113-501: Kapilavastu was an ancient city in the eastern Gangetic plains of the Indian subcontinent which was the capital of the clan gaṇasaṅgha or "republic" of the Shakyas in the late Iron Age , around the 6th and 5th centuries BC. King Śuddhodana and Queen Māyā are believed to have lived at Kapilavastu, as did their son Prince Siddartha Gautama ( Gautama Buddha ) until he left the palace at
226-440: A "hierarchical order of estates which reflected a division of labor among various social classes". The Vedic period estates were four: Brahmin priests and warrior nobility stood on top, free peasants and traders were the third, and slaves, labourers and artisans, many belonging to the indigenous people, were the fourth. This was a period where agriculture, metal, and commodity production, as well as trade, greatly expanded, and
339-746: A group of people who settled in Sutlej, Ghagger, and the Upper Ganga/Yamuna Valleys, loosely classified with the early Aryans who migrated to India in the beginning of the Vedic period. It's also thought that the groups that introduced the painted grey ware culture also brought iron technology to the Indo-gangetic plains, making this pottery a momentous mark of the Northern Indian Iron Age. The style of grey-ware often includes clay wheel-thrown into
452-614: A purely indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans is outside the academic mainstream. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda - samhita , i.e. the oldest layer of the Vedas , which was composed c. 1400–1000 BCE. They brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to
565-456: A result of continuous deposition of silt by the major river systems of Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra in the depression that existed between the Himalayas in the north and Deccan plateau in the south. However, there has been divergent theories as to the formation of the depression. As per Darashaw Wadia , the depression was a furrow that originally existed since the formation of the plateau in
678-532: A small kingdom to the east of Magadha (on the door step of modern-day West Bengal ), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture. Yadavas expanded towards the south and settled in Mathura . To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa which was governed from its capital Kausambi . The Narmada River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the southern limits. The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions. The end of
791-475: A small portion in the Kutch region of India. The delta covers an area of about 41,440 km (16,000 sq mi), and is approximately 210 km (130 mi) across where it meets the sea. The climate is arid , the region receives only 25 and 50 cm (9.8 and 19.7 in) of rainfall. Since the 1940s, the delta has received less water as a result of large-scale irrigation works capturing large amounts of
904-406: A smooth texture, ash-grey in color, and often decorated with black ink, creating small circular patterns, sometimes spirals, swastikas, or sigmas. Grey-ware pottery is almost exclusively drinking ware, and tends to have three different forms: narrow-waisted, tall drinking glasses, middle-sized drinking goblets, and drinking vases with outturned lips. There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding
1017-539: A year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this era. This period saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of varna , the division of Vedic society in Brahmins , Kshatriya , Vaishya and Shudra . The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by
1130-560: Is also commonly used to refer to the people, music , and culture of the region. The fertile terrain facilitated the rise and expansion of various empires such as the Mauryas , Kushan , Guptas , all of whom had their demographic and political centers in the Indo-Gangetic plain. The Maurya Empire existed from 4th to 2nd century BCE and unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and
1243-470: Is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána). An essential element was the sacrificial fire—the divine Agni —into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'. Vedic people believed in
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#17328582521961356-551: Is difficult to "pin down" whether the Kurus were a true "state" or a complex chiefdom , as the Kuru kings notably never adopted royal titles higher than "rājan," which means "chief" rather than "king" in the Vedic context. The Middle Vedic Period is also characterized by a lack of cities; Bellah compares this to early state formation in ancient Hawaii and "very early Egypt," which were "territorial states" rather than "city-states," and thus "it
1469-450: Is greatly important to this culture, as pottery was often used as a "grave good", being buried with the bodies of the dead. Buried alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots on top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of pottery per grave. Within this culture we typically see two kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware. Black and red ware culture was coined as a term in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler. The pottery, as
1582-401: Is heard"). The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices ( Yajna ) which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant ), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras ( Yajus ). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna
1695-404: Is home to many major cities and nearly one-seventh of the world's population. In India, it mainly encompasses the states and union territories of Rajasthan in the west, Punjab , Haryana, Chandigarh , and Delhi in the north west, Uttar Pradesh in the north, Bihar and West Bengal in the east, and Assam in the north east. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is divided into two drainage basins by
1808-467: Is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in the Rigveda , but the word ayas and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse mentions purification of ayas . Some scholars believe that ayas refers to iron and the words dham and karmara refer to iron-welders. However, philological evidence indicates that ayas in
