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99-689: Karaiyar is a Sri Lankan Tamil caste found mainly on the northern and eastern coastal areas of Sri Lanka , and globally among the Tamil diaspora . They are traditionally a seafaring community that is engaged in fishing , shipment and seaborne trade . They fish customarily in deep seas or on shore, and employ gillnet and seine fishing methods. The Karaiyars were the major maritime traders and boat owners who among other things, traded with pearls , chanks , tobacco , and shipped goods overseas to countries such as India , Myanmar and Indonesia . The community known for their maritime history , are also reputed as

198-560: A Pandya ruler who sent Meekaman to obtain a Naga gemstone for Kannagi (the heroine of Silappatikaram ). A destroyed fort at Neduntheevu , the Delft Island fort is locally known as Meekaman kōttai , and is thought to have been the fort of Meekaman. According to Mattakallappu Manmiyam , Kalinga Magha (founder of Aryacakravarti dynasty ) gave the principality of Mannar to those of the Kurukulam lineage. The Karaiyars in alliance with

297-510: A military campaign that lasted seventeen years. Polonnaruwa was renamed “Vijayarajapura” and chosen as the capital, making Vijayabahu the first Sinhala king of the Polonnaruwa kingdom . The coronation ceremony was held in a palace built for this purpose in Anuradhapura , the former capital of the country. Vijayabahu took Lilavati, the daughter of Jagatipala of Ayodhya as his queen. Jagatipala

396-707: A warrior caste who contributed as army and navy soldiers of Tamil kings . They were noted as the army generals and navy captains of the Aryacakravarti dynasty . The Karaiyars emerged in the 1980s as strong representatives of Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism . The nuclear leadership of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam have background in the wealthier enterprising section of the Karaiyars. Historically, they have also been referred to as Kurukulam, Varunakulam and Karaiyalar . Sharing similar origins and status are

495-509: A battalion of 7740 Karaiyar soldiers came from Kurumandalam in Southern India, and defeated the Mukkuvars (another coastal community) and Sonakars (Tamil Muslims). The Yalpana Vaipava Malai states that Parakramabahu VI of Kotte invited Karaiyar battalions to facilitate trade with other countries. The Karaiyars also formed alliances with coastal military castes from Tamil Nadu such as

594-739: A clan name— veḷ , a name related to velir from ancient Tamil country . Once Prakrit speakers had attained dominance on the island, the Mahavamsa further recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the Tamil Pandya Kingdom to the Anuradhapura Kingdom in the early historic period. Epigraphic evidence shows people identifying themselves as Damelas or Damedas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) in Anuradhapura,

693-476: A coastal population; in the later literature, the word came to be identified with coastal people. Several inscriptions mention high-ranked military officials under the title Kurukulattaraiyan (meaning "King of Kurukulam"). An inscription in Tirumukkudal, Tamil Nadu mentions a notability named Kurukulattaraiyan who 'wore a golden anklet' as the commander of the army of Vijayabahu I (11th century AD) who ended

792-561: A fresh attempt to capture Polonnaruwa. During this time, he also had to face rebellions from other Sinhala leaders fighting for the throne. Overcoming these rebellions, Vijayabahu continued to muster his armies in order to retake the Capital, but was not strong enough to attempt another attack against the Chola army. He made Katharagama in Ruhuna as his capital and also he started to organize an army to defeat

891-600: A man can only marry in one of his sampantha kudi s not in the sakothara kudi s. By custom, children born in a family belong to mother's kudi . Kudi also collectively own places of worship such as Hindu temples . Each caste contains a number of kudis , with varying names. Aside from castes with an internal kudi system, there are seventeen caste groups, called Ciraikudis , or imprisoned kudis , whose members were considered to be in captivity, confined to specific services such as washing, weaving, and toddy tapping . However, such restrictions no longer apply. The Tamils of

990-448: A map in 1681 CE. Upon arrival of European powers from the 17th century CE, the Tamils' separate nation was described in their areas of habitation in the northeast of the island. The caste structure of the majority Sinhalese has also accommodated Tamil and Kerala immigrants from South India since the 13th century CE. This led to the emergence of three new Sinhalese caste groups:

1089-535: A number of tanks in Rajarata destroyed during the wars, in addition to constructing several new tanks. This reconstruction of the irrigation system in Rajarata area was important to the development of the country since the country depended mainly on paddy cultivation . Around 1084/1085, another quarrel with the Chola kingdom erupted when some ambassadors of Vijayabahu sent to West Chalukya were harassed by them. However,

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1188-459: A resident ritualist or priest known as a Kurukkal . A Kurukkal may belong to someone from a prominent local lineage like Pandaram or Iyer community. In the Eastern Province, a Kurukkal usually belongs to Lingayat sect. Other places of worship do not have icons for their deities. The sanctum could house a trident ( culam ), a stone, or a large tree. Temples of this type are common in

