56-574: Ethnic language Kashmiri Kashmiri Hindus are ethnic Kashmiris who practice Hinduism and are native to the Kashmir Valley of India . With respect to their contributions to Indian philosophy , Kashmiri Hindus developed the tradition of Kashmiri Shaivism . After their exodus from the Kashmir Valley in the wake of the Kashmir insurgency in the 1990s, most Kashmiri Hindus are now settled in
112-561: A monistic Shaiva system called Kashmir Shaivism . After the dawn of the Lohara dynasty , Islam had penetrated into countries outside Kashmir and in the absence of support from Hindus, who were in the majority, Rinchana needed the support of the Kashmiri Muslims. Shah Mir 's coup on Rinchana's successor secured Muslim rule and the rule of his dynasty in Kashmir. The largest community within
168-414: A Hindu Matha and Qutubu'd-Din had held royal yajnas. Sikandar was the great-grandson of Shah Mir; he was the eldest child of Qutubu'd-Din and Queen Sura (var. Subhata), and was born sometime around 1380. Because he was a minor at the time of his father's death—9 August 1389—, his mother had to act as a regent for a while. During her regency, Sura consented to Prime Minister Rai Magre (var. Uddaka), who
224-689: A Kashmiri language movement have been challenged by the scattered nature of the Kashmiri-speaking community in Azad Kashmir. The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India . It was a part of the Eighth Schedule in the former constitution of Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule , as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language
280-399: A rebellion and assassinated Sobha's (Sikandar's first wife) brother before turning against Sikandar with his proteges. The rebellion was ably suppressed with aid from Laddaraja's men without even resorting to warfare and Magre was imprisoned, whence he committed suicide. Palas —probably, a Persian tribe— who aided Magre were brutally suppressed too. In December 1398, Timur had camped on
336-534: A successful war was waged against Firuz, the Hindu Shahi ruler of Ohind (var. Udabhandapura and Sahibhanga) after he refused to recognize Sikandar's suzerainty. Sikandar went on to marry Firuz's daughter Mera whilst giving away one of his daughters from Sobha for marriage to Firuz. Another successful campaign was mounted against Pala Deo (var. Billadeva), the Rajah of Jammu, after he refused to pay taxes; Jasrath Khokhar
392-538: Is a Dardic Indo-Aryan language spoken by around 7 million Kashmiris of the Kashmir region , primarily in the Kashmir Valley and Chenab Valley of the Indian-administrated union territory of Jammu and Kashmir , over half the population of that territory. Kashmiri has split ergativity and the unusual verb-second word order . Since 2020, It has been made an official language of Jammu and Kashmir along with Dogri , Hindi , Urdu and English. Kashmiri
448-437: Is a fusional language with verb-second (V2) word order. Several of Kashmiri's grammatical features distinguish it from other Indo-Aryan languages . Kashmiri nouns are inflected according to gender, number and case. There are no articles , nor is there any grammatical distinction for definiteness , although there is some optional adverbial marking for indefinite or "generic" noun qualities. The Kashmiri gender system
504-588: Is also among the 22 scheduled languages of India. Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five percent of Pakistani-administrated Azad Kashmir 's population. There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India. Most Kashmiri speakers are located in the Kashmir Valley , Chenab valley and other areas of Jammu and Kashmir. In kashmir valley and Chenab valley they form Majority. Kashmiri
560-470: Is distinct from, although still intelligible with, the Kashmiri of the Neelam Valley to the north. In Neelam Valley, Kashmiri is the second most widely spoken language and the majority language in at least a dozen or so villages, where in about half of these, it is the sole mother tongue. The Kashmiri dialect of Neelum is closer to the variety spoken in northern Kashmir Valley, particularly Kupwara . At