1921-510: Is named after the two major river systems that drain the region– Indus and Ganges . Its stretches from the Himalayas in the north to the northern edge of the Deccan plateau in the south, and extends from North East India in the east to the Iranian border in the west. The region is home to many major cities and nearly one-seventh of the world's population. As the region was formed by the deposits of
2034-658: Is the river delta formed by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers when they enter the Bay of Bengal . Spread over the Bengal region , consisting of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal , it is the world's largest river delta and is one of the most fertile regions of the plains. The delta stretches from about 260 km (160 mi) from the Hooghly River east to the Meghna River in
2147-829: The Sindh Plains , and the Indus Delta in Pakistan; Rajasthan Plain, and Punjab-Haryana Plain in India and Pakistan, Ganga Plain in India and Bangladesh, Brahmaputra Valley in India, Terai region in Nepal, and the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta in India and Bangladesh. The Sindh Plains forms the western part of the plains and encompasses the Sindh region of Pakistan to the west of the Thar desert with
2260-623: The Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati , were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism . Ethics in
2373-558: The Aravalli Hills and is about 300 km (190 mi) wide stretching from Haryana in India into Pakistan's Punjab Province . The elevation varies from 275 m (902 ft) in the north to 176 m (577 ft) in the south west. The left quarter of the region is drained mainly by the tributaries of Indus – Ravi , Beas , and Sutlej and the Yamuna waters a small portion on the eastern border. The in-between land which encompasses
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#17328582521962486-560: The Battle of Plassey (1757) and Battle of Buxar (1767) consolidated the company's power in the lower Gangetic plain. With the defeat of the Marathas, the entire region came under the control of British Raj and remained same until the Indian Independence in 1947. The plains were named after the two major river systems that drain the region– Indus and Ganges . The region was formed as
2599-569: The Delhi Ridge , which is a northern extension of the Aravalli Hills . The western part is drains by the Indus, and the eastern part consists of the Ganga–Brahmaputra river systems. The plains encompassed four distinct geographical regions: The region is drained by three major river systems and has a high ground water table . Due to its rich water resources and fertile alluvial soil, it is one of
2712-534: The Gita of Mahabharata , are essential parts of these later developments. The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata: In northern India, some very early depictions of deities appear in the art of the Indus Valley Civilisation , but
2825-548: The Indian plate and a trough was formed later due to the emergence of the Himalayas in the north. Beneath the silt deposition, the region rests on hard crystalline rocks which connect the Himalayan region with the peninsula. As the region was formed by the deposits of major rivers, the plains consists of the world's largest expanse of uninterrupted alluvium . The fertile plains span 700,000 km (270,000 sq mi) across
2938-563: The Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire , which ruled for almost the next three centuries. The Maratha Empire founded by Chatrapati Shivaji , briefly captured the region in the early 18th century CE. The Sikh Empire was established by Ranjit Singh around the same time in the north western part of the region. The Europeans arrived in the end of the 15th century CE in peninsular India . The English East India company 's in
3051-677: The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture , the Gandhara grave culture , the Black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture. Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found approximately between 1950 and 1951, in western Uttar Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district. It is thought that this culture was prominent during the latter half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition between
3164-619: The Punjab Plains in the north and the Indus River Delta in the south. The region receives about 13 in (330 mm) of rain annually, mostly from June to September. The economy is largely based on agriculture. The Indus River Delta encompasses the region where the Indus River flows into the Arabian Sea . Most of the delta lies in the southern Sindh province of Pakistan with
3277-650: The Puranas , envisions a much older chronology for the Vedic culture. In this view, the Vedas were received by the seven rishis thousands of years ago. The start of the reign of Vaivasvata Manu , the Manu of the current kalpa (aeon) and the progenitor of humanity, is dated by some as far back 7350 BCE. The Kurukshetra War , the background-scene of the Bhagavad Gita , which may relate historical events taking place ca. 1000 BCE at
3390-587: The Rigveda refers only to copper and bronze, while iron or śyāma ayas , literally "black metal", first is mentioned in the post-Rigvedic Atharvaveda , and therefore the Early Vedic Period was a Bronze Age culture whereas the Late Vedic Period was an Iron Age culture. The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade and competition for resources. Agriculture dominated
3503-399: The Rigveda refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement ( dasa , dasi ) in the course of war or as a result of non-payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than production-related activities. Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly
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3616-431: The Rigveda , such as 3.44–45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility: O, Indra, fond of soma , would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk soma , would you impart to me endless wealth. The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in
