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64-553: In Avesta, Kay Khosrow has the epithet of 𐬀𐬭𐬱𐬀 𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬀𐬥𐬄𐬨 𐬛𐬀𐬒 𐬌𐬌𐬎𐬥𐬄𐬨 arša airiianąm dax́ iiunąm , meaning "stallion of the Aryan lands". According to Avesta, Kay Khosrow had a son called Āxrūra. Kay Khosrow sacrificed for Anahita in Lake Chichast for winning a chariot race. He killed Afrasiyab in Lake Chichast as revenge for Siavash who had been killed by Aγraēraθa, son of Naru. In Pahlavi texts, his name

128-506: A Persian , son of a Persian, and an Arya, of Arya lineage". This expression has been interpreted as outward going circles of kinship , beginning with the inner clan (Achaemenids), then the tribe (Persians) and finally the outmost nation (Arya). However, Arya in this phrase has also been interpreted as expressing a connection to the cultural and religious traditions of the Aryas of the Avesta. During

192-421: A "pre-Middle Persian," or "post-Old Persian." Old Persian subsequently evolved into Middle Persian , which is in turn the ancestor of New Persian . Professor Gilbert Lazard , a famous Iranologist and the author of the book Persian Grammar , states: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as

256-503: A close connection between the political and religious sphere. The Sassanian period also saw the emergence of Arya as a political term in the form of Eran ( 𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭 ‎, ērān ) and Eran Shahr ( 𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩 ‎, ērān šahr ). Here, Shahr ( 𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩 ‎, šahr ) goes back to Avestan Kshatra ( 𐬑𐬱𐬀𐬚𐬭𐬀 , xšaθra ) with the meaning rule, dominion or control. Eran already appears under Ardashir I as Shahan Shah Eran (King of Kings of

320-526: A common creation myth through the primordial man Gayomart , a shared history through the Pishdadian and Kayanian dynasties, a pronounced in-group and out-group dichotomy through the enmity between the Turyas and Aryas, as well as a shared religious practice through the worship of Ahura Mazda ; elements which are not found in other Indo-Iranian groups. Likewise, Elton L. Daniel notes how "many customs of

384-602: A continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan , Parthian , Soghdian , Kurdish , Pashto , etc., Old, Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars and

448-569: A dream, in which a Sorush tells about Kay Khosrow to him. Only Giv can bring the child back to Iran. After seven years of searching for Kay Khosrow, he finally finds him and brings him back together with his mother, Farangis. The Cup of Jamshid or, in reality, the Cup of Kay Khosrow (Cup of Djemscheed or Jaam-e Jam, or cup of Kay Khosrow in Persian: جام جم) is a cup of divination which, in Persian mythology ,

512-523: A few changes in the shape of characters during the period it was used. This can be seen as a standardization of the heights of wedges, which in the beginning (i.e. in DB ) took only half the height of a line. The following phonemes are expressed in the Old Persian script: Notes: Lycian 𐊋𐊆𐊈𐊈𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀 Kizzaprñna ~ 𐊈𐊆𐊖𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀 Zisaprñna for (genuine) Old Persian *Ciçafarnā (besides

576-504: A good chronology but only an approximate geographical indication of what seem to be ancient Persians. In these records of the 9th century BCE, Parsuwash (along with Matai , presumably Medians) are first mentioned in the area of Lake Urmia in the records of Shalmaneser III . The exact identity of the Parsuwash is not known for certain, but from a linguistic viewpoint the word matches Old Persian pārsa itself coming directly from

640-758: A limited revival of Iranian culture, as the Arsacid ruling dynasty had an overall cosmopolitan approach and patronized both Iranian and Hellenistic elements. Consequently, the main reference to the ethnonym Arya during the Parthian period is found in Bactria , which was not part of their empire. In the Rabatak inscription , Arya is used as the name of the Bactrian language , showing its continued use as an umbrella term for Iranian languages . This linguistic aspect of Arya, therefore, parallels

704-573: A result, the qualifier Eran became increasingly interpreted as an actual place name , i.e., expressions like Shahan Shah Eran and Shahan Shah Eran Shahr became King of Kings of Eran and King of Kings of the Dominion of Eran , respectively. After the Islamic conquest of Iran , Arya and its derivatives fell out of use, possibly due to their perceived connotation with the Zoroastrian religion. However,

