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37-578: The Ki-10 was designed by Japanese aeronautical engineer Takeo Doi , who had succeeded Richard Vogt as chief designer for Kawasaki. The design was in response to a requirement issued by the Imperial Japanese Army for a new fighter, and was the winner of a competition against Nakajima 's Ki-11 . Although the low-wing monoplane offered by Nakajima was more advanced, the Army preferred the more maneuverable biplane offered by Kawasaki. In order to overcome

74-463: A Super Imposed Dead Load (SIDL) of around 5 pounds per square foot (psf) accounting for miscellaneous weight such as bolts and other fasteners, cabling, and various fixtures or small architectural elements. Live loads, on the other hand, can be furniture, moveable equipment, or the people themselves, and may increase beyond normal or expected amounts in some situations, so a larger factor of 1.6 attempts to quantify this extra variability. Snow will also use

111-438: A laboratory test method or to the normal usage of a material or structure. Live loads are usually variable or moving loads . These can have a significant dynamic element and may involve considerations such as impact , momentum , vibration , slosh dynamics of fluids, etc. An impact load is one whose time of application on a material is less than one-third of the natural period of vibration of that material. Cyclic loads on

148-416: A maximum factor of 1.6, while lateral loads (earthquakes and wind) are defined such that a 1.0 load factor is practical. Multiple loads may be added together in different ways, such as 1.2*Dead + 1.0*Live + 1.0*Earthquake + 0.2*Snow, or 1.2*Dead + 1.6(Snow, Live(roof), OR Rain) + (1.0*Live OR 0.5*Wind). For aircraft, loading is divided into two major categories: limit loads and ultimate loads. Limit loads are

185-544: A maximum of 853. Though development of this aircraft began in 1988 as a competitor to the 747, the A380 made its first test flight in April 2005. Some of the elements of aerospace engineering are: The basis of most of these elements lies in theoretical physics , such as fluid dynamics for aerodynamics or the equations of motion for flight dynamics . There is also a large empirical component. Historically, this empirical component

222-810: A structure can lead to fatigue damage, cumulative damage, or failure. These loads can be repeated loadings on a structure or can be due to vibration . Imposed loads are those associated with occupation and use of the building; their magnitude is less clearly defined and is generally related to the use of the building. Structural loads are an important consideration in the design of buildings. Building codes require that structures be designed and built to safely resist all actions that they are likely to face during their service life, while remaining fit for use. Minimum loads or actions are specified in these building codes for types of structures, geographic locations, usage and building materials . Structural loads are split into categories by their originating cause. In terms of

259-404: A structure, such as: A load combination results when more than one load type acts on the structure. Building codes usually specify a variety of load combinations together with load factors (weightings) for each load type in order to ensure the safety of the structure under different maximum expected loading scenarios. For example, in designing a staircase , a dead load factor may be 1.2 times

296-444: A structure. Particular mechanical structures—such as aircraft , satellites , rockets , space stations , ships , and submarines —are subject to their own particular structural loads and actions. Engineers often evaluate structural loads based upon published regulations , contracts , or specifications . Accepted technical standards are used for acceptance testing and inspection . In civil engineering , specified loads are

333-408: Is a mechanical load (more generally a force ) applied to structural elements . A load causes stress , deformation , displacement or acceleration in a structure . Structural analysis , a discipline in engineering , analyzes the effects of loads on structures and structural elements. Excess load may cause structural failure , so this should be considered and controlled during the design of

370-544: Is also a dead load. Dead loads are also known as permanent or static loads . Building materials are not dead loads until constructed in permanent position. IS875(part 1)-1987 give unit weight of building materials, parts, components. Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of short duration, or a moving load . These dynamic loads may involve considerations such as impact , momentum , vibration , slosh dynamics of fluids and material fatigue . Live loads, sometimes also referred to as probabilistic loads, include all

407-622: Is similar, but deals with the electronics side of aerospace engineering. "Aeronautical engineering" was the original term for the field. As flight technology advanced to include vehicles operating in outer space , the broader term " aerospace engineering" has come into use. Aerospace engineering, particularly the astronautics branch, is often colloquially referred to as "rocket science". Flight vehicles are subjected to demanding conditions such as those caused by changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature , with structural loads applied upon vehicle components. Consequently, they are usually

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444-606: The Antonov An-225 Mriya cargo aircraft commenced its first flight. It holds the records for the world's heaviest aircraft, heaviest airlifted cargo, and longest airlifted cargo of any aircraft in operational service. On October 25, 2007, the Airbus A380 made its maiden commercial flight from Singapore to Sydney, Australia. This aircraft was the first passenger plane to surpass the Boeing 747 in terms of passenger capacity, with