3729-451: The Rigveda . Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared. The wife enjoyed a respectable position. People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned; however, cows are labeled aghnya (not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn. Soma and sura were popular drinks in
3842-802: The Shivalik range in the north and the Deccan Plateau in the south with the Yamuna River forming the rough western boundary. The region extends 550 km (340 mi) in the north–south direction and is about 380 km (240 mi) wide with an average elevation of 100–300 m (330–980 ft). The Middle Ganga Plain stretches to the east of the Upper Ganga plain and forms part of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. It covers an area of 1.44 km (0.56 sq mi), stretching 330 km (210 mi) in north–south direction and 600 km (370 mi) in
3955-512: The Sintashta culture , from which arose the subsequent Andronovo horizon. The Indo-Aryans migrated through the adjacent Bactria – Margiana area (present-day northern Afghanistan ) to northwest India, followed by the rise of the Iranian Yaz culture at c. 1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into Iran at c. 800 BCE. Some Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed
4068-565: The Upanishads , the final phase of the Vedic era, was approximately contemporaneous with a new wave of state formations, linked to the beginning of urbanization in the Ganges Valley: along with the growth of population and trade networks, these social and economic changes put pressure on older ways of life, setting the stage for the Upanishads and the subsequent śramaṇa movements, and the end of
4181-619: The Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya and Rta . Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute. Whereas, Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of
4294-487: The Vedic age ( c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE ), is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas ( c. 1500 –900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent , between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation , which began in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain c. 600 BCE. The Vedas are liturgical texts which formed
4407-495: The Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of " Hindu synthesis ". Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan material culture include the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture , the Gandhara grave culture , the black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW). The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half of the second millennium BCE. Historically, after
4520-479: The Yamuna , Gomti , Ghagara , Gandak , Chambal , Kosi , and Sone drain the region. The various rivers and streams originating from both the Himalayas and the Deccan Plateau contribute to fertile soil in the region. The region gently slopes towards the south east and consists of three regions: Upper, Middle and Lower Ganga Plains. The Upper Ganga Plain stretches 149,000 km (58,000 sq mi) from
4633-445: The rajan was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas (envoys) and spash (spies). Purohita performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace. In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system. To aid in governing these new states,
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4746-690: The transmigration of the soul , and the peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharvaveda . Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma , Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas . The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra , Agni (the sacrificial fire ), and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra – Varuna , Aryaman , Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind) and Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of
4859-426: The "surface" level, in which graves are covered with huge stone slabs. In the lower stage, excavators found that these graves are typically 2–3 feet deep, and covered with stones on top. After digging out the stones, skeletons were found facing southwest to northeast, with the head facing one direction, and the hands laying on top of one another. Female skeletons were often found wearing hair pins and jewelry. Pottery
4972-571: The Buddha. Indo-Gangetic Plain The Indo-Gangetic Plain , also known as the Northern Plain or North Indian River Plain , is a fertile plain spanning 700,000 km (270,000 sq mi) across the northern and north-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent . It encompasses northern and eastern India , eastern Pakistan , southern Nepal , and almost all of Bangladesh . It
5085-418: The Himalayan and Deccan plateau region. However, geologists such as Ferdinand Hayden and Richard Oldham have rejected this stating that there is no evidence of existence of a rift valley and that the existence of such a large rift valley is not possible. According to the recent research, sediment deposited at the bed of the per-historic Tethys Sea folded towards the northern end due to the northward drift of
5198-457: The Indus Valley civilization and the end of Harrapan culture. This pottery is typically created with wheel ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium fabric, decorated with a red slip, and occasional black bands1. When this pottery was worked with, it often left an ochre color on the hands, most likely because of water-logging, bad firing, wind action, or a mixture of these factors. This pottery
5311-485: The Indus water before it reaches the delta. The region is home to the largest arid mangrove forests in the world. The population of the active part of the delta was estimated at 900,000 in 2003 with fishing being the major industry. The Rajasthan Plains form the western extreme of the plains in India and is mostly composed of Thar desert , which occupies an area of 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi) stretching acrss 650 km (400 mi). About three-fourth of
5424-563: The Kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks , Indo-Scythians , and Indo-Parthians . This period culminated with the Kushan and Gupta Empire , which resulted in the "Hindu Synthesis". While Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of socio-economic classes or castes was absent, the Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes . Political hierarchy