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768-510: A revival during the Iranian Renaissance , now as a toponym for Greater Iran . The modern ethnonym Iranian is a back-formation from the toponym Eran, itself a back-formation from the older Arya. The term Arya in different Iranian languages is assumed to derive from an unattested Proto-Iranian Áryah , itself derived from Proto-Indo-Iranian Áryas . As an ethnonym, it is also found in other Indo-Iranian peoples . In Ancient India,

832-506: A sculptured figure of myself I made. Also, the analysis of certain Old Persian inscriptions are "supposed or claimed" to predate Darius the Great. Although it is true that the oldest attested Old Persian inscriptions are found on the Behistun monument from Darius, the creation of this "new type of writing" seems, according to Schmitt, "to have begun already under Cyrus the Great ". The script shows

896-412: A somewhat confusing and inconsistent look: 'horse,' for instance, is [attested in Old Persian as] both asa (OPers.) and aspa (Med.)." Old Persian texts were written from left to right in the syllabic Old Persian cuneiform script and had 36 phonetic characters and 8 logograms . The usage of logograms is not obligatory. The script was surprisingly not a result of evolution of the script used in

960-576: A tribe called Parsuwash , who arrived in the Iranian Plateau early in the 1st millennium BCE and finally migrated down into the area of present-day Fārs province . Their language, Old Persian, became the official language of the Achaemenid kings. Assyrian records, which in fact appear to provide the earliest evidence for ancient Iranian (Persian and Median) presence on the Iranian Plateau, give

1024-496: Is a direct descendant of Middle and Old Persian. Old Persian "presumably" has a Median language substrate . The Median element is readily identifiable because it did not share in the developments that were peculiar to Old Persian. Median forms "are found only in personal or geographical names [...] and some are typically from religious vocabulary and so could in principle also be influenced by Avestan ." "Sometimes, both Median and Old Persian forms are found, which gave Old Persian

1088-415: Is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran. Middle Persian , also sometimes called Pahlavi, is a direct continuation of Old Persian and was used as the written official language of the country. Comparison of the evolution at each stage of the language shows great simplification in grammar and syntax. However, New Persian

1152-532: Is from the Behistun Inscriptions . Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages which are attested in original texts. The oldest date of use of Old Persian as a spoken language is not precisely known. According to certain historical assumptions about the early history and origin of ancient Persians in Southwestern Iran (where Achaemenids hailed from), Old Persian was originally spoken by

1216-437: Is mentioned as Kay Husrōy. According to Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr , he was born in the city of Samarkand , a city founded by his paternal grandfather, Kay Kavus . Kay Khosrow founded the fire of Warahrān (Persian: Bahram) in the city of Samarkand, and reinstalled another fire by the name of Karkōy in the city of Zarang , which was extinguished. According to Menog-i Khrad , Kay Khosrow ruled over Iran for 60 years, and then handed

1280-599: Is rendered in Elamite as Mirkānu- , rendering transcriptions such as V(a)rakāna , Varkāna or even Vurkāna questionable and making Vrkāna or Virkāna much more realistic (and equally for vrka- "wolf", Brdiya and other Old Persian words and names with syllabic /r/ ). While v usually became /v/ in Middle Persian, it became /b/ word-initially in New Persian, except before [u] (including

1344-576: Is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of the Sasanian Empire ). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as ariya (Iranian). Old Persian is close to both Avestan and the language of the Rig Veda , the oldest form of the Sanskrit language. All three languages are highly inflected . Old Persian appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets and seals of

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1408-632: Is used as an umbrella term for a number of eastern regions centered on northern Afghanistan and Tajikistan . The Avesta also refers several times to the Airyanam Dahyunam ( airiianąm dahyunąm , Aryas' lands ). In the Fravardin Yasht, these lands are contrasted with the lands of the Turyas, Sairimas, Dahas and Sainus. The Turyas are the Turanians from later legends and are typically located beyond