616-651: Is divided into masculine and feminine. Feminine forms are typically generated by the addition of a suffix (or in most cases, a morphophonemic change, or both) to a masculine noun. A relatively small group of feminine nouns have unique suppletion forms that are totally different from the corresponding masculine forms. The following table illustrates the range of possible gender forms: دُکاندار دُکانداریٚنؠ Sultan Sikander Shingara , better known as Sultan Sikandar Shah Miri ( Kashmiri : سلطان سِکَندَر شَاہ میٖرِی, Persian : سلطان سکندر شاہ مِیرِی ), also by his sobriquet Sikandar Butshikan ( lit. Sikandar
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#1732852477935672-502: Is epithetized as '' butshikan ", the "idol-breaker." Hasan Ali provides the most detailed narrative. Sikandar commenced the destruction of Hindu and Buddhist shrines till, in the words of Jonaraja, no idol remained, even in the privacy of peoples' homes. Jonaraja mentions temples at Martand (Sun God), Vijayesvara (Shiva), Cakradhara (Vishnu), Suresvari (unknown), Varaha (Vishnu), and Tripuresvara (unknown) to have been destroyed by Sikandar. Hasan Ali adds three temples at Parihaspore ,
728-471: Is pronounced as / t͡s / instead of / ʒ / . However, the vowel inventory of Kashmiri is significantly larger than other Perso-Arabic derived or influenced South Asian Perso-Arabic scripts. There are 17 vowels in Kashmiri, shown with diacritics , letters ( alif , waw , ye ), or both. In Kashmiri, the convention is that most vowel diacritics are written at all times. Despite Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script cutting across religious boundaries and being used by both
784-466: Is recognized as the official script of Kashmiri language by the Jammu and Kashmir government and the Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages . The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script has been derived from Persian alphabet . The consonant inventory and their corresponding pronunciations of Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script doesn't differ from Perso-Arabic script, with the exception of the letter ژ , which
840-541: Is spoken by roughly five percent of Azad Kashmir 's population. According to the 1998 Pakistan Census , there were 132,450 Kashmiri speakers in Azad Kashmir. Native speakers of the language were dispersed in "pockets" throughout Azad Kashmir, particularly in the districts of Muzaffarabad (15%), Neelam (20%) and Hattian (15%), with very small minorities in Haveli (5%) and Bagh (2%). The Kashmiri spoken in Muzaffarabad
896-503: Is understood to have been likely infertile. Sikandar is claimed to have met a prolonged and painful death, seemingly from elephantiasis , in April 1413. After his death, Sikandar's eldest son Mir was anointed as the Sultan, having adopted the title of Ali Shah. Two years later, Mir was succeeded by Shadi Khan, who adopted the name Zain-ul-Abidin . Under Ali Shah's regime, Suhabhatta became
952-406: The 2017 Census of Pakistan , as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri. A process of language shift is observable among Kashmiri-speakers in Azad Kashmir according to linguist Tariq Rahman , as they gradually adopt local dialects such as Pahari-Pothwari , Hindko or move towards the lingua franca Urdu . This has resulted in these languages gaining ground at
1008-735: The Dogra rule . In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir for the first time. Poguli and Kishtwari are closely related to Kashmiri, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri. The people in the Chenab region of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir mainly speak kashmiri but accent and some words are little bit different and they are sometimes referred as Chenabi Kashmiris meaning Kashmiris of Chenab Valley . Kashmiri has
1064-568: The Indian subcontinent . After the seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and Hindu religion. Among notable scholars of this period was Vasugupta ( c. 875–925 CE ) who wrote the Shiva Sutras which laid the foundation for
1120-546: The Jammu division of Jammu and Kashmir and other parts of the country. The largest group of Kashmiri Hindus are the Kashmiri Pandits . During the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became a part of the Maurya Empire and Buddhism was introduced in Kashmir. During this period, many stupas , some shrines dedicated to Shiva , and the city of Srinagari ( Srinagar ) were built. Kanishka (127–151 CE), an emperor of