5537-510: The Kshatriya and Shudra. The Purusha Sukta visualised the four varnas as hierarchical, but inter-related parts of an organic whole. Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like Rigveda IX.112 suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions." Household became an important unit in
5650-583: The Kuru-Panchala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan people in northern India, transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India. Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle, resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India. The Gangetic plains had remained out of bounds to
5763-807: The Vedic Period, which was followed by the Mahajanapada period. According to George Erdosy, archaeological data for the period from 1000 to 600 BCE shows a two-tiered settlement pattern in the Ganges Valley, with some "modest central places," suggestive of the existence of simple chiefdoms , with the Kurukshetra district itself displaying a more complex (albeit not yet urbanized) three-tiered hierarchy. Subsequently, (after 600 BCE) there are four tiers of site sizes, including large towns and fortified cities, consistent with an urbanized state-level society. Economy in
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#17328582521965876-425: The Vedic era texts including the early Upanishads and many Sutras important to later Hindu culture were completed. The Kuru Kingdom , the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox Śrauta rituals. Two key figures in this process of
5989-460: The Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Pāṇini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit . Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region, the shramana movements (including Jainism and Buddhism ) objected the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual. According to Bronkhorst,
6102-411: The Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralism and agriculture. There are references, in the Rigveda , to the leveling of fields, seed processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War bounty was also a major source of wealth. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings ( bali ) and priests ( dana ), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold
6215-401: The Vedic period witnessed the rise of true cities and large states (called mahajanapadas ) as well as śramaṇa movements (including Jainism and Buddhism ) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy. The Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes that would remain influential. Vedic religion developed into Brahmanical orthodoxy , and around the beginning of the Common Era,
6328-432: The Vedic society, of which soma was sanctified by religion. Flute ( vana ), lute ( vina ), harp, cymbals and drums were the musical instruments played and a heptatonic scale was used. Dancing, dramas, chariot racing and gambling were other popular pastimes. The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age led to a distancing of the rajan from the people and the emergence of a varna hierarchy. The society
6441-468: The Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units. The Vedic religion was further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its religious literature and developing
6554-399: The age of 29. Buddhist texts such as the Pāli Canon say that Kapilavastu was the childhood home of Gautama Buddha, on account of it being the capital of the Shakyas, over whom his father ruled. Kapilavastu is the place where Siddhartha Gautama spent the first 29 years of his life. According to Buddhist sources the name Kapilvatthu means "tawny area", due to the abundance of reddish sand in
6667-484: The area. Most foreign accounts from the medieval period, particularly from China, described Kapilavastu as being part of "Central India". Kapilavastu never became a major pilgrimage site like Buddha's birthplace at Lumbini not far away, which would have left unmistakable remains. The settlement was probably never as large as depictions in early Buddhist art suggest, and after the decline of Buddhism in India its location faded into obscurity. There are now two sites near
6780-422: The banks of the river Parushni (modern day Ravi ). The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas , led by their chief Sudas , against a confederation of ten tribes. The Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river Saraswati , while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab . Division of
6893-593: The basis of the influential Brahmanical ideology, which developed in the Kuru Kingdom , a tribal union of several Indo-Aryan tribes . The Vedas contain details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and Vedic culture to be traced and inferred. The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted with precision by speakers of an Old Indo-Aryan language who had migrated into
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#17328582521967006-511: The border between Nepal and India which are claimed as Kapilavastu — Piprahwa in Uttar Pradesh , India and Tilaurakot in Nepal. Finds at the Piprahwa (including a reliquary found inside a mud stupa ) indicate Buddhist activity dating to the 5th–4th century BCE, around the time of the death of the Buddha. The 19th-century search for the historical site of Kapilavastu followed the accounts left by Faxian and later by Xuanzang , who were Chinese Buddhist monks who made early pilgrimages to
7119-494: The city of Delhi, largely consists of no major streams except the seasonal Ghaggar River . The region has a humid sub tropical climate with dry winters and receives the major part of rainfall during the south west monsoon between July to September. The Ganga Plain forms the largest sub-unit of the plains and encompasses an area of 375,000 km (145,000 sq mi) across the states of Uttar Pradesh , Bihar, and West Bengal . The Ganges along with its tributaries such as
7232-451: The clearing of forests and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterised by the emergence of towns, kingdoms , and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India, and the Kuru Kingdom 's codification of orthodox sacrificial ritual . During this time, the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture, of Greater Magadha . The end of
