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141-529: Kazimar Street is an ancient street in Madurai , India, dating from the 13th century. Kazi Syed Tajuddin is the one who settled here after preaching Islam in South India. 99.2% population of this street are Muslims and 0.8% Hindus . The famous Kazimar periya pallivasal , which is the first Muslims' place of worship in madurai, Madurai Maqbara the dargah of famous Madurai Hazrats are located in this street. This

282-442: A tropical savanna climate ( Köppen Aw/As ). Madurai is hot and dry for eight months of the year. Cold winds are experienced during February and March as in the neighbouring Dindigul . The hottest months are from March to July. The city experiences a moderate climate from August to October, tempered by heavy rain and thundershowers, and a slightly cooler climate from November to February. Fog and dew are rare, occurring only during

423-785: A cultivar of the Kazakh dandelion ( Taraxacum kok-saghyz ) that is suitable for commercial production of natural rubber. In collaboration with Continental Tires , IME began a pilot facility. Many other plants produce forms of latex rich in isoprene polymers, though not all produce usable forms of polymer as easily as the Pará. Some of them require more elaborate processing to produce anything like usable rubber, and most are more difficult to tap. Some produce other desirable materials, for example gutta-percha ( Palaquium gutta ) and chicle from Manilkara species. Others that have been commercially exploited, or at least showed promise as rubber sources, include

564-411: A daily basis started by Air India Express since February 2018. The carriers operating from the airport are Air India , Air India Express , SpiceJet , IndiGo and SriLankan Airlines . The airport handled 842,300 passengers between April 2015 and March 2016. Madurai has been an academic centre of learning for Tamil culture, literature, art, music and dance for centuries. All three assemblies of

705-533: A district headquarters of a larger Madurai district. In 1837, the fortifications around the temple were demolished by the British. The moat was drained and the debris was used to construct new streets – Veli, Marat and Perumaal Mesthiri streets. The city was constituted as a municipality in 1866 under the Town Improvement Act of 1865. The British government faced initial hiccups during the earlier period of

846-447: A fiber, sometimes called 'elastic', had significant value to the textile industry because of its excellent elongation and recovery properties. For these purposes, manufactured rubber fiber was made as either an extruded round fiber or rectangular fibers cut into strips from extruded film. Because of its low dye acceptance, feel and appearance, the rubber fiber was either covered by yarn of another fiber or directly woven with other yarns into

987-510: A form of assisted biological coagulation. Little care is taken to exclude twigs, leaves, and even bark from the lumps that are formed, which may also include tree lace. Earth scrap is material that gathers around the base of the tree. It arises from latex overflowing from the cut and running down the bark, from rain flooding a collection cup containing latex, and from spillage from tappers' buckets during collection. It contains soil and other contaminants, and has variable rubber content, depending on

1128-752: A given strain, thereby increasing the elastic force constant and making the rubber harder and less extensible. Raw rubber storage depots and rubber processing can produce malodour that is serious enough to become a source of complaints and protest to those living in the vicinity. Microbial impurities originate during the processing of block rubber. These impurities break down during storage or thermal degradation and produce volatile organic compounds. Examination of these compounds using gas chromatography / mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and gas chromatography (GC) indicates that they contain sulfur, ammonia, alkenes , ketones , esters , hydrogen sulfide , nitrogen, and low-molecular-weight fatty acids (C2–C5). When latex concentrate

1269-515: A large stretch ratio and high resilience and also is buoyant and water-proof. Industrial demand for rubber-like materials began to outstrip natural rubber supplies by the end of the 19th century, leading to the synthesis of synthetic rubber in 1909 by chemical means. The major commercial source of natural rubber latex is the Amazonian rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ), a member of the spurge family , Euphorbiaceae . Once native to Brazil,

1410-455: A location in Madurai district , Tamil Nadu , India is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Madurai Madurai ( / ˈ m ʌ d ʊ r aɪ / MUH -doo-rai , US also / ˌ m ɑː d ə ˈ r aɪ / MAH -də- RY , Tamil: [mɐðuɾɐi̯] ), formerly known by its colonial name Madura is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . It

1551-491: A major settlement for two millennia and has a documented history of more than 2500 years. It is often referred to as "Thoonga Nagaram", meaning "the city that never sleeps". Madurai is closely associated with the Tamil language . The third Tamil Sangam , a major congregation of Tamil scholars, is said to have been held in the city. The recorded history of the city goes back to the 3rd century BCE, being mentioned by Megasthenes ,

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1692-432: A petroleum refinery or other natural incineration processes, is sometimes used as an additive to rubber to improve its strength, especially in vehicle tires. During vulcanization, rubber's polyisoprene molecules (long chains of isoprene) are heated and cross-linked with molecular bonds to sulfur, forming a 3-D matrix. The optimal percentage of sulfur is approximately 10%. In this form, the polyisoprene molecules orientation

1833-435: A point where it shares properties of both; i.e., if it is heated and cooled, it is degraded but not destroyed. The final properties of a rubber item depend not just on the polymer, but also on modifiers and fillers, such as carbon black , factice , whiting and others. Rubber particles are formed in the cytoplasm of specialized latex-producing cells called laticifers within rubber plants. Rubber particles are surrounded by

1974-451: A significant amount of rubber. Gloves (medical, household, and industrial) and toy balloons were large consumers of rubber, although the type of rubber used is concentrated latex. Significant tonnage of rubber was used as adhesives in many manufacturing industries and products, although the two most noticeable were the paper and the carpet industries. Rubber was commonly used to make rubber bands and pencil erasers . Rubber produced as

2115-453: A single phospholipid membrane with hydrophobic tails pointed inward. The membrane allows biosynthetic proteins to be sequestered at the surface of the growing rubber particle, which allows new monomeric units to be added from outside the biomembrane, but within the lacticifer. The rubber particle is an enzymatically active entity that contains three layers of material, the rubber particle, a biomembrane and free monomeric units. The biomembrane

2256-582: A wide range of Hindu gods carved on the walls. Kazimar Big Mosque is the first Muslim place of worship in the city. It was constructed under the supervision of Kazi Syed Tajuddin, believed to be a descendant of the prophet Muhammed . He came from Oman and received the piece of land from the Pandya ruler, Kulasekara Pandiyan during the 13th century. It is claimed to be the oldest Islamic monument in Madurai. The dargah of Madurai Hazrats called as Madurai Maqbara

2397-401: A wire that encircles the tree. This wire incorporates a spring so it can stretch as the tree grows. The latex is led into the cup by a galvanised "spout" knocked into the bark. Rubber tapping normally takes place early in the morning, when the internal pressure of the tree is highest. A good tapper can tap a tree every 20 seconds on a standard half-spiral system, and a common daily "task" size