1287-507: A significant amount of evidence points towards these Muslims being ethnic Tamils , they are controversially listed as a separate ethnic group by the Sri Lankan government . Sri Lankan Tamils (also called Ceylon Tamils) are descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftaincies called Vannimais . The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of bonded labourers sent from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in

1386-724: Is a necessary adjunct to the agriculture. The Tamil-inhabited Vanni consists of the Vavuniya , Mullaitivu , and eastern Mannar districts. Historically, the Vanni area has been in contact with what is now South India, including during the medieval period and was ruled by the Vanniar Chieftains . Northern Tamils follow customary laws called Thesavalamai , codified during the Dutch colonial period . Western Tamils, also known as Negombo Tamils or Puttalam Tamils, are native Sri Lankan Tamils who live in

1485-699: Is a reference to their maritime origin. Varuna is the god of sea and rain, mentioned in Vedic Literature , but also in Sangam literature as the principal deity of the Neithal Sangam landscape (i.e. littoral landscape). Arasakulam means "clan of kings". The Karaiyar, are among the old coastal communities who inhabited the Neithal Sangam landscape . The ancient Tamil literature mentions several coastal populations, but does not contain any direct references to

1584-509: Is also known as the "Catholic belt". The Tamil Christians , chiefly Roman Catholics, have preserved their heritage in the major cities such as Negombo , Chilaw , Puttalam , and also in villages such as Mampuri . Some residents of these two districts, especially the Karaiyars , are bilingual, ensuring that the Tamil language survives as a lingua franca among migrating maritime communities across

1683-506: Is also noted for constructing roads to Sri Pada and building resting places called ambalama for the benefit of the pilgrims. He also granted villages and cultivations for the service of the pilgrims and the shrine. This is recorded in the "Ambagamu" inscription which situated by the King Vijayabahu I. Vijayabahu died in 1110, having reigned as king of Sri Lanka for fifty-five years. He was then known as “Mahalu Vijayabahu” (Vijayabahu

1782-417: Is considered diverged from its original source (due to Sinhalese language influence). According to K. Indrapala , cultural diffusion , rather than migration of people, spread the Prakrit and Tamil languages from peninsular India into an existing mesolithic population, centuries before the common era . Tamil Brahmi and Tamil-Prakrit scripts were used to write the Tamil language during this period on

1881-548: Is in Anuradhapura and one is in Matale District . Literary sources make references about Tamil rulers bringing horses to the island in water crafts in the second century BCE, most likely arriving at Kudiramalai . Historical records establish that Tamil kingdoms in modern India were closely involved in the island's affairs from about the 2nd century BCE. Kudiramalai, Kandarodai and Vallipuram served as great northern Tamil capitals and emporiums of trade with these kingdoms and

1980-566: Is principally dominated by the maritime Karaiyars , along with other dominant groups such as the Paravars . In Gampaha District, Tamils have historically inhabited the coastal region. In the Puttalam District, there was a substantial ethnic Tamil population until the first two decades of the 20th century. Most of those who identify as ethnic Tamils live in villages such as Udappu and Maradankulam . The coastal strip from Jaffna to Chilaw

2079-417: Is the kudi system. Although the Tamil word kudi means a house or settlement, in eastern Sri Lanka it is related to matrimonial alliances. It refers to the exogamous matrilineal clans and is found amongst most caste groups. Men or women remain members of the kudi of their birth and be brother or sister by relation. No man can marry in the same kudi because woman is always become sister to him. But,

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2178-651: The Nalavar , Pallar , Parayar , Vannar and Ambattar . The castes of temple priests known as the Kurukkals and the Iyers are also held in high esteem. The artisans who are known as Kammalar also serve as Kudimakkal, and consists of the Kannar (brass-workers), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths), Tatchar (carpenters) and Kartatchar (sculptor). The Kudimakkal were domestic servants who also gave ritual importance to

2277-796: The Salagama , the Durava and the Karava . The Tamil migration and assimilation continued until the 18th century CE. According to the 2012 census there were 2,270,924 Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka, 11.2% of the population. Sri Lankan Tamils constitute an overwhelming majority of the population in the Northern Province and are the largest ethnic group in the Eastern Province . They are minority in other provinces. 70% of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka live in

2376-708: The Maravars . The Maravars who had strong influence in Northern Sri Lanka, established themselves as trading and sea lords and assimilated into the Karaiyar caste. A 13th century inscription of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I in Tharangambadi , Tamil Nadu makes a reference to the Karaiyars along with the mercantile guild Patinenvisayattar making food offerings to the Masilamaninathar temple. The Vaiya Padal mentions

2475-611: The Paravars were in control of the port-based trade and the pearl fishery conducted in the Gulf of Mannar under the Jaffna Kingdom , which were one of the worlds major pearl fisheries. The Karaiyars were by the Portuguese described as the most "warlike" tribe and their chiefs as most serious adversaries of the colonial Portuguese . The Karaiyars revolted six times against the Portuguese in