7345-413: The collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation , which occurred around 1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley . The Indo-Aryans represented a sub-group that diverged from other Indo-Iranian tribes at the Andronovo horizon before the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. The Indo-Iranians originated in
7458-444: The commandments of gods ( avrata ). Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as Asko Parpola connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into
7571-450: The culture. Gandhara grave culture refers to the protohistoric cemeteries found in the Gandhara region, stretching all the way from Bajuar to the Indus. These cemeteries seem to follow a set grave structure and "mortuary practice", such as inflexed inhumation and cremation. This culture is thought to occur in 3 stages: the lower, in which burials take place in masonry lined pits, the upper, in which urn burials and cremations are added, and
7684-399: The development of the Kuru state were the king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya , transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India . The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for
7797-406: The east–west direction. The elevation varies from 100 m (330 ft) in the western boundary to 30 m (98 ft) towards the south east. This plain is largely drained by Ghaghara, Gandak and Kosi rivers. The Lower Ganga Plain includes parts of Bihar, West Bengal and most of Bangladesh . It stretches for 81,000 km (31,000 sq mi) along a 580 km (360 mi) stretch from
7910-782: The economic activity along the Ganges valley during this period. Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements ( krishna–ayas or shyama–ayas , literally black metal or dark metal) increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Surplus production helped to support the centralised kingdoms that were emerging at this time. New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and winemaking arose. Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver. Panis in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis were semitic traders, but
8023-400: The establishment of the pottery, but while the culture is significant, grey ware has only made up 10–15% of found Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery red ware, as grey ware pottery was seen as a "highly valued luxury". The Puranic chronology , the timeline of events in ancient Indian history and mythology as narrated in post-Vedic Hindu texts such as the Mahabharata , the Ramayana and
8136-411: The evidence for this is slim. Professions of warriors, priests, cattle-rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda . Some of these might have needed full-time specialists. There are references to boats and oceans. Book X of
8249-436: The exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged. Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the Black and red ware culture (1450–1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including the area of Mathura. Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic material culture include
8362-642: The following millennium, coinciding with the Indo–Aryan migration during the Vedic period, is devoid of such remains. It has been suggested that the early Vedic religion focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations. Various artefacts may belong to the Copper Hoard culture (2nd millennium CE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics. Interpretations vary as to
8475-625: The foothills of the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south, and extends between the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the west and Bangladesh's eastern boundary with India. The average elevation is 50 m (160 ft) along the western boundary. The Brahmaputra Valley largely covers the Indian state of Assam and is an eastern extension of the plains. It stretches from the Eastern Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh in
8588-544: The four Vedas , but the Brahmanas , Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Śrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Śrauta priests and the purohitas . The rishis , the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda , were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda , Śruti means "what
8701-628: The hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion and the Indo-Iranian religion. Funeral sacrifices from the Sintashta culture show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the Rigveda , while, according to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan ) and (present-day) Tajikistan. It
8814-574: The increasing power of the king, their influence declined. By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states ( rajya ), oligarchical states ( gana or sangha ), and tribal principalities had emerged in India. According to Michael Witzel 's analysis of the Kuru Kingdom , it can be characterized as the earliest Vedic "state", during the Middle Vedic Period. However, Robert Bellah observes that it
8927-510: The king Janaka , whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya , Uddalaka Aruni , and Gargi Vachaknavi ; Panchala also remained prominent during this period, under its king Pravahana Jaivali . By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas . The process of urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms, commerce and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances became easy to access. Anga ,
9040-423: The kings and their Brahmin priests arranged Vedic hymns into collections and developed a new set of rituals (the now orthodox Śrauta rituals) to strengthen the emerging social hierarchy . The rajan was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of rashtra (polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and games of dice, which previously decided who
9153-449: The later Vedic age. The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household which was headed by a grihapati . The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya Samhita indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in