2538-442: Is 25 cm (vertical) bark consumption per year. The latex-containing tubes in the bark ascend in a spiral to the right. For this reason, tapping cuts usually ascend to the left to cut more tubes. The trees drip latex for about four hours, stopping as latex coagulates naturally on the tapping cut, thus blocking the latex tubes in the bark. Tappers usually rest and have a meal after finishing their tapping work and then start collecting

2679-535: Is a historic Hindu temple located on the south side of the Vaigai River in Madurai, which is one of the most prominent landmarks of the city. It is dedicated to Parvati known as Meenakshi and her consort, Shiva as Sundareswarar. The complex houses 14 gopuram s (gateway towers) ranging from 45–50 metres (148–164 ft) in height, the tallest being the southern tower, 51.9 metres (170 ft) high. There are also two golden sculptured vimana (shrines) over

2820-418: Is a natural polymer of isoprene (polyisoprene), and an elastomer (a stretchy polymer). Polymers are simply chains of molecules that can be linked together. Rubber is one of the few naturally occurring polymers and prized for its high stretch ratio, resilience, and water-proof properties. Other examples of natural polymers include tortoise shell , amber , and animal horn . When harvested, latex rubber takes

2961-583: Is a part of the Pongal festival (harvest festival) celebrated during January. The bull taming event is held in the villages surrounding Madurai when people from the neighbouring villages throng the open grounds to watch man and bull pitting their strength against each other. Although the event was banned by the Supreme Court of India in 2014, large protests in 2017 led to the sport's reinstatement. Santhanakoodu festivals in Madurai are celebrated on various days during

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3102-532: Is a sticky, milky and white colloid drawn off by making incisions in the bark and collecting the fluid in vessels in a process called "tapping". The latex then is refined into the rubber that is ready for commercial processing. In major areas, latex is allowed to coagulate in the collection cup. The coagulated lumps are collected and processed into dry forms for sale. Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, either alone or in combination with other materials. In most of its useful forms, it has

3243-481: Is a street in India where around 400 families of descendants from a single common ancestor live in the same street for more than 800 years with deep matrimonial relationships within the families. This is believed to be a miracle of Kazi Syed Tajuddin who is the founder of Kazimar Big Mosque . This Indian road or road transport-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to

3384-511: Is a women's general degree college (established in 1953), Sourashtra College (established in 1967) and M.S.S. Wakf Board College (established in 1964), Tamil Nadu Polytechnic College ( established in 1946), are the oldest educational institutions of the city. Madurai Kamaraj University (originally called Madurai University), established in 1966, is a state-run university which has 109 affiliated arts and science colleges in Madurai and neighbouring districts. There are 47 approved institutions of

3525-415: Is between 450 and 650 trees. Trees are usually tapped on alternate or third days, although many variations in timing, length and number of cuts are used. "Tappers would make a slash in the bark with a small hatchet. These slanting cuts allowed latex to flow from ducts located on the exterior or the inner layer of bark ( cambium ) of the tree. Since the cambium controls the growth of the tree, growth stops if it

3666-678: Is celebrated in the month of January – February, on the full moon day of Tamil Month Thai to celebrate the birth anniversary of King Thirumalai Nayak. The decorated icons of the Meenakshi and her consort are taken out in a procession from the Meenakshi Temple to the Mariamman Teppakulam. The icons are floated in the tank on a raft decked with flowers and flickering lamps. Jallikattu is the most popular historical sport in Tamil Nadu, which

3807-491: Is cut. Thus, rubber tapping demanded accuracy, so that the incisions would not be too many given the size of the tree, or too deep, which could stunt its growth or kill it." It is usual to tap a panel at least twice, sometimes three times, during the tree's life. The economic life of the tree depends on how well the tapping is carried out, as the critical factor is bark consumption. A standard in Malaysia for alternate daily tapping

3948-496: Is further divided into six divisions. Water supply is provided by the Madurai City Corporation with overhead tanks and power pumps. In the period 2010–2011, a total of 950.6 lakh litres of water was supplied to 87,091 connections for households in Madurai. Rubber Rubber , also called India rubber , latex , Amazonian rubber , caucho , or caoutchouc , as initially produced, consists of polymers of

4089-597: Is glorified in the Naalayira Divya Prabandham , the early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from the 5th–9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Maha Vishnu , who is worshiped as Kallalagar , and his consort Lakshmi as Thirumagal. This temple is called as Thirumaliruncholai in Sangam literatures and Naalayira Divya Prabandham sung by Tamil Alvar saints. Pazhamudircholai , one of

4230-561: Is headed by a Commissioner of police , assisted by Deputy Commissioners. Enforcement of law and order in the suburban areas are handled by the Madurai district police. In 2008, the crime rate in the city was 283.2 per 100,000 people, accounting for 1.1 per cent of all crimes reported in major cities in India, and it was ranked 19th among 35 major cities in India. As of 2008, Madurai recorded the second highest SLL (Special and Local Laws) crimes, at 22,728, among cities in Tamil Nadu. However, Madurai had

4371-538: Is held on 15th night of the Islamic month of Rabi al-awwal on every hijri year. St. Mary's Cathedral is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Madurai . Samanar Malai and Panchapandavar Malai are important Jain centres. Madurai is popularly called Thoonga Nagaram meaning the city that never sleeps, on account of the active night life. The city attracts a large number of tourists from within

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4512-438: Is held tightly to the rubber core by the high negative charge along the double bonds of the rubber polymer backbone. Free monomeric units and conjugated proteins make up the outer layer. The rubber precursor is isopentenyl pyrophosphate (an allylic compound), which elongates by Mg -dependent condensation by the action of rubber transferase. The monomer adds to the pyrophosphate end of the growing polymer. The process displaces

4653-631: Is located inside the mosque. Tirupparankunram Dargah is the grave of an Islamic saint who came from Jeddah ; his festival is celebrated during Rajab every Hijri year. Goripalayam Mosque is located in Gorippalayam, the name of which is derived from the Persian word Gor , meaning Grave . The graves of Hazrat Sulthan Alauddin Badhusha, Hazrat Sulthan Shamsuddeen Badhusha and Hazrat Sulthan Ghaibuddeen Badhusha are found here. The urus festival of this dargah

4794-556: Is low and strain results from small changes of bond lengths and angles: this caused the Challenger disaster , when the American Space Shuttle 's flattened o-rings failed to relax to fill a widening gap. The glass transition is fast and reversible: the force resumes on heating. The parallel chains of stretched rubber are susceptible to crystallization. This takes some time because turns of twisted chains have to move out of

4935-892: Is not cultivated widely in its native continent of South America because of the South American leaf blight , and other natural predators there. Rubber latex is extracted from rubber trees. The economic life of rubber trees in plantations is around 32 years, with up to 7 years being an immature phase and about 25 years of productive phase. The soil requirement is well-drained, weathered soil consisting of laterite , lateritic types, sedimentary types, nonlateritic red or alluvial soils. The climatic conditions for optimum growth of rubber trees are: Many high-yielding clones have been developed for commercial planting. These clones yield more than 2,000 kilograms per hectare (1,800 lb/acre) of dry rubber per year, under ideal conditions. Rubber production has been linked to deforestation. Rubber therefore