2574-596: The Pitaka . In addition to this, Vijayabahu also repaired several Buddhist temples that were abandoned and destroyed. A new temple was also constructed in Polonnaruwa for the keeping of the sacred tooth relic of the Buddha .The history says that the monks in both countries got together to make an acceptable version in the scriptures when the interpretation of the "Thripitaka" are different with each other. Vijayabahu also reconstructed

2673-566: The Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom in 1619 CE. The coastal areas of the island were conquered by the Dutch and then became part of the British Empire in 1796 CE. The Sinhalese Nampota dated in its present form to the 14th or 15th century CE suggests that the whole of the Tamil Kingdom, including parts of the modern Trincomalee District, was recognised as a Tamil region by

2772-681: The Romans from the 6th–2nd centuries BCE. The archaeological discoveries in these towns and the Manimekhalai , a historical poem, detail how Nāka-Tivu of Nāka-Nadu on the Jaffna Peninsula was a lucrative international market for pearl and conch trading for the Tamil fishermen. In Mahavamsa , a historical poem, ethnic Tamil adventurers such as Ellalan invaded the island around 145 BCE. Early Chola king Karikalan , son of Eelamcetcenni utilised superior Chola naval power to conquer Ceylon in

2871-714: The Shaiva sect. The rest were mostly Roman Catholics who converted after the Portuguese conquest of Jaffna Kingdom . There is also a small minority of Protestants due to missionary efforts in the 18th century by organisations such as the American Ceylon Mission . Most Tamils who inhabit the Western Province are Roman Catholics, while those of the Northern and Eastern Provinces are mainly Hindu. Pentecostal and other churches, such as Jehovah's Witnesses , are active among

2970-601: The Sinhalese Karava and the Pattanavar of Tamil Nadu . The word "Karaiyar" is derived from the Tamil language words karai ("coast" or "shore") and yar ("people"). The term Kareoi mentioned by 2nd century AD writer Ptolemy , is identified with the Tamil word "Karaiyar". The Portuguese and Dutch sources mentions them under the term Careas , Careaz , or Carias, which are terms denoting "Karaiyar". Kurukulam , Varunakulam and Arasakulam were historically one of

3069-558: The South Asian island state of Sri Lanka . Today, they constitute a majority in the Northern Province , form the plurality in the Eastern Province and are in the minority throughout the rest of the country. 70% of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka live in the Northern and Eastern provinces. Modern Sri Lankan Tamils descend from residents of the Jaffna Kingdom , a former kingdom in the north of Sri Lanka and Vannimai chieftaincies from

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3168-483: The 10th century CE. According to the anthropological and archaeological evidence, Sri Lankan Tamils have a very long history in Sri Lanka and have lived on the island since at least around the 2nd century BCE . The Indigenous Veddas are ethnically related to people in South India and early populations of Southeast Asia . It is not possible to ascertain what languages that they originally spoke as Vedda language

3267-562: The 19th century to work on tea plantations. Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and in the capital Colombo , and most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands. Historically, both groups have seen themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s. In 1948, the United National Party government stripped the Indian Tamils of their citizenship . Under

3366-542: The 19th century. Since Sri Lanka gained independence from Britain in 1948, relations between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil communities have been strained. Rising ethnic and political tensions following the Sinhala Only Act , along with ethnic pogroms carried out by Sinhalese mobs in 1956 , 1958 , 1977 , 1981 and 1983 , led to the formation and strengthening of militant groups advocating independence for Tamils . The ensuing civil war resulted in

3465-527: The 3rd century BCE. Ko, meaning "King" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan, Ko Putivira and Ko Ra-pumaan occurring in contemporary Tamil Brahmi inscriptions of ancient South India and Egypt . Potsherds with early Tamil writing from the 2nd century BCE have been found from the north in Poonagari , Kilinochchi District to the south in Tissamaharama . They bore several inscriptions, including

3564-484: The 9th and 10th centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions into Sri Lanka culminated in the Chola annexation of the island , which lasted until the latter half of the 11th century CE. Raja Raja Chola I renamed the northern throne Mummudi Chola Mandalam after his conquest of the northeast country to protect Tamil traders being looted, imprisoned and killed for years on the island. Rajadhiraja Chola 's conquest of

3663-547: The Chola rule in Sri Lanka. Another Kurukulattaraiyan, Choran Uyyaninraduvan , the minister of Maravarman Sundara Pandyan (13th century AD) is mentioned as gifting land and making offerings for the Ninra Narayana Perumal temple in an epigraphy of the temple. The same minister is also mentioned in an inscription issued by Jatavarman Kulasekaran I . According to an account given in the Mukkara Hatana manuscript,

3762-554: The Cholas by 1058 and take it under his complete control. In the 11th century, the Chola Empire of Southern India reached its imperial state. Emperor Rajaraja I invaded and annexed the Kingdom of Anuradhapura in 992, while his son Rajendra invaded Ruhuna in 1017, capturing king Mahinda V . The kingdom became an subadatrate of the Cholas while Kassapa VI, the son of Mahinda ascended

