflicts with

7360-464: The tribal affiliation of the parties involved and the specific crime or civil matter. Different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Most Native American reservations were established by the federal government but a small number, mainly in the East, owe their origin to state recognition . The term "reservation"

7452-474: The tribe has the authority to modify tenant-in-common practices. With the General Allotment Act (Dawes) , 1887, the government sought to individualize tribal lands by authorizing allotments held in individual tenure. Generally, the allocation process led to grouping family holdings and, in some cases, this sustained pre-reservation clan or other patterns. There had been a few allotment programs ahead of

7544-543: The wettest month. Thunderstorms occur in the late afternoon to evening hours, as well as the early night hours, bringing heavy downpours, thunder, lightning, blowing dust, and the risk of flash flooding. The winter months of December, January, and February bring the other half of the yearly rainfall to the town from winter storms that move in from the Pacific Ocean . December is the second wettest month in Florence. As of 2015, there were 30,770 people, and 6,832 households in

7636-557: Was 26,785 at the 2020 census. The area where the current town of Florence is located was once inhabited by the Hohokam , ancestors of the O'odham people. Prior to the establishment of the town, the Gila River served as a part of the border between the United States and Mexico. In 1853, the Gadsden Purchase extended American territory well south of the Gila. Levi Ruggles , a veteran of

7728-438: Was a Phoenix medical secretary who was found guilty of murdering and dismembering her friends Agnes Anne LeRoi and Hedvig Samuelson over the alleged affections of her lover Jack Halloran. The jury found her guilty of first-degree murder on February 8, 1932. An appeal was unsuccessful. Her trial was marked by sensationalized newspaper coverage and suspicious circumstances. Judd was sentenced to be hanged February 17, 1933, and sent to

7820-412: Was afraid of that, and that was my reason for offering the scout escort to Casa Grande.' From his bed, Sieber directed a scout detail of twenty men under Lt. Watson to take the trail from San Carlos." Deputy Sheriff Jerry Ryan took Reynolds' place upon learning of his death, but because the escape occurred in Pinal County , Sheriff Jerry Fryer assumed command of the investigation. Sheriff Ryan telegraphed

7912-475: Was built in 1891. It was the site where the trials of three notorious women were presented. They were Pearl Heart , Eva Dugan and Winnie Ruth Judd , known as the "Trunk Murderess". Pearl Hart (birth surname: Taylor) was an outlaw of the American Old West . She committed one of the last recorded stagecoach robberies in the United States; her crime gained notoriety primarily because of her gender. She

8004-733: Was called Brotherton Indian Reservation and also Edgepillock or Edgepelick . The area was 3,284 acres (13.29 km ). Today it is called Indian Mills in Shamong Township . In 1764 the British government's Board of Trade proposed the "Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs". Although never adopted formally, the plan established the British government's expectation that land would only be bought by colonial governments, not individuals, and that land would only be purchased at public meetings. Additionally, this plan dictated that

8096-502: Was closed and the inmates relocated to the new Florence Territorial Prison. As of 2016 Florence is home to multiple state, federal, county and private prisons: Located just north of Florence during World War II was a large prisoner of war camp for German and Italian prisoners of war, mainly captured during the North Africa campaign , called Camp Florence on 500 acres of land. Japanese Americans arrested as "enemy aliens" after

8188-451: Was initiated by John Collier . It laid out new rights for Native Americans, reversed some of the earlier privatization of their common holdings, and encouraged tribal sovereignty and land management by tribes. The act slowed the assignment of tribal lands to individual members and reduced the assignment of "extra" holdings to nonmembers. For the following 20 years, the U.S. government invested in infrastructure, health care, and education on

8280-471: Was reportedly seen while visiting friends at San Carlos. Indian reservation An American Indian reservation is an area of land held and governed by a U.S. federal government-recognized Native American tribal nation , whose government is autonomous , subject to regulations passed by the United States Congress and administered by the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs , and not to

8372-602: Was the Sioux War on the northern Great Plains , between 1876 and 1881, which included the Battle of Little Bighorn . Other famous wars in this regard included the Nez Perce War and the Modoc War , which marked the last conflict officially declared a war. By the late 1870s, the policy established by President Grant was regarded as a failure, primarily because it had resulted in some of the bloodiest wars between Native Americans and

8464-409: Was tried in 1899 and was acquitted, however the judge ordered a second trial and she was found guilty and sentenced to five years in prison. In the 1930s Eva Dugan was convicted of murder. She was sentenced to be executed by hanging . However, it resulted in her decapitation and influenced the State of Arizona to replace hanging with the gas chamber as a method of execution . Winnie Ruth Judd

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