5076-582: Is one of seven commodities included in the 2023 EU Regulation on Deforestation-free products (EUDR), which aims to guarantee that the products European Union (EU) citizens consume do not contribute to deforestation or forest degradation worldwide. In places such as Kerala and Sri Lanka, where coconuts are in abundance, the half shell of coconut was used as the latex collection container. Glazed pottery or aluminium or plastic cups became more common in Kerala-India and other countries. The cups are supported by

5217-565: Is one of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu, who is worshipped as Viyooga Sundarrajan, and his consort Lakshmi as Mathuravalli. A granite wall surrounds the temple, enclosing all its shrines. The temple has a five-tiered raja gopuram , the gateway tower. The temple is originally believed to be built by the Pandyas , with later additions by the Vijayanagara empire and Madurai Nayaks kings who commissioned pillared halls and major shrines of

5358-697: Is one of the seven circles of the Tamil Nadu State Highway network. Madurai is the headquarters of the Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation (Madurai) and provides local and inter city bus transport across four districts namely Madurai, Dindigul , Theni , and Virudhunagar . Madurai has four major bus stands, namely, Mattuthavani Integrated Bus Terminus (MIBT), Arappalayam , Palanganatham and Periyar Bus stand. There are 12,754 registered three-wheeled vehicle called auto rickshaws which are commercially available for renting within

5499-449: Is produced by smallholders, who collect rubber from trees far from the nearest factory. Many Indonesian smallholders, who farm paddies in remote areas, tap dispersed trees on their way to work in the paddy fields and collect the latex (or the coagulated latex) on their way home. As it is often impossible to preserve the latex sufficiently to get it to a factory that processes latex in time for it to be used to make high quality products, and as

5640-529: Is produced from rubber, sulfuric acid is used for coagulation. This produces malodourous hydrogen sulfide. The industry can mitigate these bad odours with scrubber systems . Rubber is the polymer cis-1,4-polyisoprene – with a molecular weight of 100,000 to 1,000,000 daltons . Typically, a small percentage (up to 5% of dry mass) of other materials, such as proteins , fatty acids , resins , and inorganic materials (salts) are found in natural rubber. Polyisoprene can also be created synthetically, producing what

5781-691: Is represented in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly by six elected members, one each for the Madurai East, Madurai West, Madurai North, Madurai Central, Madurai South and Thirupparankundram constituencies. Most of Madurai city comes under the Madurai Lok Sabha constituency and elects a member to the Lok Sabha , the lower house of the Parliament of India , once every five years. From 1957,

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5922-553: Is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained version of natural rubber in order to distinguish it from the synthetic version. The first use of rubber was by the indigenous cultures of Mesoamerica . The earliest archeological evidence of the use of natural latex from the Hevea tree comes from the Olmec culture, in which rubber was first used for making balls for the Mesoamerican ballgame . Rubber

6063-402: Is sometimes referred to as "synthetic natural rubber", but the synthetic and natural routes are distinct. Some natural rubber sources, such as gutta-percha , are composed of trans-1,4-polyisoprene, a structural isomer that has similar properties. Natural rubber is an elastomer and a thermoplastic . Once the rubber is vulcanized, it is a thermoset . Most rubber in everyday use is vulcanized to

6204-619: Is spoken by 89.0% of the population. Saurashtra , is the largest minority language which is spoken by 5.4% of the population. Other significant minority languages include Telugu (2.7%) and Urdu (1.5%). Roman Catholics in Madurai are affiliated with the Roman Catholic Diocese of Madurai, while Protestants are affiliated with the Madurai-Ramnad Diocese of the Church of South India . In 2001, Slum-dwellers comprise 32.6 per cent of

6345-472: Is still random but they become aligned when the rubber is stretched. This sulfur vulcanization makes the rubber stronger and more rigid, but still very elastic. And through the vulcanization process, the sulfur and latex are meant to be totally used up in individual form. Natural rubber latex is shipped from factories in Southeast Asia , South America , and West and Central Africa to destinations around

6486-552: Is sub-urban of Madurai is business hub for automotive industries such as KUN BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Isuzu, Volkswagen, Toyota, Mahindra, Tata, Maruti Suzuki, Mitsubishi, Ashok Leyland, Jeep, Fiat India (FCA). The government has created Uchapatti-Thoppur satellite Township in Kappalur. Small Industries Development Corporation Kappalur has many polymer and houseware manufacturing units. Some software companies have opened their offices in Madurai. Software Technology Parks of India , an agency of

6627-495: Is the cultural capital of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Madurai District , which is governed by the Madurai Municipal Corporation established in 1 November 1866. As of the 2011 census , it is the third largest metropolis in Tamil Nadu after Chennai and Coimbatore in terms of population and 27th largest urban agglomeration in India . Located on the banks of River Vaigai , Madurai has been

6768-703: The British East India Company's British Raj . The city has a number of historical monuments, with the Koodal Azhagar temple , Meenakshi Temple and the Thirumalai Nayakkar Mahal being the most prominent. Madurai is an important industrial and educational hub in South Tamil Nadu. The city is home to various automobile, rubber , chemical and granite manufacturing industries. Madurai has important government educational institutes such as

6909-673: The Madurai Medical College , Homeopathic Medical College, Madurai Law College , Agricultural College and Research Institute and All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Madurai . The city covers an area of 147.97 km (57.13 sq mi) and had a population of 1,470,755 in 2011. The city is also the seat of a bench of the Madras High Court . It is one of the few towns and cities in List of AMRUT Smart cities in Tamil Nadu selected for AMRUT Schemes from central government and

7050-614: The Madurai Monorail in 2011; as of 2020 , it remains in planning stages. Madurai International Airport , first used by the Royal Air Force in World War II in 1942., is located 12 kilometers from the city. The airport was declared a customs airport in 2012 allowing limited number of international flights. It offers domestic flights to some cities in India and international services to Colombo , Dubai and for Singapore on

7191-496: The Mullins effect and the Payne effect and is often modeled as hyperelastic . Rubber strain crystallizes . Because there are weakened allylic C-H bonds in each repeat unit , natural rubber is susceptible to vulcanisation as well as being sensitive to ozone cracking . The two main solvents for rubber are turpentine and naphtha (petroleum). Because rubber does not dissolve easily,

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7332-697: The Putumayo genocide . Between the 1880s–1913 Julio César Arana and his company that would become the Peruvian Amazon Company controlled the Putumayo river. W.E. Hardenburg, Benjamin Saldaña Rocca and Roger Casement were influential figures in exposing these atrocities. Roger Casement was also prominent in revealing the Congo atrocities to the world. Days before entering Iquitos by boat Casement wrote "'Caoutchouc