1472-446: Is worried about his kingship. He asks Piran to bring the child before him to test his cleverness in order to see if he can be a threat. Piran advises Kay Khosrow to answer all of the questions backward. Convinced that Khosrow is just an idiot, Afrasiyab orders Piran to send him to his mother who lives in the city of Siyavashgerd, which was founded by his father. Meanwhile, in Iran, Gudarz sees

1536-589: The Achaemenid era ( c.  600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in what is now Iran , Romania ( Gherla ), Armenia , Bahrain , Iraq , Turkey and Egypt , with the most important attestation by far being the contents of the Behistun Inscription (dated to 525 BCE). In 2007, research into the vast Persepolis Fortification Archive at the Oriental Institute at

1600-806: The Eurasian steppe during the Middle Bronze Age . They are connected with the Andronovo and Sintashta archeological cultures . Already during the Late Bronze Age, the Indo-Iranian unity began to split and during antiquity a number of culturally distinct Indo-Iranian subgroups had emerged. There is no generally accepted terminology in modern scholarship that fully captures this situation, but those Indo-Iranian tribes that migrated into India are generally referred to as Indo-Aryans . However, subgroupings for

1664-586: The Median form *Ciθrafarnah ) = Tissaphernes suggests /t͡s/ as the pronunciation of ç (compare [1] and Kloekhorst 2008, p. 125 in [2] for this example, who, however, mistakenly writes Çiçafarnā , which contradicts the etymology [ PIIr. *Čitra-swarnas- ] and the Middle Persian form Čehrfar [ ç gives Middle Persian s ]). The phoneme /l/ does not occur in native Iranian vocabulary, only in borrowings from Akkadian (a new /l/ develops in Middle Persian from Old Persian /rd/ and

1728-739: The Oxus river . The Sairimas have been connected to the Sarmatians and Sauromatians based on linguistic similarities. Likewise, the Dahas may be related to Dahaes or to the Dasas known from the Vedas . The identity of the Sainus, however, is unknown. In general, scholars assume that these ethnonyms refer to Iranic steppe nomads living in the Eurasian steppe to the north. An Iranic identity of these groups may be remembered in

1792-618: The Pahlavi dynasty , issued a decree that changed the name , used for international correspondance, from Persia to Iran. His successor Mohammad Reza Pahlavi officially used of the title of Aryamehr ( Persian : آریامهر , light of the Arya s), making it the first time since the Sassanian period that the ethnonym Arya was used. Old Persian language Old Persian is one of two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan ) and

1856-582: The University of Chicago unearthed Old Persian tablets, which suggest Old Persian was a written language in use for practical recording and not only for royal display. As a written language , Old Persian is attested in royal Achaemenid inscriptions. It is an Iranian language and as such a member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family . The oldest known text written in Old Persian

1920-510: The conquest of Alexander the Great , after which Greater Iran became part of the Hellenistic world . This substantially increased the knowledge of Greek authors of those eastern regions. The Greek polymath Eratosthenes describes those regions in a his Гεωγραϕικά ( Geographika ). The work is now lost but cited by the historian and geographer Strabo in his Geographica . In those books, Erasthothenes and Strabo (Strab. 15.2.8) identify

1984-608: The "hero of the Aryas" ( arša airiianąm ), eventually manages to kill Franrasyan with the help of "all the Aryas" at the "white forest" ( vīspe.aire.razuraya . These stories and its characters occur prominently in many later Iranian texts like the Bahman-nameh , the Borzu Nama , the Darab-nama , and the Kush Nama . However, their most significant impact comes from forming the core

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2048-590: The 5th century BCE for most of the texts unlikely. Most scholars, therefore, assume that the bulk of the Old Avestan material reflects the end of the second millenium BCE and the Young Avestan portion reflects the first half of the first millenium BCE. The Old Avestan portion of the text, assumed to be authored by Zarathustra and his immediate followers, only contains a reference to Airyaman , which has an unclear connection to Arya. The Young Avestan portion of