1176-773: The Kashmiri Hindus and the Kashmiri Muslims , some attempts have been made to give a religious outlook regarding the script and make Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script to be associated with Kashmiri Muslims , while the Kashmiri Devanagari script to be associated with some sections of Kashmiri Hindu community. The Kashmiri language was traditionally written in the Sharada script after the 8th Century A.D. The script grew increasingly unsuitable for writing Kashmiri because it couldn't adequately represent Kashmiri peculiar sounds by
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#17328524779351232-527: The Kushan Empire , conquered Kashmir and established the new city of Kanishkapur. The Karkota dynasty (625–855 CE) ruled over the Kashmir and parts of northern Indian subcontinent and their rule saw political expansion, economic prosperity and emergence of Kashmir as a centre of culture and scholarship. Lalitaditya Muktapida (724–760 CE) was a powerful ruler of the Karkota dynasty of Kashmir region in
1288-526: The 16th century, blamed the poor state of Islam in the valley on Zain. Despite these reverses, the Islamisation of elite politics meant very few caste groups other than Brahmans took the opportunity of re-conversion and a largely irreversible change set-in in post-Sikandar Kashmir. The Hindus receded into relative political unimportance, with Pandit nobles being last prominent in the court of Hasan Shah, Zain's grandson. Nonetheless, Hinduism flourished among
1344-691: The Iconoclast) was the seventh Sultan of Kashmir and a member of Shah Mir dynasty who ruled from 1389 until his death in 1413. The only contemporaneous source that exists is the Rajatarangini (lit. Flow of Succession of Kings) by Jonaraja. Jonaraja was the Brahmin court-poet of Sikandar's successor Zain-ul-Abidin and was commissioned to continue Kalhana 's Rajatarangini. One manuscript of his work—edited between 1561 and 1588 by an anonymous person using information from other sources—emends certain portions of
1400-765: The Indo-Aryan mainstream. One is the partial maintenance of the three sibilant consonants s ṣ ś of the Old Indo-Aryan period. For another example, the prefixing form of the number 'two', which is found in Sanskrit as dvi- , has developed into ba-/bi- in most other Indo-Aryan languages, but du- in Kashmiri (preserving the original dental stop d ). Seventy-two is dusatath in Kashmiri, bahattar in Hindi-Urdu and Punjabi, and dvisaptati in Sanskrit. Certain features in Kashmiri even appear to stem from Indo-Aryan even predating
1456-684: The Kashmiri Hindus are the Kashmiri Pandits (Kashmiri Brahmins ), who are divided into several gotras , such as the priests ( gor or bhasha Bhatta ), astrologers ( Zutshi ), and workers ( Karkun ). The Wani are historically Banias , with subcastes, such as the Kesarwani . During the Mughal era, many Kesarwanis migrated to other parts of India such as Madhya Pradesh , Bihar and Uttar Pradesh . According to officials, 98,600 Kashmiri Hindus were issued domicile certificates of Jammu and Kashmir up to
1512-596: The Kashmiri language: the Perso-Arabic script , the Devanagari script and the Sharada script . The Roman script is also sometimes informally used to write Kashmiri, especially online. Today Kashmiri is primarily written in Perso-Arabic (with some modifications). Among languages written in the Perso-Arabic script, Kashmiri is one of the scripts that regularly indicates all vowel sounds. The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script
1568-635: The Prime Minister and the de facto ruler; Jonaraja claims that persecution increased manifold with forced conversions becoming commonplace, Hindu customs being banned, and Brahmans being prohibited to leave the territory despite being forced into unemployment. A regime of tolerance was however re-introduced under Zain-ul-Abidin, with Suhabhatta dead from tuberculosis ; Hindu artists were provided with state-patronage, temples were rebuilt, Brahmans-in-exile were brought back, taxes reduced, and neo-Muslims were allowed to convert back. Tohfatu'l-Ahbab, writing in
1624-490: The Tarapitha temples at Iskander Pora , and a neighbouring Maha Shri Temple. Pseud. J notes of a colossal statue of Buddha being razed and melted to produce coins. Afterwards, Sikandar's focus fell on abolishing caste system. All Brahmins unwilling to cede their hereditary caste privileges were taxed with Jizya . In contrast to Jonaraja, who mentions Sikandar's successor (Ali Shah) as having initiated forced conversions for