7473-581: The Sangam age . A town in the neighbouring Dindigul district is called Vada Madurai ( North Madurai ) and another in Sivagangai district is called Manamadurai . The different names by which the city has been referred to historically are listed in the 7th-century poem Thiruvilayaadal Puraanam written by Paranjothi Munivar. Vaishnava texts refer to Madurai as the "southern Mathura", probably similar to Tenkasi ( southern Kashi ). Koodal means an assembly or congregation of scholarly people, referring to

7614-719: The Thiagarajar College of Engineering being the oldest. The Madurai Law College , established in 1979, is one of the seven government law colleges in the state. It is administered by the Tamil Nadu Government Department of Legal Studies, and affiliated with the Tamil Nadu Dr. Ambedkar Law University . There are three teacher training institutes, two music colleges, three management institutes and 30 arts and sciences colleges in Madurai. The agricultural college and research institute in Madurai, started in 1965 by

7755-557: The cytosol . In plants, isoprene pyrophosphate can also be obtained from the 1-deox-D-xyulose-5-phosphate/2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate pathway within plasmids. The relative ratio of the farnesyl pyrophosphate initiator unit and isoprenyl pyrophosphate elongation monomer determines the rate of new particle synthesis versus elongation of existing particles. Though rubber is known to be produced by only one enzyme, extracts of latex host numerous small molecular weight proteins with unknown function. The proteins possibly serve as cofactors, as

7896-547: The 3rd century BCE. Megasthenes may have visited Madurai during the 3rd century BCE, with the city referred as "Methora" in his accounts. The view is contested by some scholars who believe "Methora" refers to the north Indian city of Mathura , as it was a large and established city in the Mauryan Empire . Madurai is also mentioned in Kautilya 's (370–283 BCE) Arthashastra . Sangam literature like Maturaikkāñci records

8037-600: The 7th- or 8th-century Tamil compositions on Shiva by the three prominent Nayanars ( Saivites ), namely Appar , Sundarar and Thirugnanasambandar, address the city as Thirualavai . The Buddhist text Mahavamsa mentions Madurai in the context of Prince Vijaya 's (543–505 BCE) arrival in Sri Lanka with his 700 followers. According to the Mahavamsa, emissaries laden with precious gifts, jewels and pearls, were sent from Sri Lanka to Madurai of ancient Tamilakam . Their mission

8178-452: The Académie (published in 1755) that described many of rubber's properties. This has been referred to as the first scientific paper on rubber. In England, Joseph Priestley , in 1770, observed that a piece of the material was extremely good for rubbing off pencil marks on paper, hence the name "rubber". It slowly made its way around England. In 1764, François Fresnau discovered that turpentine

8319-649: The Congo Free State for more information on the rubber trade in the Congo Free State in the late 1800s and early 1900s.) The rubber boom in the Amazon also similarly affected indigenous populations to varying degrees. Correrias, or slave raids were frequent in Colombia, Peru and Bolivia where many were either captured or killed. The most well known case of atrocities generated from rubber extraction in South America came from

8460-642: The Corporation of Madurai, is situated between the Gandhi museum and the Tamukkam grounds – it has a visitor average of 5,000 per day during holidays and 2,000–3,000 on working days. MGR Race Course Stadium is an athletic stadium which has a synthetic track and a swimming pool. Several National Meets are held here. It also hosts several international and national level Kabbadi Championships. Railway grounds at Arasaradi, Medical college grounds & Madura College Grounds are

8601-508: The Government of India, has authorised several such companies to receive benefits under its national information technology development program. The state government proposed two IT-based Special Economic Zones (SEZ) in Madurai, and these have been fully occupied by various IT companies, HCLTech and Honeywell have their own campuses in ELCOT IT Park in Madurai. Meenakshi Amman Temple

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8742-695: The Greek ambassador to the Mauryan Empire , and Kautilya , a minister of the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya . Signs of human settlements and Roman trade links dating back to 300 BCE are evident from excavations by Archeological Survey of India in Manalur. The city is believed to be of significant antiquity and has been ruled, at different times, by the Pandyan Kingdom , Chola Empire , Madurai Sultanate , Vijayanagar Empire , Madurai Nayaks , Carnatic kingdom , and

8883-432: The Islamic calendar year to commemorate Islamic saints. The city hosts several radio stations, including the state-owned All India Radio and private channels like Hello FM , Radio Mirchi , Suryan FM and Radio City . The Hindu , The New Indian Express and The Times of India are the three principal English-language daily newspapers which have Madurai editions. Deccan Chronicle , though not printed in

9024-515: The Madurai morning flower market. An average of 2,000 farmers sell flowers daily at the flower market. With the advent of Small Scale Industries (SSI) after 1991, the industrialisation of Madurai increased employment in the sector across the district from 63,271 in 1992–93 to 166,121 persons in 2001–02. Madurai is one of the few rubber growing areas in South India, and there are rubber-based industries in Madurai. Gloves, sporting goods, mats, other utility products and automobile rubber components are

9165-606: The Madurai parliament seat was held by the Indian National Congress seven times in the 1962–67, 1971–77, 1977–80, 1980–84, 1984–89, 1989–91 and 1991 elections. The Communist Party of India (Marxist) won the seat three times during 1967–71, 1999–2004 and 2004–09 general elections. The Communist Party of India (1957–61), Tamil Maanila Congress (Moopanar) (1996–98), Janata Party (1998), Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (2009–2014) and All India Anna Dravida Munnertra Kazhagam (2014–2020) have each won once. Part of

9306-507: The Tamil language, the Tamil Sangam (about the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE), were said to have been held at Madurai. Tamil poets of different epochs participated in these assemblies, and their compositions are referred to as Sangam literature . During the third Tamil sangam , the comparative merit of the poets was decided by letting the works float in the lotus tank of the temple. It

9447-658: The Thiruvonam festival celebrated in the temple. Koodal Azhagar temple is revered in Nalayira Divya Prabhandam , the 5th–9th century Vaishnava canon, by Periyalvar , Thirumalisai Alvar and Thirumangai Alvar . The temple is classified as a Divya Desams , one of the 108 Vishnu temples that are mentioned in the book. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the temple finds mention in several works like 108 Tirupathi Anthathi by Divya Kavi Pillai Perumal Aiyangar and Koodal Sthala Purana . |date=September 2023}} Tevaram ,

9588-476: The Vaigai delta across Madurai North, Melur, Nilakottai and Uthamapalayam are known as "double-crop paddy belts". Farmers in the district supplement their income with subsidiary occupations like dairy farming, poultry-farming, pottery, brick making, mat-weaving and carpentry. Madurai is famed for its jasmine plantations, called Madurai Malli , primarily carried out at the foothills of Kodaikanal hills and traded at

9729-409: The amount of contaminants. Earth scrap is collected by field workers two or three times a year and may be cleaned in a scrap-washer to recover the rubber, or sold to a contractor who cleans it and recovers the rubber. It is of low quality. Latex coagulates in the cups if kept for long and must be collected before this happens. The collected latex, "field latex", is transferred into coagulation tanks for