9266-462: The later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as Vishpala , who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads. Patrick Olivelle , in his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological matters suggests
9379-426: The main constituents of the " Hindu synthesis ". Vedic religion survived in the srayta ritual, whereas ascetic and devotional traditions like Yoga and Vedanta acknowledge the authority of the Vedas , but interpret the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman . Later texts such as the Upanishads and epics, namely
9492-419: The name suggests, typically has a black rim/inside surface, and a red lower half on the outside of the piece. Red-ware pottery tends to fall into two categories: offering stands, or cooking vessels. Most of these pieces of pottery were open-mouthed bowls that were burnished, painted, or slipped on one side; however, jars, pots and dishes-on-stands have also been found in small quantities. Black and red ware, and
9605-604: The non-Vedic Salva tribe , and the political center of Vedic culture shifted east, into the Panchala kingdom on the Ganges, under King Keśin Dālbhya (approximately between 900 and 750 BCE). Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a political center farther to the East, in what is today northern Bihar of India and southeastern Nepal , reaching its prominence under
9718-593: The north, to the Garo - Khasi - Jaintia and Mikir Hills in the south. Its has the Patkai and Naga Hills to the east and the boundary of the Lower Ganga Plain to the west. The region covers an estimated 56,000 km (22,000 sq mi) and is watered by Brahmaputra and its tributaries. The elevation varies from 130 m (430 ft) in the east to 30 m (98 ft) in the west. The Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta
9831-464: The northern and north-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent . It encompasses northern and eastern India , eastern Pakistan , southern Nepal , and almost all of Bangladesh . Its stretches from the Himalayas in the north to the Vindhyas and Satpura and the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the south in the south, and extends from North East India in the east to the Iranian border in the west. The region
9944-555: The northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period. The Vedic society was patriarchal and patrilineal . Early Indo-Aryans were a Late Bronze Age society centred in the Punjab , organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a pastoral way of life. Around c. 1200 –1000 BCE the Aryan culture spread eastward to the fertile western Ganges Plain. Iron tools were adopted, which allowed for
10057-458: The notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, and argued for an indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans . In this view, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)." Though popular in India, and reflecting Indian views on Indian history and religion, the idea of
10170-515: The plains lie in India and rest in Pakistan. In India, two-thirds of the region is part of western Rajasthan , extending to the west of Aravalli Hills and rest form parts of Haryana , Punjab and Gujarat . The region has an average elevation of 325 m (1,066 ft) which reduces from east to west, reaching about 150 m (490 ft) towards the Indus delta and the Rann of Kutch . The western part of
10283-458: The region is covered by shifting sand dunes (dharian) and the eastern part of the region (Rajasthan Bagar) is rocky. The region is largely arid with seasonal streams uch as Luni supporting limited agriculture. The Punjab-Haryana Plain lies to the east and north east of the Rajasthan Plain. It extends for a length of 640 km (400 mi) in a north west to south east orientation till
10396-670: The region was referred to as " Aryavarta " (Land of the Aryans ). According to Manusmṛti (2.22), 'Aryavarta' is "the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern Sea ( Bay of Bengal ) to the Western Sea ( Arabian Sea )". The region was part of what was historically referred to as Hindustan , a term used to refer to the whole of the Indian subcontinent . The term "Hindustani"
10509-764: The region was ruled by the Rajputs . In 1191 CE, the Rajput king Prithviraj Chauhan unified several Rajput states and defeated the invading army of Shihabuddin Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain . However, Shihabuddin defeated the Rajputs in the Second Battle of Tarain , which led to the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in the region in the 13th century CE. In 1526 CE, Babur swept across
10622-426: The relatively high social and religious position of at least women of some social strata during this period." Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a rajan . The autonomy of the rajan was restricted by the tribal councils called sabha and samiti . The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The rajan could not accede to
10735-551: The service of the higher varnas . The effects of Rajasuya sacrifice depended on the varna of the sacrificer. Rajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The hierarchy of the top three varnas is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts. Panchavamsha Brahmana and verse 13.8.3.11 of the Shatapatha Brahmana place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and Vaishya over
10848-485: The site. Some archaeologists have identified present-day Tilaurakot , Nepal , while others have identified present-day Piprahwa , India as the location for the historical site of Kapilavastu, the seat of governance of the Shakya state that would have covered the region. Both sites contain archaeological ruins. Those at Piprahwa show it was a significant early Buddhist site with a stupa and monasteries, and probably relics of
10961-411: The south and the mountains in the north. Edward Suess had suggested that the depression was a large syncline that was formed when the southward advance of the Himalayas was blocked by the Indian landmass. Sydney Burrard opined that the region was a deep rift that existed in the earth's crust , which was subsequently filled with alluvium. He also pointed out the existence of other rift valleys in