481-550: The Boeing 747 made its first commercial flight from New York to London. This aircraft made history and became known as the "Jumbo Jet" or "Whale" due to its ability to hold up to 480 passengers. Another significant development came in 1976, with the development of the first passenger supersonic aircraft, the Concorde . The development of this aircraft was agreed upon by the French and British on November 29, 1962. On December 21, 1988,

518-571: The Curtiss JN 4 , Farman F.60 Goliath , and Fokker Trimotor . Notable military airplanes of this period include the Mitsubishi A6M Zero , Supermarine Spitfire and Messerschmitt Bf 109 from Japan, United Kingdom, and Germany respectively. A significant development came with the first operational Jet engine -powered airplane, the Messerschmitt Me 262 which entered service in 1944 towards

555-674: The first American satellite on January 31, 1958. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration was founded in 1958 after the Sputnik crisis . In 1969, Apollo 11 , the first human space mission to the Moon , took place. It saw three astronauts enter orbit around the Moon, with two, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin , visiting the lunar surface. The third astronaut, Michael Collins , stayed in orbit to rendezvous with Armstrong and Aldrin after their visit. An important innovation came on January 30, 1970, when

592-619: The maximum loads a component or structure may carry safely. Ultimate loads are the limit loads times a factor of 1.5 or the point beyond which the component or structure will fail. Gust loads are determined statistically and are provided by an agency such as the Federal Aviation Administration . Crash loads are loosely bounded by the ability of structures to survive the deceleration of a major ground impact . Other loads that may be critical are pressure loads (for pressurized, high-altitude aircraft) and ground loads. Loads on

629-545: The propeller . The initial production version was powered by a liquid-cooled 633 kW (850 hp) Kawasaki Ha9-IIa V-12 . The Ki-10 was deployed in Manchukuo ( Manchuria ) and in the initial campaigns of the Second Sino-Japanese War in northern China . On September 21, 1937, Major Hiroshi Miwa, formerly hired as a military flight instructor for Zhang Xueliang 's Fengtian Army air corps and well known in

666-898: The 28th Pursuit Squadron of the 5th Pursuit Group flying a Curtiss Hawk. By the time of the Nomonhan Incident ( Battles of Khalkhin Gol ) in 1939, the Ki-10 had become largely obsolete, and was being superseded by the Nakajima Ki-27 . At the beginning of the Pacific War , the Ki-10 was retired to training and secondary missions, but later returned to front-line service, performing short-range patrol and reconnaissance missions in Japan proper and China in January–February 1942. data from Japanese Aircraft of

703-509: The Chinese military aviation circles of the time, commanded a flight of 7 Ki-10 fighters of the 1st Daitai-16th Hiko Rentai, on an escort of 14 Mitsubishi Ki-2 bombers to attack the city of Taiyuan where they encountered Chinese air force V-65C Corsairs and Curtiss Hawk IIs , shooting down a few, but Major Miwa himself was shot down and fatally wounded by Captain Chan Kee-Wong, commander of

740-601: The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, or NACA. It was the first government-sponsored organization to support aviation research. Though intended as an advisory board upon inception, the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory became its first sponsored research and testing facility in 1920. Between World Wars I and II, great leaps were made in the field, accelerated by the advent of mainstream civil aviation. Notable airplanes of this era include

777-642: The Pacific War Total production : 588 units Data from Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific War General characteristics Performance Armament Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Aeronautical engineering Aerospace engineering is the primary field of engineering concerned with the development of aircraft and spacecraft . It has two major and overlapping branches: aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering. Avionics engineering

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814-425: The actual load on a structure, there is no difference between dead or live loading, but the split occurs for use in safety calculations or ease of analysis on complex models. To meet the requirement that design strength be higher than maximum loads, building codes prescribe that, for structural design, loads are increased by load factors. These load factors are, roughly, a ratio of the theoretical design strength to

851-407: The aerospace industry. A background in chemistry, physics, computer science and mathematics is important for students pursuing an aerospace engineering degree. The term " rocket scientist " is sometimes used to describe a person of great intelligence since rocket science is seen as a practice requiring great mental ability, especially technically and mathematically. The term is used ironically in

888-456: The aviation pioneers around the late 19th to early 20th centuries, although the work of Sir George Cayley dates from the last decade of the 18th to the mid-19th century. One of the most important people in the history of aeronautics and a pioneer in aeronautical engineering, Cayley is credited as the first person to separate the forces of lift and drag , which affect any atmospheric flight vehicle. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering

925-444: The best estimate of the actual loads a structure is expected to carry. These loads come in many different forms, such as people, equipment, vehicles, wind, rain, snow, earthquakes, the building materials themselves, etc. Specified loads also known as characteristic loads in many cases. Buildings will be subject to loads from various sources. The principal ones can be classified as live loads (loads which are not always present in