9870-403: The area covered under the Corporation of Madurai had a population of 1,017,865 with a sex-ratio of 999 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 100,324 were under the age of six, constituting 51,485 males and 48,839 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 6.27% and 0.31% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the city

10011-417: The area of its jurisdiction from seventy-two wards to one hundred wards, an increase in area from 51.82 square kilometres (12,810 acres) to 147.997 square kilometres (36,571 acres). Madurai is built around the Koodal Azhagar temple and Meenakshi Temple , which acted as the geographic and ritual centre of the ancient city of Madurai. The city is divided into a number of concentric quadrangular streets around

10152-474: The celestial wedding of Meenakshi (Parvati) with Sundareswarar (Shiva). During the Cradle festival, the festive idols of Meenakshi and Sundareswarar are taken in procession to a mirror chamber and set on a rocking swing for nine days. Avanimoolam festival is celebrated during the month of September when the 64 sacred games of Hindu god Shiva, thiruvilayadal are recited. The Thepporchavam festival or float festival

10293-420: The city and the surrounding streets appearing liken a lotus and its petals. The city's axes were aligned with the four-quarters of the compass, and the four gateways of the temple provided access to it. The wealthy and higher echelons of the society were placed in streets close to the temple, while the poorest were placed in the fringe streets. With the advent of British rule during the 19th century, Madurai became

10434-566: The city which falls under Thirupparankundram assembly constituency comes under the Virudhunagar Lok Sabha constituency . Law and order is enforced by the Tamil Nadu Police , which, for administrative purposes, has constituted Madurai city as a separate district. The district is divided into four sub-divisions, namely Thallakulam, Anna Nagar, Thilagar Thidal and Town, with a total of 27 police stations. The Madurai city police force

10575-454: The city, is another English-language daily newspaper available in the city. The most read Tamil-language daily morning newspapers include Dinamalar , Dina Thanthi , Dinamani and Dinakaran  – all these newspapers have editions from Madurai. There are also daily Tamil evening newspapers like Tamil Murasu , Malai Murasu and Maalai Malar published in Madurai. Television broadcasting from Chennai for whole of Tamil Nadu

10716-821: The city. Over the government operated city buses that are used for public transport, there are 236 registered private mini-buses that support local transportation. Madurai Junction is an important railway junction in southern Tamil Nadu and constitutes a separate division of the Southern Railway zone . There are direct trains from Madurai connecting the important cities in Tamil Nadu like Chennai , Coimbatore , Kanyakumari , Tiruchirappalli , Tirunelveli , Karaikudi , Mayiladuthurai , Rameswaram , Thanjavur , Tiruttani, Tirupathi and Virudhachalam . Madurai has rail connectivity with most important cities and towns in India. Madurai has rail connectivity with important cities and towns in India. The state government has announced

10857-565: The country and abroad. About 9,100,000 tourists visited Madurai in 2010, out of which foreigners numbered 524,000. The palace complex of Thirumalai Nayak Palace was constructed in the Indo-Saracenic style by Thirumalai Nayakar in 1636 CE. It is a national monument maintained by the Tamil Nadu Archaeological Department. The daily sound and light show organized by the department explains the virtues of King Thirumalai and

10998-612: The data available with the Indian Meteorological Department on Madurai over a period of 62 years indicate rising trend in atmospheric temperature over Madurai city, attributed to urbanisation, growth of vehicles and industrial activity. The maximum temperature of 42 °C or 107.6 °F for the decade of 2001 to 2010 was recorded in 2004 and in 2010. Madurai has been ranked 42nd best “National Clean Air City” (under Category 1 >10L Population cities) in India. According to 2011 census based on pre-expansion limits,

11139-689: The death of Kulasekara Pandian (1268–1308 CE), Madurai came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate . The Madurai Sultanate then seceded from Delhi and functioned as an independent kingdom until its gradual annexation by the Vijayanagara Empire in 1378 CE. Madurai became independent from Vijayanagar in 1559 CE under the Nayaks . Nayak rule ended in 1736 CE and Madurai was repeatedly captured several times by Chanda Sahib (1740 – 1754 CE), Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan (1725 – 1764 CE) in

11280-415: The developmental activities are taken care by government of Tamil Nadu. According to Iravatham Mahadevan , a 2nd-century BCE Tamil-Brahmi inscription refers to the city as matiray , an Old Tamil word meaning a "walled city". Madurai is one of the many temple towns known for Arshad in the state which is named after the groves, clusters or forests dominated by a particular variety of a tree or shrub and

11421-407: The dry rubber produced. Latex that drips onto the ground, "earth scrap", is also collected periodically for processing of low-grade product. Cup lump is the coagulated material found in the collection cup when the tapper next visits the tree to tap it again. It arises from latex clinging to the walls of the cup after the latex was last poured into the bucket, and from late-dripping latex exuded before

11562-654: The early 1900s, the Congo Free State in Africa was also a significant source of natural rubber latex, mostly gathered by forced labor . King Leopold II's colonial state brutally enforced production quotas due to the high price of natural rubber at the time. Tactics to enforce the rubber quotas included removing the hands of victims to prove they had been killed. Soldiers often came back from raids with baskets full of chopped-off hands. Villages that resisted were razed to encourage better compliance locally. (See Atrocities in

11703-437: The establishment of municipality in land ceiling and tax collection in Madurai and Dindigul districts under the direct administration of the officers of the government. The city, along with the district, was resurveyed between 1880 and 1885 CE and subsequently, five municipalities were constituted in the two districts and six taluk boards were set up for local administration. Police stations were established in Madurai city, housing

11844-421: The export of seeds or plants. In 1876, Henry Wickham smuggled 70,000 Amazonian rubber tree seeds from Brazil and delivered them to Kew Gardens , England. Only 2,400 of these germinated. Seedlings were then sent to India , British Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ), Dutch East Indies ( Indonesia ), Singapore , and British Malaya . Malaya (now Peninsular Malaysia ) was later to become the biggest producer of rubber. In

11985-636: The fabric. Rubber yarns were used in foundation garments. While rubber is still used in textile manufacturing, its low tenacity limits its use in lightweight garments because latex lacks resistance to oxidizing agents and is damaged by aging, sunlight, oil and perspiration. The textile industry turned to neoprene (polymer of chloroprene ), a type of synthetic rubber, as well as another more commonly used elastomer fiber, spandex (also known as elastane), because of their superiority to rubber in both strength and durability. Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties. Rubber's stress–strain behavior exhibits

12126-646: The features of the palace. The palace of Rani Mangamma has been renovated to house one of the five Gandhi Sanghralayas ( Gandhi Memorial Museum, Madurai ) in the country. It includes a part of the blood-stained garment worn by Gandhi when he was assassinated by Nathuram Godse . A visit by Martin Luther King Jr. to the museum inspired him to lead peaceful protests against discrimination. The Eco park, situated in Tallakulam, features fountains and lighting in trees using optical fibres. Rajaji children park, maintained by