3861-512: The Cholas. Civil war broke out during 1069–1070 in the Chola Empire in South India, Tamil Nadu, throwing the country into turmoil. The concerns within Chola empire prevented the empire from focusing on Sri Lanka, providing an opportunity for Vijayabahu to attack again while the Chola forces in Polonnaruwa were more or less isolated. He has gained the support of many kingdoms to defeat the Cholas such as Burma and Pandya who also wanted to defeat Cholas in their kingdom. Starting from Mahanagakula on

3960-587: The God of Tamils Tenavarai Nayanar. The admiral invoked the blessings of Hindu deities at Temple of Perimpanayagam Tenavaram, Tevanthurai for a peaceful world built on trade. The 1502 map Cantino represents three Tamil cities on the east coast of the island - Mullaitivu , Trincomalee and Panama , where the residents grow cinnamon and other spices, fish for pearls and seed pearls and worship idols, trading heavily with Kozhikode of Kerala . The Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty ruled large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until

4059-413: The Karaiyars. Migration of Karaiyars from South India to Sri Lanka started from around second century BCE. The earliest reference to them could be the 1st century BCE Tamil Householders Terrace , Pali inscription in Anuradhapura referring to several Tamil chiefs including one named " Dameda navika Karava ", translated as " Tamil Karayar sailor ". The Purananuru mentions "Karaiyavar", but not as

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4158-870: The Negombo dialect continued to evolve in the Coromandel Coast before it arrived in Sri Lanka and began to get influenced by Sinhala. So, in some ways, the dialect is closer to those spoken in Tamil Nadu than to Jaffna Tamil. Some Tamil place names have been retained in these districts. Outside the Tamil-dominated northeast, the Puttalam District has the highest percentage of place names of Tamil origin in Sri Lanka. Composite or hybrid place names are also present in these districts. Although Sri Lankan Tamils are culturally and linguistically distinct, genetic studies indicate that they are closely related to other ethnic groups in

4257-482: The Northern and Eastern Provinces; a typical village has up to 150 such structures. The offering would be done by an elder of the family who owns the site. A coconut oil lamp would be lit on Fridays, and a special rice dish known as pongal would be cooked either on a day considered auspicious by the family or on the Thai Pongal day, and possibly on Tamil New Year Day . Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa Vijayabahu

4356-526: The Northern and Eastern provinces. There are no accurate figures for the number of Sri Lankan Tamils living in the diaspora . Estimates range from 450,000 to one million. The two groups of Tamils located in Sri Lanka are the Sri Lankan Tamils and the Indian Tamils . There also exists a significant population in Sri Lanka who are native speakers of Tamil language and are of Islamic faith. Though

4455-496: The Pattankattiyar were headmen who were responsible of the harbors and pearl fishery of the northern and western parts of Sri Lanka . At the hand of the powerful maritime trading clans of the Karaiyars, the emergence of urban centers known as pattanam were seen. Pattanavar (literally meaning "pattanam-residents"), is an almost extinct caste name also used by the Karaiyars. Mudaliar (meaning "capitalist") were conferred on

4554-519: The Portuguese. Upon defeat were significant numbers of Karaiyars along with the Nairs and Karavas appointed as Lascarins under Portuguese rule, and were converted to Catholicism . In the Jaffna region , the Karaiyars were a dominant caste and were considered as upper-class in the social hierarchy, where conversion to Christianity of sections of them allowed them to grow closer to the Portuguese in power. After

4653-573: The Trincomalee district have different social customs from their southern neighbours due to the influence of the Jaffna kingdom to the north. The indigenous Veddha people of the east coast also speak Tamil and have become assimilated into the Eastern Tamil caste structure. Most Eastern Tamils follow customary laws called Mukkuva laws codified during the Dutch colonial period . Jaffna's history of being an independent kingdom lends legitimacy to

4752-589: The army's soldiers and workers. The Karaiyars in Eastern Sri Lanka like other castes are divided into kudi's or matrilineal clans. The Eastern Karaiyars almost exclusively also use the term Vaiyittu Var (Tamil for "womb-tie") as a synonymous term for kudi or clan. The chieftains and village headmen of the Karaiyars held the title Pattankattiyar , meaning " One who is crowned" in Tamil. Other titles they used were Adappanar , Mudaliar , Pillai , Kurukulattan and Varunakulattan . The Adappans along with

4851-450: The capital city of Rajarata the middle kingdom, and other areas of Sri Lanka as early as the 2nd century BCE. Excavations in the area of Tissamaharama in southern Sri Lanka have unearthed locally issued coins, produced between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE, some of which carry local Tamil personal names written in early Tamil characters, which suggest that local Tamil merchants were present and actively involved in trade along

4950-399: The conquest of the Jaffna kingdom , who aligned and also commanded over the troops of Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom , whose king was Raghunatha Nayak . The first revolt led by a Karaiyar chieftain who was defeated near Nallur by Phillippe de Oliveira and his army. The second revolt against them was led by the Karaiyar chief Migapulle Arachchi , a feudal lord of Jaffna Kingdom who also led