2112-449: The 9th century saw a revival of Iranian national sentiment , with a number of local Iranian dynasties coming to power. During this time, both Eran and Eran Shahr saw a resurgence, but were now generally understood as purely geographical terms. This can be seen above all in the emergence of Persian ایرانی ‎ ( irâni , Iranian), as a back formation from ایران ‎ ( irân , Iran). Persian irâni , therefore, replaced

2176-626: The Acheamenid period, we also get the first outside perspective on the ethnonym. In his Histories , Herodotus provides a number of information on the Medes . Herodotus reports that, in the past, the Medes used to be called Arioi , i.e., Aryas. He also names the Arizantoi as one of the six tribes composing the Medes. This is interpreted as * arya-zantu ('of Arya lineage'). The Acheamenid empire ended with

2240-555: The Aryas), whereas Shahan Shah Eran Shahr (King of Kings of the Dominion of the Aryas) appears in Kartir's inscription at Naqsh-e Rajab and several royal inscriptions starting with Shapur I and continuing with his successors. Initially, the term Eran was still understood to be the genetive plural of ēr with the case ending -ān . However, Middle Persian saw the gradual loss of case endings and their replacement with particles . As

2304-454: The Avesta, the ethnonym Arya qualifies a number of toponyms, most prominently Airyanem Vaejah ( airiianəm vaēǰō , the Arya expanse). This place name appears in a number of mythical passages but may also refer to a real-world place depending on the context. The toponym Aryoshayana ( airiio.shaiianem , place where the Aryas dwell) appears only one time in the Mihr Yasht . In this text, it

2368-520: The Avestan people seem to have been almost deliberately designed to reinforce a sense of identity as a people apart from the non-Aryans and even other Aryans ." The Avesta , i.e., the collection of canonical texts of Zoroastrianism , provides the single largest literary source on the Old Iranian period. As regards the geographical boundaries of the Avesta, the place names show that the Aryas lived in

2432-542: The Cup were said to reveal deep truths. Sometimes, especially in popular depictions such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan , the cup is visualized as a crystal ball . Helen Zimmern's English translation of the Shahnameh uses the term "crystal globe". Arya (Iran) Arya ( Avestan : 𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬀 , airiia ; Old Persian : 𐎠𐎼𐎡𐎹 , ariyaʰ ; Middle Persian : 𐭠𐭩𐭫 ‎ , er ; Parthian : 𐭀𐭓𐭉 ‎ , ary ; Bactrian : αρια , aria )

2496-458: The Iranian national epic , the Shahnameh , thus becoming a crucial element of Iranian identity. During the Achaemenid period , the first epigraphically attested references to the ethnonym Arya appear. By the late 6th–early 5th century BCE, the Achaemenid kings Darius the Great and his son Xerxes I produced a number of inscriptions in which they use the term. In those inscriptions, Arya has linguistic, ethnic and religious connotations. In

2560-467: The Middle Iranian period, it acquired a distinct political aspect through the concept of Eran Shahr ( Aryas' dominion ). Arya was also contrasted with Anarya ( Avestan : 𐬀𐬥𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬀 , anairiia ; Middle Persian : 𐭠𐭭𐭩𐭥 ‎ , aner ), denoting non-Iranian lands and peoples. After the Islamic conquest of Iran , the ethnonym fell out of use, but the term Eran experienced

2624-459: The Pre-Islamic Arya and its derivatives as the ethnonym of the Iranian peoples and became the origin of English Iranian and its cognates in other Western languages. The modern period in the history of Iran saw the rise of Iranian nationalism and with it a renewed focus on the ancient national past of the pre-Islamic Iran . This became institutionalized when in 1935 Reza Shah , founder of

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2688-497: The attempts of the Turyas and their mythical King Franrasyan to acquire the Khvarenah of the Aryas ( airiianąm xᵛarənō ). The fighting between the two peoples stops for some time when Erekhsha ( Ǝrəxša ) , described as the "most swift-arrowed of the Aryas" ( xšviwi išvatəmō airiianąm ), manages to shoot an arrow as far as the Oxus river , which from then on marks the border between Iran and Turan. Kavi Xosrau , described as