12267-410: The festivals associated. The temple prakarams (outer precincts of a temple) and streets accommodate an elaborate festival calendar in which dramatic processions circumambulate the shrines at varying distances from the centre. The temple chariots used in processions are progressively larger in size based on the size of the concentric streets. Ancient Tamil classics record the temple as the centre of

12408-477: The first technique for tapping trees for latex without causing serious harm to the tree. Because of his fervent promotion of this crop, he is popularly remembered by the nickname "Mad Ridley". Before World War II significant uses included door and window profiles, hoses, belts, gaskets, matting , flooring, and dampeners (antivibration mounts) for the automotive industry. The use of rubber in car tires (initially solid rather than pneumatic) in particular consumed

12549-483: The flat and fertile plain of the river Vaigai , which runs in the northwest–southeast direction through the city, dividing it into two almost equal halves. The Sirumalai and Nagamalai hills lie to the north and west of Madurai. The land in and around Madurai is utilised largely for agricultural activity, which is fostered by the Periyar Dam . Madurai lies southeast of the western ghats, and the surrounding region occupies

12690-544: The form of latex, an opaque, white, milky suspension of rubber particles in water. It is then transformed through industrial processes to the solid form widely seen in manufactured goods. Natural rubber is reactive and vulnerable to oxidization, but it can be stabilized through a heating process called vulcanization. Vulcanization is a process by which the rubber is heated and sulfur , peroxide , or bisphenol are added to improve resistance and elasticity and to prevent it from oxidizing. Carbon black , which can be derived from

12831-544: The full-fledged cricket stadiums in the city. The people of Madurai celebrate numerous festivals, which include Meenakshi Tirukkalyanam, the Chittirai Festival and the Car Festival . The annual 10 day Meenakshi Tirukalyanam festival, also called Chittirai festival, celebrated during April–May every year attracts 1 million visitors. Legend has it that Hindu god Vishnu, as Alagar, rode on a golden horse to Madurai to attend

12972-470: The government of Madras Presidency under C. Rajagopalachari in 1939 removed restrictions prohibiting Shanars and Dalits from entering Hindu temples. The temple entry movement was first led in Madurai Meenakshi temple by independence activist A. Vaidyanatha Iyer in 1939. In 1971, the municipality of Madurai was upgraded to a Municipal Corporation . In 2011 the Corporation of Madurai expanded

13113-428: The headquarters of a large colonial political complex and an industrial town; with urbanisation, the social hierarchical classes became unified. The Corporation of Madurai has an area of 147.97 square kilometres or 57.13 square miles. Madurai is located at 9°56′N 78°07′E  /  9.93°N 78.12°E  / 9.93; 78.12 . It has an average elevation of 134 metres. The city of Madurai lies on

13254-598: The headquarters of the District Superintendent. It was in Madurai, in 1921, that Mahatma Gandhi , pre-eminent leader of Indian nationalism in British-ruled India, first adopted the loin cloth as his mode of dress after seeing agricultural labourers wearing it. Leaders of the independence movement in Madurai included N. M. R. Subbaraman , Karumuttu Thiagarajan Chettiar and Mohammad Ismail Sahib. The Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act passed by

13395-459: The higher-grade, technically specified block rubbers such as SVR 3L or SVR CV or used to produce Ribbed Smoke Sheet grades. Naturally coagulated rubber (cup lump) is used in the manufacture of TSR10 and TSR20 grade rubbers. Processing for these grades is a size reduction and cleaning process to remove contamination and prepare the material for the final stage of drying. The dried material is then baled and palletized for storage and shipment. Rubber

13536-755: The importance of Madurai as a capital city of the Pandyan dynasty. Madurai is mentioned in the works of Roman historians Pliny the Younger (61 – c.  112 CE ), Ptolemy ( c.  90  – c.  CE 168 ), those of the Greek geographer Strabo (64/63 BCE – c.  24 CE ), and also in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea . After the Sangam age, most of present-day Tamil Nadu, including Madurai, came under

13677-431: The international market spot price of a seemingly more profitable crop (for example palm oil ) surges in relation to rubber. For instance, during the 2020 and 2021 international COVID-19 pandemic , demand for rubber gloves surged, leading to a spike in rubber prices of about 30%. In addition to the pandemic, demand exceeded supply in part because long term plantations had been torn out and replaced with other crops over

13818-402: The latex would anyway have coagulated by the time it reached the factory, the smallholder will coagulate it by any means available, in any container available. Some smallholders use small containers, buckets etc., but often the latex is coagulated in holes in the ground, which are usually lined with plastic sheeting. Acidic materials and fermented fruit juices are used to coagulate the latex –

13959-434: The latex-carrying vessels of the tree become blocked. It is of higher purity and of greater value than the other three types. 'Cup lumps' can also be used to describe a completely different type of coagulate that has collected in smallholder plantations over a period of 1–2 weeks. After tapping all of the trees, the tapper will return to each tree and stir in some type of acid, which allows the newly harvested latex to mix with

14100-416: The latex. There is growing concern for the future supply of rubber due to various factors, including plant disease, climate change, and the volatile market price of rubber. Producers of natural rubber are mostly small family-held plantations, often serving large industrial aggregators. High volatility in the price of rubber affects rubber plantation investment, and farmers may remove their rubber trees if

14241-443: The liquid "field latex" at about midday. The four types of field coagula are "cuplump", "treelace", "smallholders' lump", and "earth scrap". Each has significantly different properties. Some trees continue to drip after the collection leading to a small amount of "cup lump" that is collected at the next tapping. The latex that coagulates on the cut is also collected as "tree lace". Tree lace and cup lump together account for 10%–20% of

14382-399: The material is finely divided by shredding prior to its immersion. An ammonia solution can be used to prevent the coagulation of raw latex. Rubber begins to melt at approximately 180 °C (356 °F). On a microscopic scale, relaxed rubber is a disorganized cluster of erratically changing wrinkled chains. In stretched rubber, the chains are almost linear. The restoring force is due to

14523-563: The middle of the 18th century. In 1801, Madurai came under the direct control of the British East India Company and was annexed to the Madras Presidency . The British government made donations to the Meenakshi temple and participated in the Hindu festivals during the early part of their rule. The city evolved as a political and industrial complex through the 19th and 20th centuries to become

14664-418: The most produced items by these industries. Automobile manufacturers are the major consumers of rubber components produced in the city. There are numerous textile, granite and chemical industries operating in Madurai. Kashmir gold granite and Kashmir white granite are the trade names of two types of granite produced in Madurai. Madurai is promoted as a tier II city for IT and Industry . Kappalur which