5049-403: The country for destinations such as Canada, United Kingdom, Germany and India as refugees or emigrants. According to the pro-rebel TamilNet , the persecution and discrimination that Sri Lankan Tamils faced has resulted in some Tamils today not identifying themselves as Sri Lankans but instead identifying themselves as either Eelam Tamils, Ceylon Tamils, or simply Tamils. Many still support

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5148-423: The country had suffered a lot and Buddhist monks were few. Five ordained monks—necessary for the upasampada (ordination) of Buddhist monks—could not be found in the whole country. To re-establish Buddhism in the country, Vijayabahu sought help from King Anawrahta in Burma . As a result, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka. These monks helped to re-establish Buddhism by ordaining new monks and teaching

5247-458: The court of the Jaffna Kingdom. Since the beginning of the Sri Lankan Civil War in the 1980s, it is distinguished by an emphasis on themes relating to the conflict. Sri Lankan Tamil dialects are noted for their archaism and retention of words not in everyday use in Southern India. The cultures of the Sri Lankan Tamils are also very distinctive and unique, even though the cultural influence of modern South India has grown and become prevalent since

5346-412: The date back to 15th century BCE. In Sri Lanka, there is radiometric evidence from Anuradhapura that the non- Brahmi symbol-bearing black and red ware occur in the 10th century BCE. The skeletal remains of an Early Iron Age chief were excavated in Anaikoddai , Jaffna District . The name Ko Veta is engraved in Brahmi script on a seal buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to

5445-427: The deaths of more than 100,000 people and the forced disappearance and rape of thousands of others. The civil war ended in 2009 but there are continuing allegations of atrocities being committed by the Sri Lankan military . A United Nations panel found that as many as 40,000 Tamil civilians may have been killed in the final months of the civil war. In January 2020, President Gotabaya Rajapaksa said that

5544-475: The dominant castes. People in the Vanni districts considered themselves separate from Tamils of the Jaffna peninsula but the two groups did intermarry. Most of these married couples moved into the Vanni districts where land was available. Vanni consists of a number of highland settlements within forested lands using irrigation tank -based cultivation. An 1890 census listed 711 such tanks in this area. Hunting and raising livestock such as water buffalo and cattle

5643-407: The east. According to the anthropological and archaeological evidence, Sri Lankan Tamils have a very long history in Sri Lanka and have lived on the island since at least around the 2nd century BCE . The Sri Lankan Tamils are mostly Hindus with a significant Christian population. Sri Lankan Tamil literature on topics including religion and the sciences flourished during the medieval period in

5742-477: The estimated 20,000+ disappeared Sri Lankan Tamils were dead. The end of the civil war has not fully improved conditions in Sri Lanka, with press freedom not being restored and the judiciary coming under political control. One-third of Sri Lankan Tamils now live outside Sri Lanka. While there was significant migration during the British colonial era to Singapore and Malaysia, the civil war led to more than 800,000 Tamils leaving Sri Lanka, and many have left

5841-413: The expulsion of the Portuguese, was the growing Dutch rule revolted in 1658 in the Jaffna region by the Christian Karaiyars and Madapallis . A Dutch minister of the 17th century, Philippus Baldaeus , described the Karaiyars, Madapallis and Vellalars among the influential classes of the Christians. Elite Karaiyars were appointed to the rank of Mudaliyars . The Karaiyar dominance got weakened through

5940-400: The first century CE. Hindu Saivism , Tamil Buddhism and Jainism were popular amongst the Tamils at this time, as was the proliferation of village deity worship . The Amaravati school was influential in the region when the Satavahana dynasty established the Andhra empire and its 17th monarch Hāla (20–24 CE) married a princess from the island. Ancient Vanniars settled in the east of

6039-437: The gifts, offerings and given by King Vijayabahu I to his higher military officer) King Vijayabahu I's own words says that Prince Kiththi and King Moggallana's whole family was under the protection of Ruhunu Dandanayaka Sitnaru-bim Budalnavan and he provided a great support to the king to make the country under the same flag. The Chola army frequently attacked Vijayabahu's troops in Ruhuna. However, he managed to free Ruhuna from

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6138-555: The idea of Tamil Eelam , a proposed independent state that Sri Lankan Tamils aspired to create in the North-East of Sri Lanka. Inspired by the Tamil Eelam flag , the tiger also used by the LTTE , has become a symbol of Tamil nationalism for some Tamils in Sri Lanka and the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora. There is little scholarly consensus over the presence of the Sri Lankan Tamil people in Sri Lanka, also known as Eelam in Sangam literature . One older theory states that there were no large Tamil settlements in Sri Lanka until