962-411: The design of World War I military aircraft. In 1914, Robert Goddard was granted two U.S. patents for rockets using solid fuel, liquid fuel, multiple propellant charges, and multi-stage designs. This would set the stage for future applications in multi-stage propulsion systems for outer space. On March 3, 1915, the U.S. Congress established the first aeronautical research administration, known then as

999-627: The end of the Second World War. The first definition of aerospace engineering appeared in February 1958, considering the Earth's atmosphere and outer space as a single realm, thereby encompassing both aircraft ( aero ) and spacecraft ( space ) under the newly coined term aerospace . In response to the USSR launching the first satellite, Sputnik , into space on October 4, 1957, U.S. aerospace engineers launched

1036-576: The expression "It's not rocket science" to indicate that a task is simple. Strictly speaking, the use of "science" in "rocket science" is a misnomer since science is about understanding the origins, nature, and behavior of the universe; engineering is about using scientific and engineering principles to solve problems and develop new technology. The more etymologically correct version of this phrase would be "rocket engineer". However, "science" and "engineering" are often misused as synonyms. Structural load A structural load or structural action

1073-583: The forces that are variable within the object's normal operation cycle not including construction or environmental loads. Roof and floor live loads are produced during maintenance by workers, equipment and materials, and during the life of the structure by movable objects, such as planters and people. Bridge live loads are produced by vehicles traveling over the deck of the bridge. Environmental loads are structural loads caused by natural forces such as wind, rain, snow, earthquake or extreme temperatures. Engineers must also be aware of other actions that may affect

1110-725: The integration of all components that constitute an aerospace vehicle (subsystems including power, aerospace bearings , communications, thermal control , life support system , etc.) and its life cycle (design, temperature, pressure, radiation , velocity , lifetime ). Aerospace engineering may be studied at the advanced diploma , bachelor's , master's , and Ph.D. levels in aerospace engineering departments at many universities, and in mechanical engineering departments at others. A few departments offer degrees in space-focused astronautical engineering. Some institutions differentiate between aeronautical and astronautical engineering. Graduate degrees are offered in advanced or specialty areas for

1147-460: The maximum load expected in service. They are developed to help achieve the desired level of reliability of a structure based on probabilistic studies that take into account the load's originating cause, recurrence, distribution, and static or dynamic nature. The dead load includes loads that are relatively constant over time, including the weight of the structure itself, and immovable fixtures such as walls, plasterboard or carpet . The roof

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1184-499: The products of various technological and engineering disciplines including aerodynamics , air propulsion , avionics , materials science , structural analysis and manufacturing . The interaction between these technologies is known as aerospace engineering. Because of the complexity and number of disciplines involved, aerospace engineering is carried out by teams of engineers, each having their own specialized area of expertise. The origin of aerospace engineering can be traced back to

1221-502: The speed disadvantage the Kawasaki team used a metal three-blade propeller in the third prototype, while flush-head rivets were used in an attempt to reduce drag. The Kawasaki design had unequal-span biplane wings, braced by struts , and with upper-wing ailerons . The structure was of all-metal construction, which was then fabric-covered. Armament consisted of two 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 89 machine guns , synchronized to fire through

1258-495: The structure), dead loads (loads which are permanent and immovable excepting redesign or renovation) and wind load, as described below. In some cases structures may be subject to other loads, such as those due to earthquakes or pressures from retained material. The expected maximum magnitude of each is referred to as the characteristic load. Dead loads are static forces that are relatively constant for an extended time. They can be in tension or compression . The term can refer to

1295-576: The weight of the structure, and a live load factor may be 1.6 times the maximum expected live load. These two "factored loads" are combined (added) to determine the "required strength" of the staircase. The size of the load factor is based on the probability of exceeding any specified design load. Dead loads have small load factors, such as 1.2, because weight is mostly known and accounted for, such as structural members, architectural elements and finishes, large pieces of mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) equipment, and for buildings, it's common to include

1332-441: Was derived from testing of scale models and prototypes, either in wind tunnels or in the free atmosphere. More recently, advances in computing have enabled the use of computational fluid dynamics to simulate the behavior of the fluid, reducing time and expense spent on wind-tunnel testing. Those studying hydrodynamics or hydroacoustics often obtain degrees in aerospace engineering. Additionally, aerospace engineering addresses

1369-460: Was largely empirical, with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering. Some key elements, like fluid dynamics , were understood by 18th-century scientists. In December 1903, the Wright Brothers performed the first sustained, controlled flight of a powered, heavier-than-air aircraft, lasting 12 seconds. The 1910s saw the development of aeronautical engineering through

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