14805-576: The municipality are devolved into six departments: General, Engineering, Revenue, Public Health, Town planning, and the Computer Wing. All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner, who is the supreme executive head. The legislative powers are vested in a body of 100 members, one each from the 100 wards. The legislative body is headed by an elected Mayor assisted by a Deputy Mayor. The corporation received several awards in 2008 for implementing development works. The city of Madurai

14946-455: The organic compound isoprene , with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Thailand , Malaysia , Indonesia , and Cambodia are four of the leading rubber producers. Types of polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are classified as elastomers . Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in the form of the latex from the Pará rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ) or others. The latex

15087-520: The other six abodes of the Hindu god Murugan, is located atop the Solaimalai hill. Thiruparankundram is a hill 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) away from Madurai, where the Hindu god Murugan is believed to have married Deivanai. The temple is the first among the six holy abodes of Murugan, the Arupadai Veedu , literally "Six Battle Camps", and one of the most visited tourist spots in Madurai. The temple has

15228-512: The period 1891 to 1896, when no elections were held due to violent factionalism. During the early years of independent India, the Madurai municipality was dominated by reformists of the Indian National Congress . Madurai was upgraded to a municipal corporation on 1 May 1971 as per the Madurai City Municipal Corporation Act, 1971. It is the second oldest municipal corporation in Tamil Nadu, after Chennai. The functions of

15369-415: The plains of South India and contains several mountain spurs. The soil type in central Madurai is predominantly clay loam, while red loam and black cotton types are widely prevalent in the outer fringes of the city. Paddy is the major crop, followed by pulses, millet, oil seed, cotton and sugarcane. As is typical for Tamil Nadu, Madurai has a hot semi-arid climate ( BSh ), although it borders closely upon

15510-561: The plantation expanded to Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Today, India is the world's 3rd largest producer and 4th largest consumer of rubber. In Singapore and Malaya, commercial production was heavily promoted by Sir Henry Nicholas Ridley , who served as the first Scientific Director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens from 1888 to 1911. He distributed rubber seeds to many planters and developed

15651-589: The preparation of dry rubber or transferred into air-tight containers with sieving for ammoniation. Ammoniation, invented by patent lawyer and vice-president of the United States Rubber Company Ernest Hopkinson around 1920, preserves the latex in a colloidal state for longer periods of time. Latex is generally processed into either latex concentrate for manufacture of dipped goods or coagulated under controlled, clean conditions using formic acid. The coagulated latex can then be processed into

15792-400: The preponderance of wrinkled conformations over more linear ones. For the quantitative treatment see ideal chain , for more examples see entropic force . Cooling below the glass transition temperature permits local conformational changes but a reordering is practically impossible because of the larger energy barrier for the concerted movement of longer chains. "Frozen" rubber's elasticity

15933-422: The previously coagulated material. The rubber/acid mixture is what gives rubber plantations, markets, and factories a strong odor. Tree lace is the coagulum strip that the tapper peels off the previous cut before making a new cut. It usually has higher copper and manganese contents than cup lump. Both copper and manganese are pro-oxidants and can damage the physical properties of the dry rubber. Smallholders' lump

16074-420: The rubber fig ( Ficus elastica ), Panama rubber tree ( Castilla elastica ), various spurges ( Euphorbia spp.), lettuce ( Lactuca species), the related Scorzonera tau-saghyz , various Taraxacum species, including common dandelion ( Taraxacum officinale ) and Kazakh dandelion, and, perhaps most importantly for its hypoallergenic properties, guayule ( Parthenium argentatum ). The term gum rubber

16215-602: The rule of the Kalabhra dynasty , which was ousted by the Pandyas around 590 CE. The Pandyas were ousted from Madurai by the Chola dynasty during the early 9th century. The city was fought over between the Cholas and the Pandyas during the 12th century, changing hands several times, until the early 13th century, when the second Pandyan empire was established with Madurai as its capital. After

16356-566: The same quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees . In the wild types of dandelion, latex content is low and varies greatly. In Nazi Germany , research projects tried to use dandelions as a base for rubber production, but failed. In 2013, by inhibiting one key enzyme and using modern cultivation methods and optimization techniques, scientists in the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME) in Germany developed

16497-401: The same variety of tree or shrub sheltering the presiding deity. The region is believed to have been covered with Kadamba forest and hence called Kadambavanam. The city is referred by various names including "Madurai", "Koodal", "Malligai Maanagar", "Naanmadakoodal" and "Thirualavai". It is believed that Madurai is the derivative of the word Marutham , which refers to the type of landscape of

16638-408: The sanctum of the main deities. The temple is a significant symbol for Tamils and has been mentioned since antiquity in Tamil literature , though the present structure was built between 1623 and 1655 CE. The temple attracts 15,000 visitors a day and around 25,000 during Fridays. There are an estimated 33,000 sculptures in the temple. Koodal Azhagar Temple is a historic Hindu temple located on

16779-492: The second lowest crime rate at 169.1 of all the cities in Tamil Nadu. The city is also the seat of a bench of the Madras High Court , one of only a few outside the state capitals of India. It started functioning in July 2004. The National Highways NH 7 , NH 45B , NH 208 and NH 49 pass through Madurai. The state highways passing through the city are SH-32, SH-33 and SH-72, which connect various parts of Madurai district. Madurai

16920-619: The south side of the Vaigai River in Madurai, which is one of the most prominent landmarks of the city. The temple is dedicated to Maha Vishnu . It has idols of the Navagraha (nine planet deities), which are otherwise found only in Shiva temples. the temple is glorified in the Naalayira Divya Prabandham , the early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It

17061-454: The species is now pan-tropical. This species is preferred because it grows well under cultivation. A properly managed tree responds to wounding by producing more latex for several years. Congo rubber , formerly a major source of rubber, which motivated the atrocities in the Congo Free State , came from vines in the genus Landolphia ( L. kirkii , L. heudelotis , and L. owariensis ). Dandelion milk contains latex. The latex exhibits

17202-455: The state government, provides agricultural education to aspirants in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu. All India Institutes of Medical Sciences , a premier medical institution, is also under construction in Madurai and will cover 224 acres (910,000 m ) of land, at an estimated cost of ₹ 1,264 crore (US$ 150 million), and additionally allotted ₹ 736 crore (US$ 88 million) total around ₹ 2,000 crore (US$ 240 million) in

17343-475: The sub-urban Thoppur Madurai district. There are a total of 369 primary, secondary and higher secondary schools in the city. Madurai was traditionally an agrarian society, with rice paddies as the main crop. Cotton crop cultivation in the regions with black soil in Madurai district was introduced during the Nayaka rule during the 16th century to increase the revenue from agriculture. The paddy fields cultivated in

17484-450: The subsequently of part of the city into the Theni district in 1997. The compounded annual growth rate dropped from 4.10 per cent during 1971–81 to 1.27 per cent during 1991–2004. The municipality of Madurai was constituted on 1 November 1866 as per the Town Improvement Act of 1865. The municipality was headed by a chairperson and elections were regularly conducted for the post except during