6237-476: The internally displaced and refugee populations. The 2012 Sri Lanka Census revealed a Buddhist population of 22,254 amongst Sri Lankan Tamils, i.e. roughly 1% of all Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka. The Hindu elite, especially the Vellalar , follow the religious ideology of Shaiva Siddhanta (Shaiva school) while the masses practice folk Hinduism , upholding their faith in local village deities not found in formal Hindu scriptures. The place of worship depends on

6336-409: The island in the first few centuries of the common era to cultivate and maintain the area. The Vanni region flourished. In the 6th century CE, a special coastal route by boat was established from the Jaffna peninsula southwards to Saivite religious centres in Trincomalee (Koneswaram) and further south to Batticaloa ( Thirukkovil ), passed a few small Tamil trading settlements in Mullaitivu on

6435-541: The island led to the fall of four kings there, one of whom, Madavarajah, the king of Jaffna, was a usurper from the Rashtrakuta Dynasty . These dynasties oversaw the development of several kovils that administered services to communities of land assigned to the temples through royal grants. Their rule also saw the benefaction of other faiths. Recent excavations have led to the discovery of a limestone Kovil of Raja Raja Chola I's era on Delft island, found with Chola coins from this period. The decline of Chola power in Sri Lanka

6534-443: The island while being related to the Indian Tamils from South India as well. There are various studies that indicate varying degrees of connections between Sri Lankan Tamils, Sinhalese, and Indian ethnic groups. A study conducted by Kshatriya in 1995 found that both ethnolinguistic groups of Sri Lanka, including the Tamils, were closest to the Tamil population of India and also the Muslim population of South India. They were found to be

6633-551: The island. During the protohistoric period (1000–500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with Southern India , and shared the same megalithic burials, pottery , iron technology, farming techniques and megalithic graffiti . This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as the Velir , prior to the migration of Prakrit speakers. Settlements of culturally similar early populations of ancient Sri Lanka and ancient Tamil Nadu in India were excavated at megalithic burial sites at Pomparippu on

6732-490: The island. Negombo Tamil dialect is spoken by about 50,000 people. This number does not include others, outside of Negombo city, who speak local varieties of the Tamil language. The bilingual catholic Karavas are also found in the western coastal regions, who trace their origins to the Tamil Karaiyar however identify themselves as Sinhalese . Negombo Tamil indicates that the Karavas immigrated to Sri Lanka much later than Tamils immigrated to Jaffna. This would suggest that

6831-412: The king's decision for another war against the Chola Empire caused the Velakkara mercenaries serving in Vijayabahu's army to rebel against him. Several generals of the army were killed by the mutineers and the royal palace was burned down. Vijayabahu fled to Wakirigala again but returned to Polonnaruwa and recaptured it, suppressing the rebellion. The rebel leaders were captured and executed. Vijayabahu

6930-533: The maritime elite trading clans of the Karaiyars as titles of nobility . The domestic servants of the Karaiyars, who are known as Kudimakkal include the castes of Ambattar , Vannar , Maraiyar and Nattuvar . They gave importance in their ritual roles as officiators under the wedding and funeral. Sri Lankan Tamils Sri Lankan Tamils ( Tamil :  இலங்கை தமிழர் , ilankai tamiḻar or ஈழத் தமிழர் , īḻat tamiḻar ), also known as Ceylon Tamils or Eelam Tamils , are Tamils native to

7029-596: The most distant group from the Veddahs, and quite distant from both North-West Indians (Punjabis and Gujratis) and North-East Indians (Bengalis). In comparison to Indian Tamils, the Tamils of Sri Lanka had a higher admixture with the Sinhalese, though the Sinhalese themselves share a 69.86% (+/- 0.61) genetic admixture with the Indian Tamils. The study stated that any admixture from migrations several thousand years ago must have been erased through millennia of admixture among geographically local peoples. In 1981, about eighty percent of Sri Lankan Tamils were Hindus who followed

7128-564: The name Demala-pattana (Tamil city). In this work, a number of villages that are now situated in the Jaffna, Mullaitivu and Trincomalee districts are mentioned as places in Demala-pattana. The English sailor Robert Knox described walking into the island's Tamil country in the publication An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon , referencing some aspects of their royal, rural and economic life and annotating some kingdoms within it on

7227-432: The next few centuries. Tamil soldiers from what is now South India were brought to Anuradhapura between the 7th and 11th centuries CE in such large numbers that local chiefs and kings trying to establish legitimacy came to rely on them. By the 8th century CE Tamil villages were collectively known as Demel-kaballa (Tamil allotment), Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages), and Demel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and lands). In

7326-399: The north coast. The conquests and rule of the island by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and his grandfather King Simhavishnu (537–590 CE) saw the erection and structural development of several Kovils around the island, particularly in the north-east —these Pallava Dravidian rock temples remained a popular and highly influential style of architecture in the region over

7425-509: The object of worship and how it is housed. It could be a proper Hindu temple known as a Koyil , constructed according to the Agamic scripts (a set of scriptures regulating the temple cult). More often, however, the temple is not completed in accordance with Agamic scriptures but consists of the barest essential structure housing a local deity. These temples observe daily Puja (prayers) hours and are attended by locals. Both types of temples have