1680-667: The Vedic period. For instance, there was an /s/ > /h/ consonant shift in some words that had already occurred with Vedic Sanskrit (This tendency was complete in the Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian), yet is lacking in Kashmiri equivalents. The word rahit in Vedic Sanskrit and modern Hindi-Urdu (meaning 'excluding' or 'without') corresponds to rost in Kashmiri. Similarly, sahit (meaning 'including' or 'with') corresponds to sost in Kashmiri. There are three orthographical systems used to write
1736-497: The bank of Jhelum near Zaina Kadal locale in downtown Srinagar—for the royals and elite. Numerous scholars arrived from Central Asia in his court: Sayiid Ahmad of Isfahan drafted a commentary on a Firazi text and also wrote epistles, Sayyid Muhammad Khawari wrote a commentary on Lum'at ul-I'tiqaad as well as another work (Khwar Nameh) of unknown genre, and Muhammad Baihaqi composed poems eulogizing Sikandar. The first stone sculpture of Kashmir—a four-armed Brahma, argued to be one of
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1792-477: The banks of the Indus river and ordered Sikandar to pay tribute. Despite Sikandar's meek acceptance fearing a military fallout, the order was eventually waived by Timur himself upon being judged to be way above Sikandar's financial capacity. While the two did not meet, they shared a mutual admiration and Timur gifted a pair of male and female elephants to Sikandar. Sikandar was ecstatic on receiving them. C. 1400,
1848-592: The centrality of caste in understanding Jonaraja's reception of Shah Miri — he notes that even Hindu figures like Lal Ded had found no place in the Rajatarangini(s) and other Pandit corpus of history, until recent times. Fringe revisionist scholars completely reject the narratives of persecution and accuse the Brahman chroniclers of wanton bias and myth-making, stemming from their personal jealousy at losing socio-economic dominance. The locality of Nowhatta
1904-516: The differential rituals of destruction undertaken by Hindu and Muslim kings with the latter rendering sites inoperable for long passages of time by massive pollution or outright conversion. Slaje however concludes that the fierce opposition of Hindus to Muslim rulers, including Sikandar, primarily stemmed from their aversion to the slow disintegration of caste society under Islamic influence; Jonaraja explicitly mocks Hamadani's rejection of hereditary caste hierarchies. Mohammed Ishaq Khan emphasizes on
1960-517: The end of June 2021. They further state, "90,430 domicile certificates were issued to displaced Kashmiri Pandits, while 2,340 families of displaced Kashmiri Pandits were registered as fresh migrants. Of these, 8,170 individuals received the domicile certificate." On 16 May 2020, Order 52 was issued by the Jammu and Kashmir Department of Disaster Management, Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (JK DMRRR) which states that: "Bonafide migrants and bonafide displaced persons who are not yet registered with
2016-468: The expense of Kashmiri. There have been calls for the promotion of Kashmiri at an official level; in 1983, a Kashmiri Language Committee was set up by the government to patronise Kashmiri and impart it in school-level education. However, the limited attempts at introducing the language have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims of Azad Kashmir have seen as their identity symbol. Rahman notes that efforts to organise
2072-634: The extent of prohibiting any maintenance of kafir shrines. In particular, a Brahman neo-convert — Suhabhatta (var. Suhaka Bhatt and Saifuddin) who served as Sikandar's counsel — was accused of instigating the King into "[taking] delight day and night in demolishing the sculptures of the gods." Notably, in Baharistan-i-shahi , both Sikandar and Suhabhatta play equal roles, with particular significance accorded to Sikandar's religious conviction. Chitralekha Zutshi , Richard G. Salomon and others reject