17625-564: The synthetic rate decreases with complete removal. More than 28 million tons of rubber were produced in 2017, of which approximately 47% was natural. Since the bulk is synthetic, which is derived from petroleum, the price of natural rubber is determined, to a large extent, by the prevailing global price of crude oil. Asia was the main source of natural rubber, accounting for about 90% of output in 2021. The three largest producers, Thailand , Indonesia, and Malaysia, together account for around 72% of all natural rubber production. Natural rubber

17766-513: The temple during the 16th century. The Kallalagar temple , Alagar Koyil , is a celebrated Vishnu temple 21 kilometres (13 mi) northeast of Madurai situated at the foothills of Solaimalai. The deity, Kallazhagar, is believed to be the brother of Meenakshi and worshiped by Meenakshi, the presiding deity at the Meenakshi temple. The festival calendars of these two temples overlap during the Meenakshi Thirukalyanam festival. The temple

17907-431: The temple. Viswanatha Nayak (1529–64 CE), the first Madurai Nayak king, redesigned the city in accordance with the principles laid out by Shilpa Shastras (Sanskrit: śilpa śāstra , also anglicised as silpa sastra meaning rules of architecture) related to urban planning. These squares retain their traditional names of Aadi, Chittirai, Avani-moola and Masi streets, corresponding to the Tamil month names and also to

18048-435: The terminal high-energy pyrophosphate. The reaction produces a cis polymer. The initiation step is catalyzed by prenyltransferase , which converts three monomers of isopentenyl pyrophosphate into farnesyl pyrophosphate . The farnesyl pyrophosphate can bind to rubber transferase to elongate a new rubber polymer. The required isopentenyl pyrophosphate is obtained from the mevalonate pathway, which derives from acetyl-CoA in

18189-507: The three Tamil Sangams held at Madurai. Naanmadakoodal, meaning the junction of four towers, refers to the four major temples for which Madurai was known for. The sangam literature mentions the Koodal Azhagar temple at the centre of the city. Historians are of the opinion that Koodal Azhagar temple finds mention in Sangam literature (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE) in works like Madurai Kanchi by Mangudi Marudan, Paripāṭal , Kaliththokai and Silappatikaram . Madurai Kanchi details

18330-440: The total population, much higher than the national average of 15.05 per cent. The increase in growth rate to 50 per cent from 1971 to 1981 is due to the city's upgrade to a municipal corporation in 1974 and the subsequent inclusion of 13 Panchayats into the corporation limits. The decline in the population growth rate between 1981 and 2001 is due to the bifurcation of Madurai district into two, Madurai and Dindigul in 1984, and

18471-762: The university in and around the city, consisting of autonomous colleges, aided colleges, self-financing colleges, constituent colleges, evening colleges and other approved institutions. There are seven polytechnical schools and five Industrial training institutes (ITIs) in Madurai, with the Government ITI and the Government Polytechnic for Women being the most prominent of them all. There are two government medical institutes in Madurai, Madurai Medical College and Homoeopathic Medical College, Thirumangalam and 11 paramedical institutes. There are fifteen engineering colleges in Madurai affiliated to Anna University , with

18612-453: The way of the growing crystallites . Crystallization has occurred, for example, when, after days, an inflated toy balloon is found withered at a relatively large remaining volume. Where it is touched, it shrinks because the temperature of the hand is enough to melt the crystals. Vulcanization of rubber creates di- and polysulfide bonds between chains, which limits the degrees of freedom and results in chains that tighten more quickly for

18753-616: The winter season. Being equidistant from mountains and the sea, it experiences similar monsoon pattern with Northeast monsoon and Southwest monsoon , with the former providing more rain during October to December. The average annual rainfall for the Madurai district is about 85.76 cm. Temperatures during summer generally reach a maximum of 42 °C or 107.6 °F and a minimum of 26.3 °C or 79.3 °F, although temperatures up to 43 °C or 109.4 °F are not uncommon. Winter temperatures range between 29.6 °C or 85.3 °F and 18 °C or 64.4 °F. A study based on

18894-442: The world. As the cost of natural rubber has risen significantly and rubber products are dense, the shipping methods offering the lowest cost per unit weight are preferred. Depending on destination, warehouse availability, and transportation conditions, some methods are preferred by certain buyers. In international trade, latex rubber is mostly shipped in 20-foot ocean containers. Inside the container, smaller containers are used to store

19035-459: Was 81.95%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. The urban agglomeration of Madurai had a population of 1,465,625, and is the third largest in Tamil Nadu and the 31st in India. According to the religious census of 2011, Madurai had 85.83% Hindus , 8.54% Muslims , 5.18% Christians and 0.47% others. Tamil is the main language, and the standard dialect is the Madurai Tamil dialect, and

19176-468: Was a rubber solvent . Giovanni Fabbroni is credited with the discovery of naphtha as a rubber solvent in 1779. Charles Goodyear redeveloped vulcanization in 1839, although Mesoamericans had used stabilized rubber for balls and other objects as early as 1600 BC. South America remained the main source of latex rubber used during much of the 19th century. The rubber trade was heavily controlled by business interests but no laws expressly prohibited

19317-449: Was believed that a divine force would cause the work of superior merit to float on the surface, while the inferior ones would sink. The American College is the oldest college in Madurai, and was established in 1881 by American Christian missionaries. The Lady Doak College , established in 1948, is the oldest women's college in Madurai. Thiagarajar College (established in 1949), Madura College (established in 1889), Fatima College

19458-736: Was first called 'india rubber,' because it came from the Indies, and the earliest European use of it was to rub out or erase. It is now called India rubber because it rubs out or erases the Indians." In India , commercial cultivation was introduced by British planters, although the experimental efforts to grow rubber on a commercial scale were initiated as early as 1873 at the Calcutta Botanical Garden . The first commercial Hevea plantations were established at Thattekadu in Kerala in 1902. In later years

19599-518: Was later used by the Maya and Aztec cultures: in addition to making balls, Aztecs used rubber for other purposes, such as making containers and to make textiles waterproof by impregnating them with the latex sap. Charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with introducing samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736. In 1751, he presented a paper by François Fresneau to

19740-561: Was started on 15 August 1975. Direct-to-home cable television services are provided by DD Direct Plus and other private service providers. Electricity supply to the city is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). The city is the headquarters of the Madurai region of TNEB and along with its suburbs, forms the Madurai Metro Electricity Distribution Circle, which

19881-494: Was to secure a bride for Prince Vijaya. The Pandyan King of Madurai agreed to the proposal. He not only sent his own daughter to marry Prince Vijaya but also requested other families to offer their daughters to marry the prince's ministers and retainers. So, along with the Princess and hundreds of maidens, craftsmen and a thousand families from the eighteen guilds were also sent to Sri Lanka. Madurai has been inhabited since at least

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