2752-481: The change of /rθ/ to /hl/ ). The phoneme /r/ can also form a syllable peak; both the way Persian names with syllabic /r/ (such as Brdiya ) are rendered in Elamite and its further development in Middle Persian suggest that before the syllabic /r/ , an epenthetic vowel [i] had developed already in the Old Persian period, which later became [u] after labials. For example, Old Persian Vᵃ-rᵃ-kᵃ-a-nᵃ /wr̩kaːna/

2816-451: The consensus difficult are, among others, the difficult passage DB (IV lines 88–92) from Darius the Great who speaks of a new "form of writing" being made by himself which is said to be "in Aryan ": King Darius says: By the grace of Ahuramazda this is the inscription which I have made. Besides, it was in Aryan (" ariyâ ") script, and it was composed on clay tablets and on parchment. Besides,

2880-542: The country of Ariana , i.e., the country of the Aryas. Ariana covers most of eastern Greater Iran and coincides to a significant degree with the area delineated in the Avesta . In his Bibliotheca historica , the ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus names Zarathustra as one of the Arianoi . The Parthian period saw the Iranian Parthians gain control over most of Greater Iran. This did, however, only lead to

2944-429: The daughter of Turanian king Afrasiab, after a brief encounter with her in the border of Iran and Turan. Manizheh clandestinely brought him to the palace of her father, and when Afrasiab found out he threw Bizhan into a pit and expelled Manizheh from the castle. Everyone in Iran thought that Bizhan was dead except for Kay Khosrow who saw him alive in the Cup. Kay Khosrow then sent Rostam to rescue Bizhan. The cup ("Jām")

3008-453: The eastern portions of Greater Iran . As regards its chronology, the different parts of the text are assumed to have been produced, revised and redacted over a long period of time and therefore reflect a large time span of possibly several centuries. There are no dateable events in the Avesta, but the complete lack of any discernible influence by the Persians or Medes makes a time frame after

3072-408: The epenthetic vowel mentioned above), where it became /ɡ/ . This suggests that it was really pronounced as [w] . Old Persian has 3 types of grammatical number: singular, dual and plural. Old Persian has three grammatical genders : masculine, feminine and neuter. In contrast, Modern Persian (as well as Middle Persian ) is a genderless language . Old Persian stems: Adjectives are declined in

3136-505: The individual Iranophone groups vary in the literature. A common demarcation is based on the cultural and religious differences that developed between the groups which maintained their mobile, pastoral lifestyle in the Eurasian steppe and those groups which moved southward into Greater Iran and underwent a process of sedentarization and cultural change . The former are sometimes referred to as Iranic, i.e., speaking an Iranian language, while

3200-622: The influential Zoroastrian high priest Kartir on one side and a number of Sassanian kings on the other side. Arya appears in Middle Persian as 𐭠𐭩𐭫 ‎ ( er ) and in Parthian as 𐭀𐭓𐭉 ‎ ( ary ), most prominently in Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht . In this inscription and on a number of coins by Bahram II , Arya appears jointly with the term Mazdayasna , indicating

3264-407: The large family of Indo-European languages . The common ancestors of Indo-Iranians came from Central Asia sometime in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE . The extinct and unattested Median language is another Old Iranian language related to Old Persian; both are classified as Western Iranian languages , and many Median names appear in Old Persian texts. The group of Old Iranian languages

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3328-411: The legends surrounding the mythical king Thraetaona , who divided the world among his three sons: The oldest son Tur (Turya) was given the north and east, the second son Sarm (Sairima) was given the west, and the youngest son Iraj (Arya) was given the south. The Avesta also conveys a clear dichotomy between the Aryas and their enemies, the Turyas, through a number of stories. They center around

3392-492: The nearby civilisation of Mesopotamia . Despite the fact that Old Persian was written in cuneiform script, the script was not a direct continuation of Mesopotamian tradition and in fact, according to Schmitt, was a "deliberate creation of the sixth century BCE". The origin of the Old Persian cuneiform script and the identification of the date and process of introduction are a matter of debate among Iranian scholars with no general agreement having been reached. The factors making

3456-552: The older word *pārćwa . Also, as Old Persian contains many words from another extinct Iranian language, Median , according to P. O. Skjærvø it is probable that Old Persian had already been spoken before the formation of the Achaemenid Empire and was spoken during most of the first half of the first millennium BCE. Old Persian belongs to the Iranian language family , a branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, itself within