2128-805: The finest in the history of the subcontinent—was sculpted by son of a Buddhist Sanghapati in 1409 and dedicated to Sikandar. Sikandar is believed to have had a puritanical temperament, and abstained from wine, festivities, and music — in tune with the laws decreed for his subjects. Among his closest confidants were Suhabhatta, Sankara (chief physician), and Laddaraja. Sikandar was married to at-least three women: Mera; an unnamed daughter of Pala Deo; and, Sobha about whom Jonaraja does not provide any details. He had at least five sons—Firuz (adopted by Sobha; sent alongside Hamadani, in his return journey to Iran), Shadi Khan (adopted by Sobha), Mir Khan (from Mira), Shahi Khan (from Mira), and Muhammad Khan (from Mira)—, and at least two daughters (both adopted by Sobha). Sobha
2184-483: The first chronicler from outside Kashmir and Nizamuddin Ahmad to independent Persian chroniclers to colonial historians and Kashmiri Pandits, with different ideological proclivities, to produce varying strands of histories suiting different sociopolitical goals. The Shah Miri dynasty likely descended from Kohistani Dards from Swat Valley ; Shah Mir himself was the first to settle in Kashmir. He began to serve in
2240-414: The first time, Hasan Ali notes of forced conversions under Sikandar's tenure; he is stated to have massacred all those who had refused to convert. Upon a literary reading of Rajatarangini , Sikandar's zeal behind the Islamisation of society is attributable to Mir Muhammad Hamadani — an orthodox Sufi preacher — who advocated the creation of a monolithic society based on Islam as the common denominator to
2296-444: The following phonemes. The oral vowels are as follows: The short high vowels are near-high , and the low vowels apart from /aː/ are near-low . Nasalization is phonemic. All sixteen oral vowels have nasal counterparts. Palatalization is phonemic. All consonants apart from those in the post-alveolar/palatal column have palatalized counterparts. Kashmiri, as also the other Dardic languages, shows important divergences from
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2352-497: The formation of a new social order that chipped away at Brahminic Hinduism. A contemporary Shaivite mystic Lal Ded borrowed from Sufism and local cults to attack core tenets of Brahminism and likely, serviced conversion to Islam among the lower strata of society. By Sikandar's time, a considerable section of the populace had already adopted Islam. Nonetheless, the Kings continued to actively patronage Hinduism: Alaud'din had commissioned
2408-489: The idea only religious motives lay behind Sikandar's actions and call for a nuanced contextual reading of Rajatarangin i, a work that was commissioned by Sikandar's successor, who wished to bring back the Brahminical elite into the royal fold and establish Sanskrit as an integral part of a Sultanate that strove to be cosmopolitan. According to Zutshi and Salomon, Sikandar's policies were guided by realpolitik and, like with
2464-504: The poor. The office of Shaikhu'l-Islam was established to provide monetary stipends and alms to the needy, pilgrims, travelers, physicians, scholars and other deserving people. Sharia was enacted into local law — music, dance, gambling, and intoxicants were prohibited. Jonaraja argues that Sikandar's rule terminated Kashmir's long-standing tolerant culture. So do Baharistan-i-shahi and Tohfatu'l-Ahbab, which note that Sikandar cleansed Kashmir of all heretics and infidels. Sikandar
2520-436: The previous Hindu rulers, were essentially an attempt to secure political legitimacy by asserting state power over Brahmans and gaining access to wealth controlled by Brahminical institutions. J. L. Bhan notes the sole extant example of sculpture (see below) from Sikandar's reign to challenge simplistic notions of religious persecution. Walter Slaje disagrees about such proposed absence of religious motivation, in part, given
2576-414: The relief and rehabilitation commissioner (migrant), Jammu and Kashmir, can apply before the competent authority for registration for purpose of issuance of a domicile certificate only." This is as long as one of the necessary documents is provided. The timeframe for registration (and claiming domicile) of Kashmiri migrants and displaced persons was later extended for the final time up to 15 May 2022. Under
2632-407: The royal court of the fledgling Deva Dynasty and before long, became the prime-minister of Suhadeva. Soon, he leveraged a power-vacuum in the wake of a crippling Mongol raid to help Rinchan , a Buddhist from Ladakh, usurp the throne and after his death, waged a successful war against widow Kota Rani to claim the kingdom for himself. The Shah Mirs actively patronaged Islam (esp. Sufism) and led to