7524-633: The political claims of the Sri Lankan Tamils, and has provided a focus for their constitutional demands. Northern Tamil society is generally categorised into two groups: those who are from the Jaffna peninsula in the north, and those who are residents of the Vanni to the immediate south. The Jaffna society is separated by castes . Historically, the Sri Lankan Vellalar were in northern region dominant and were traditionally husbandman involved in agriculture and cattle cultivation . They constitute half of

7623-567: The political rise of the Vellalars under Dutch rule . For centuries have the Karaiyars had sea-trade relations with India but also Myanmar , Thailand , Malaysia and Indonesia , which has been heavily restricted since British rule . In the 20th century, the Karaiyar were the second largest group of voters among the Sri Lankan Tamils after the Vellalar. The Karaiyars formed around 10% of

7722-477: The population and enjoyed dominance under Dutch rule, from which community the colonial political elites also were drawn from. The maritime communities existed outside the agriculture-based caste system and is dominated by the Karaiyars . The dominant castes (e.g. the Vellalar or Karaiyar ) traditionally use the service of those collectively known as Kudimakkal . The Panchamars, who serve as Kudimakkal, consists of

7821-580: The population, while the dominant Vellalars constituted about 50% of the population. The Karaiyars dominated the political scene of the Tamils in the late 20th century through the liberation struggle for an independent Tamil Eelam state for Tamils as a result of government sponsored riots and acts such as the 1958 anti-Tamil pogrom and the Standardisation act . Educated Karaiyar youths from Jaffna Peninsula took to militancy as means of protest and formed separatist groups such as TELO , EROS , EPRLF and

7920-471: The representative of the Tamil society as a whole compared to the other Tamil militant groups . The Karaiyars were assigned the western section (present day Gurunagar ) and the harbors of the Jaffna Kingdom . The Karaiyars formed the generals of the Jaffna kings and officered the navy of the Aryacakravarti dynasty . They used the Makara as emblem, the mount of their clan deity, the sea god Varuna , which

8019-657: The seafaring and militant communities of the Coromandel Coast , enabling them to set up training camps in coastal regions of Tamil Nadu and exploit the sea for weapon smuggling. Through their kinship to the Karaiyar landlord class in Batticaloa region, the LTTE also gained recruitment of Eastern Tamils. Although having a significant Karaiyar representation, the LTTE promoted Tamil unity through anti-casteism and recruited without caste and regional distinctions, and thus ensured them to be

8118-547: The significant clans of the Karaiyars. Kurukulam, meaning "clan of the Kuru ", may be a reference to their origin from Kurumandalam (meaning "realm of Kuru's") of Southern India . They attribute their origin myth from the Kuru Kingdom , mentioned in Hindu epic Mahabharata . Some scholars derived Kurukulam from Kuru, the Tamil name for Jupiter . Varunakulam, meaning "clan of Varuna ",

8217-526: The south of the Walawe river , Vijayabahu dispatched three armies to attack Polonnaruwa from three fronts. One army was sent along the western shore of the country to Mahathittha port to deal with any reinforcements arriving from South India. Afterwards, part of this army moved towards Polonnaruwa and attacked from the North-west, while the other part held the ports to prevent reinforcements from arriving. A second army

8316-877: The southern coast of Sri Lanka by the late classical period. Other ancient inscriptions from the period reference a Tamil merchant, the Tamil householder residing in Iḷabharata and a Tamil sailor named Karava. Two of the six ancient inscriptions referring to the Damedas (Tamils) are in Periya Pullyakulam in the Vavuniya District , one is in Seruvavila in Trincomalee District , one is in Kuduvil in Ampara District , one

8415-483: The terms of an agreement reached between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, about forty percent of the Indian Tamils were granted Sri Lankan citizenship, and most of the remainder were repatriated to India. By the 1990s, most Indian Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizenship. Sri Lankan Tamils are categorised into three subgroups based on regional distribution, dialects, and culture: Negombo Tamils from

8514-558: The third revolt. A later revolt was started by the Karaiyars and the Thanjavur Nayak troops of over 5000 men, commanded by the Karaiyar chief, Varunakulattan , one described by the Portuguese as being of kingly status. The Portuguese ordered Cankili II , king of Jaffna Kingdom , to surrender the Thanjavur Nayak soldiers and Varunakulattan (who is described as " King of Careas "). However Cankili II did not surrender them as they had come on his request, and were later on defeated by

8613-490: The throne. After securing Ruhuna, his intention was to capture Polonnaruwa, the capital of the country. In 1066, he launched the first attack on Polonnaruwa, and captured and held the city for a brief time. However, after receiving reinforcements from South India, the strengthened Chola army attacked again, forcing Vijayabahu to flee. He established himself in Wakirigala after this and concentrated on organizing his army for