3520-469: The one described in Behistun inscription by Darius the Great several centuries earlier. Likewise, Strabo quotes in his Geographika (Strab. 15.2.8) Erasthothenes, who observed that the people of Persia , Media , Sogdia and Bactria all speak nearly the same language. The Sassanian period saw a pronounced resurgence of Iranian culture and religion and its close interaction with political power under

3584-550: The power to the Kay Luhrasp . Kay Khosrow destroyed an idol temple by the Lake Chichast, and at the resurrection, he will collaborate with Saoshyants . Some Islamic era authors such as Hamza al-Isfahani and Ibn Balkhi considered him a prophet. He is the son of Siyavash and Farangis , and when his father was killed by Garsivaz , Kay Khosrow was entrusted by Piran Viseh to some shepherds. Afrasiyab constantly sees dreams and

3648-566: The term Arya ( Sanskrit : आर्य , ārya ) is found as a self designation of the people of the Vedas. On the other hand, no general ethnonym is found among the Iranic steppe nomads , but a derivation of Arya appears as a self designation of the Alans , which attest to the continued presence of the term in the steppe regions as well. The Proto-Indo-Iranian people were mobile pastoralists who lived in

3712-419: The term Iranian may be reserved for groups associated with Iran in a historical and cultural sense. The latter are sometimes further subdivided into Eastern and Western Iranians based on linguistic criteria. A distinct identity of the Arya in Greater Iran is already present in the Avesta , i.e., the collection of sacred texts in Zoroastrianism . Jean Kellens for example notes, how the Avesta describes

3776-443: The text, however, frequently use the term Arya as the endonym of the Avestan people. Next to its singular nominative form ( airiia ), the word appears in the plural ( aire , Aryas ), in the locative singular ( airiiene , place where the Arya ), the locative plural ( airiio , place where the Aryas ), the genetive plural ( airiianąm , Aryas' or of the Aryas ) or as an adjective ( airiianəm , Arya ). In

3840-550: The trilingual ( Old Persian , Akkadian , and Elamite ) Behistun inscription , authored by Darius during his reign (522 – 486 BCE), Old Persian is called Arya, indicating it to be an umbrella term for Iranian languages. Furthermore the Elamite version of the inscription portrays the Zoroastrian supreme god Ahura Mazda as the "god of the Aryas" ( ura-masda naap harriia-naum ). In addition to this linguistic and religious use, Arya also appears on some inscriptions by Darius and Xerxes, where they describe themselves as "an Achaemenid ,

3904-424: Was long possessed by the rulers of ancient Persia. The cup has also been called Jam-e Jahan nama, Jam-e Jahan Ara, Jam-e Giti nama, and Jam-e Kay Khosrow. The latter refers to Kaei Husravah in the Avesta , and Sushravas in the Vedas . This Cup was used just once and by Kay Khosrow in his reign to find where Bizhan was, who had gone to the Turan border for hunting. Bizhan had become romantically involved with Manizheh,

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3968-439: Was presumably large; however, knowledge of it is restricted mainly to Old Persian, Avestan , and Median. The first two are the only languages in that group to have left written original texts, while Median is known mostly from loanwords in Old Persian. By the 4th century BCE, the late Achaemenid period , the inscriptions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III differ enough from the language of Darius' inscriptions to be called

4032-400: Was said to be filled with an elixir of immortality and was used in scrying . As mentioned by Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda , it was believed that one could observe all the seven heavens of the universe by looking into it (از هفت فلک در او مشاهده و معاینه کردی). It was believed to have been discovered in Persepolis in ancient times. The whole world was said to be reflected in it, and divinations within

4096-466: Was the ethnonym used by Iranians during the early History of Iran . In contrast to cognates of Arya used by the Vedic people and Iranic steppe nomads , the term is commonly translated using the modern ethnonym Iranian. During Old Iranian times, the term was connected with one's lineage , with speaking an Iranian language and with the worship of Ahura Mazda . Being an Arya, therefore, had ethnic, linguistic and religious aspects. During

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