2688-536: The rule of Sultan Sikander Butshikan in the 14th century CE, many Kashmiri Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam . They began to leave the valley in much greater numbers in the 1990s during the eruption of militancy following large scale militarization of Valley. This is a list of notable Kashmiri Hindus. Kashmiri language Kashmiri ( English: / k æ ʃ ˈ m ɪər i / kash- MEER -ee ) or Koshur (Kashmiri: کٲشُر ( Perso-Arabic , Official Script ) , pronounced [kəːʃur] )
2744-648: The schwa-like vowel [ə] & elongated schwa-like vowel [əː] and a new stand alone vowel ॵ and vowel sign कॏ for the open-mid back rounded vowel [ɔ] which can be used instead of the consonant व standing-in for this vowel. Vowel mark 𑆘 = 𑆘𑆳 𑆛 = 𑆛𑆳 𑆟 = 𑆟𑆳 𑆓 = 𑆓𑆶 𑆙 = 𑆙𑆶 𑆚 = 𑆚𑆶 𑆝 = 𑆝𑆶 𑆠 = 𑆠𑆶 𑆨 = 𑆨𑆶 𑆫 = 𑆫𑆶 𑆯 = 𑆯𑆶 𑆓 = 𑆓𑆷 𑆙 = 𑆙𑆷 𑆚 = 𑆚𑆷 𑆝 = 𑆝𑆷 𑆠 = 𑆠𑆷 𑆨 = 𑆨𑆷 𑆫 = 𑆫𑆷 𑆯 = 𑆯𑆷 Kashmiri
2800-426: The text in the margins; he is conventionally called Pseud. J. (and the work, Ps-JRT) in scholarship. Extant Persian sources, including Baharistan-i-shahi (anon.), Tohfatu'l-Ahbab (anon.) and Tarikh-i-Kashmir corpus , were written relatively later and drew from recensions of Rajatarangini(s) but they provide considerable additional information. These were later used by authors starting from Abul Fazl ,
2856-505: The usage of its vowel signs. Therefore, it is not in common use today and is restricted to religious ceremonies of the Kashmiri Pandits . There have been a few versions of the Devanagari script for Kashmiri. The 2002 version of the proposal is shown below. This version has readers and more content available on the Internet, even though this is an older proposal. This version makes use of
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#17328524779352912-450: The vowels ॲ/ऑ and vowel signs कॅ/कॉ for the schwa-like vowel [ə] and elongated schwa-like vowel [əː] that also exist in other Devanagari-based scripts such as Marathi and Hindi but are used for the sound of other vowels. Tabulated below is the latest (2009) version of the proposal to spell the Kashmiri vowels with Devanagari. The primary change in this version is the changed stand alone characters ॳ / ॴ and vowel signs कऺ / कऻ for
2968-499: Was also her cousin, burning his own daughter and son-in-law Muhammad, son of a fellow minister Sahaka, on charges of conspiring against Sikandar. Magre went on to poison Haybat, Sikandar's younger brother and even Sahaka. Sikandar, sensing a possible usurpation of the throne by Magre, chose to exert himself as the ruler c. 1391. Except for a successful invasion of Ladakh under the command of Rai Magre, Sikandar did not annex any new territory. Soon after this victory, Magre instigated
3024-527: Was constructed by Sikandar and his royal palace was established at the town center. He constructed the Jamia Masjid at Srinagar —considered to be the finest example of Indo-Saracenic archirecture in Kashmir—, and two other mosques at Bijbehara and Bavan. The two-storied Bavan mosque was enclosed by a garden and doubled as Sikandar's spring-resort. Sikandar also commissioned a new burial ground—Mazar-i-Salatin, on
3080-864: Was installed as a vassal and Sikandar again entered into a matrimonial alliance with his daughter whilst giving away another of his daughters from Sobha for marriage to Pala Deo. The overall economic condition was decent. Jonaraja remarks that the Goddess of Fortune found an abode in Sikandar — "the pleasure of [his] welfare elude[d] verbal description." A welfare state was installed; oppressive taxes were abolished while free schools and hospitals ( Daru'l-Shifa ) were opened for public use. Waqfs were endowed to shrines and numerous Sufi preachers from Central Asia were provided with jagirs and installed in positions of authority. Land holdings were allotted to vast sections of society including scholars, religious figureheads and
3136-418: Was to be developed in the state. After Hindi , Kashmiri is the second fastest growing language of India , followed by Meitei ( Manipuri ) as well as Gujarati in the third place, and Bengali in the fourth place, according to the 2011 census of India . Persian began to be used as the court language in Kashmir during the 14th centuries, under the influence of Islam. It was replaced by Urdu in 1889 during
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