8712-408: The voyage of a Karaiyar chief known as Meekāman , who traveled with ships loaded with several castes and chiefs, including the Karaiyars who make reference as Varunakulaththar. Another Karaiyar chief also known as Meekāman is credited for leading a troop of Chola soldiers and defeating the powerful Mukkuvar chiefs Vediarasan and Meera . According to one version was this strife caused because of

8811-707: The west coast and in Kathiraveli on the east coast of the island. Bearing a remarkable resemblance to burials in the Early Pandyan Kingdom , these sites were established between the 5th century BCE and 2nd century CE. Excavated ceramic sequences similar to that of Arikamedu were found in Kandarodai (Kadiramalai) on the north coast, dated to 1300 BCE. Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archaeologists to 10th century BCE. However, Indian history and archaeology have pushed

8910-605: The western Gampaha and Puttalam districts. The term does not apply to Tamil immigrants in these areas. They are distinguished from other Tamils by their dialects, one of which is known as the Negombo Tamil dialect , and by aspects of their culture such as customary laws . Most Negombo Tamils have assimilated into the Sinhalese ethnic group through a process known as Sinhalisation . Sinhalisation has been facilitated by caste myths and legends. The Western Tamils caste hierarchy

9009-523: The western part of the island, Eastern Tamils from the eastern part, and Jaffna or Northern Tamils from the north. Eastern Tamils inhabit a region that spans the Trincomalee , Batticaloa , and Ampara districts. Their history and traditions are inspired by local legends, native literature, and colonial documents. In the 16th century the area came under the nominal control of the Kingdom of Kandy , but there

9108-535: The world renowned LTTE , also widely known as the Tamil Tigers. The fact that the core leadership of the LTTE had Karaiyar origin, (e.g. the leader of the LTTE, Velupillai Prabhakaran was a Melongi Karaiyar), he enabled them to develop a strong Sea Tiger force due to their traditional knowledge on seafaring and the waterways of the Palk Strait . They benefited greatly from their kinship and long trade relation with

9207-522: Was a prince from the North Indian city of Ayodhya , who had usurped the throne of Ruhuna from a Pandyan prince and ruled Ruhuna for 4 years in the chaos following Kassapa VI 's death. Jagatipala was killed in a Chola invasion of Ruhuna . He also married Tilokasundari, a princess from Kalinga , with the view of strengthening ties with the Kalingas. During the Chola rule and the wars, Buddhism in

9306-750: Was also seen on their flags. Kannaki Amman is one of the chief deity of the Hindu Karaiyars whereas Francis Xavier and Virgin mary are one of the chief saints of the Christian Karaiyars. The Karaiyars in Northern Sri Lanka are classified into two groups: the Meelongi and the Keelongi . The Melongi Karaiyars are some areas known as Thevar Karaiya r and Kurukula Karaiyar , who were descendants of commanders, while Keelongi Karaiyars were descendants of

9405-489: Was born around 1039, by the name of Kitti (Keethi) in Ruhuna principality, under Chola occupation . As a result, there were When he was fifteen years old Kitti defeated the last of such rulers, Lokissara, with the aim of becoming the king of Ruhuna. Subsequently, in 1055, he became king of Ruhuna and attained the name of Vijayabahu. According to the "Panakaduwa Copper " (Panakaduwa inscription which written on copper sheets about

9504-511: Was followed by the restoration of the Polonnaruwa kingdom in the late 11th century CE. In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil-dominant Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty established an independent Jaffna kingdom on the Jaffna peninsula and other parts of the north. The Arya Chakaravarthi expansion into the south was halted by Alagakkonara , a man descended from a family of merchants from Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. He

9603-696: Was scattered leadership under Vannimai chiefs in Batticaloa District who came with Magha's army in 1215. From that time on, Eastern Tamil social development diverged from that of the Northern Tamils. Eastern Tamils are an agrarian-based society. They follow a caste system similar to the South Indian or Dravidian kinship system. The Eastern Tamil caste hierarchy is dominated by the Mukkuvar , Vellalar and Karaiyar . The main feature of their society

9702-545: Was sent from the east across Magama to attack Polonnaruwa from the east. The third and main force advanced across the country, led by the king. Surrounded by these three armies, Polonnaruwa was besieged for seven months before king Vijayabahu's forces entered the city. In 1070, Vijayabahu became the ruler of Polonnaruwa. After the victory at Polonnaruwa, Vijayabahu had to face more rebellions. This caused him to delay his coronation, which took place in 1072 or 1073, eighteen years after being crowned as Vijayabahu in Ruhuna and after

9801-702: Was the chief minister of the Sinhalese king Parakramabahu V (1344–59 CE). Vira Alakeshwara, a descendant of Alagakkonara, later became king of the Sinhalese, but he was overthrown by the Ming admiral Zheng He in 1409 CE. The next year, the Chinese admiral Zheng He erected a trilingual stone tablet in Galle in the south of the island, written in Chinese , Persian and Tamil that recorded offerings he made to Buddha , Allah and

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