11074-539: The sramana culture arose in " Greater Magadha ," which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. Greater Magadha reached its zenith under the Maurya Empire . Meanwhile, the Achaemenid invasion of Cyrus and Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, which continued in
11187-514: The subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans. Likewise, Bronkhorst has argued that the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture, a difference also noted by Samuel. Accounts of military conflicts in between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rigveda . Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of the Ten Kings , which took place on
11300-441: The surrounding culture, began its spread during the neolithic period and continues until the early medieval period in India, as well as being found in parts of West Asia and Egypt. There are many theories about the process of its creation, the most popular being the use of an inverted firing technique, or a simultaneous oxidation and reduction firing. Painted grey ware culture is a significant pottery style that has been linked to
11413-492: The three major rivers–Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra , the plains consists of the world's largest expanse of uninterrupted alluvium . Due to its rich water resources, it is one of the world's most densely populated and intensely farmed areas. The region was home to the Indus Valley civilisation in 3000 BCE, which was one of the earliest human settlements in the Indian subcontinent. During the Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE),
11526-494: The throne without their approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear. Arthur Llewellyn Basham , a noted historian and indologist , theorises that sabha was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, samiti was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils. Rajan had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers ( sabhasad ) and chiefs of sects ( gramani ). The main responsibility of
11639-602: The waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war. The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings. The Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the Kuru , after the war. After the 12th century BCE, as the Rigveda had taken its final form, the Vedic society, which is associated with
11752-533: The west. It encompasses an area of more than 100,000 km (39,000 sq mi) with two-thirds of it in Bangladesh. It is also one of the most densely populated regions in the world with more than 130 million inhabitants. The area is prone to heavy tropical cyclones . Agriculture and fishing form important part of the economy in the region. 27°N 80°E / 27°N 80°E / 27; 80 Vedic period The Vedic period , or
11865-412: The world's most densely populated and intensely farmed areas. The eastern part of the plain receives heavy rainfall during the monsoon after the summer, which commonly results in floods and inundations. The rainfall decreases from the east towards the west with the western region encompassing drier areas such as the Thar desert . The region can be sub-divided into various geographical units such as
11978-709: The Śrauta ritual. It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture (c.1200–600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-Yamuya Doab. It differed from the related, yet markedly different, culture of the Central Ganges region, which was associated with the Northern Black Polished Ware and the Mahajanapadas of Kosala and Magadha . In this period the varna system emerged, state Kulke and Rothermund, which in this stage of Indian history were
12091-570: Was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture , including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma . The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices ( akratu ) or obey
12204-423: Was determined by rank, where rājan (tribal king or chieftain) and rājanya (tribal nobility) stood at the top, the viś (the common people) in the middle, and the dāsa and dasyu (non-Indo-Aryan servants) at the bottom. The words Brahamana and Kshatriya occur in various family books of the Rigveda , but they are not associated with the term varna . The words Vaishya and Shudra are absent. Verses of
12317-544: Was divided into four social groups— Brahmanas , Kshatriyas , Vaishyas and Shudras . The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups. The Shatapatha Brahmana associates the Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and production-related activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with
12430-484: Was found all throughout the doab, most of it found in the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, and Bulandshahr districts, but also existing outside these districts, extending north and south of Bahadrabad. This pottery does, however, seem to exist within different time frames of popularity, ochre colored pottery seeming to occur in areas such as Rajasthan earlier than we see it in the doab, despite the doab being heavily associated with
12543-476: Was the largest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent. The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent in the middle of the 1st century CE. Maritime trade along the Silk Road flourished during the period. The Gupta period existed from the 4th to 7th century CE and is noted for its arts, architecture and science. In the 12th century CE, much of
12656-449: Was the court, not the city, that provided the center, and the court was often peripatetic." Romila Thapar characterizes Vedic-era state formation as being in a condition of "arrested development," because local chiefs were relatively autonomous, and because surplus wealth that could have been directed towards state-building was instead used for the increasingly grandiose rituals that also served to structure social relations. The period of
12769-475: Was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as samrat (supreme ruler). The rajan's increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering ( bali ) became compulsory tribute; however, there was no organised system of taxation. Sabha and samiti are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with
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