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52-778: Kamula (Kamira, Wawoi) is a Trans–New Guinea language that is unclassified within that family in the classification of Malcolm Ross (2005). Noting insufficient evidence, Pawley and Hammarström (2018) leave it as unclassified. Kamula is spoken in two widely separated areas, including in Kamiyami village of the Wawoi Falls area in Bamu Rural LLG , Western Province, Papua New Guinea . Routamaa (1994: 7) estimates that there are about 800 speakers of Kamula located in 3 villages in Western Province, with no dialectal differences reported. This
104-401: A family was a match, the family was considered a match, greatly increasing the likelihood of coincidental resemblances, and because the plural forms are related to the singular forms, a match of 1sg and 1pl, although satisfying Ross's requirement of two matches, is not actually two independent matches, again increasing the likelihood of spurious matches. In addition, Ross counted forms like *a as
156-903: A few thousand people, with only seven ( Melpa , Kuman , Enga , Huli , Western Dani , Makasae , and Ekari ) being spoken by more than 100,000. The most populous language outside of mainland New Guinea is Makasae of East Timor , with 100,000 speakers throughout the eastern part of the country. Enga is the most populous Trans-New Guinea language spoken in New Guinea , with more than 200,000 speakers. Golin , Sinasina , Mid Grand Valley Dani, Kamano , and Bunaq have between 50,000 and 100,000 speakers ( Galela of Halmahera , usually not classified as Trans-New Guinea, also has between 50,000 and 100,000 speakers.) All other Trans–New Guinea languages have fewer than 50,000 speakers. The greatest linguistic diversity in Ross's Trans–New Guinea proposal, and therefore perhaps
208-411: A lack of pronouns common to other branches of TNG, and he suggested that there may be other families that would have been included if they had been better attested. Several additional families are only tentatively linked to TNG. Because the boundaries of Ross's proposal are based primarily on a single parameter, the pronouns, all internal structure remains tentative. Most TNG languages are spoken by only
260-606: A match to 2sg *ga, so that /ɡV, kV, ŋɡV, V/ all counted as matches to *ga. And although /n/ and /ɡ/ occur in Papuan pronouns at twice the level expected by their occurrence in pronouns elsewhere in the world, they do not correlate with each other as they would if they reflected a language family. That is, it is argued that Ross's pronouns do not support the validity of Trans–New Guinea, and do not reveal which families might belong to it. Ross also included in his proposal several better-attested families for non-pronominal evidence, despite
312-566: A number of apparent isolates . In 2005, Malcolm Ross published a draft proposal re-evaluating Trans–New Guinea, and found what he believed to be overwhelming evidence for a reduced version of the phylum, based solely on lexical resemblances, which retained as much as 85% of Wurm's hypothesis, though some of it tentatively. The strongest lexical evidence for any language family is shared morphological paradigms, especially highly irregular or suppletive paradigms with bound morphology, because these are extremely resistant to borrowing. For example,
364-632: A rich cultural heritage. The region is home to several indigenous communities, each with its unique language, customs, and beliefs. Visitors can learn about these communities by visiting their villages, attending cultural festivals, and participating in traditional ceremonies. Some of the most popular cultural experiences on the peninsula include the Baining Fire Dance , the Morobe Show, and the Sepik River Crocodile Festival. Some of
416-578: A wide range of flora and fauna that are found nowhere else in the world. The Huon Peninsula Conservation Area is home to numerous endangered species, including the Huon tree kangaroo and the golden-mantled tree kangaroo . The area was the site of the Huon Peninsula campaign of World War II , in 1943-44 as Japanese troops retreating from Lae fought their way over the Finisterre Mountains to Madang on
468-636: Is "highly likely" that the Madang family belongs as well. He considered it possible, but not yet demonstrated, that the Enga, Chimbu, Binandere, Angan, Ok, Awyu, Asmat (perhaps closest to Ok and Awyu), Mek, Sentani, and the seven small language families of the tail of Papua New Guinea (Koiarian, Goilalan, etc., which he maintains have not been shown to be closely related to each other) may belong to TNG as well. Ross does not use specialized terms for different levels of classification as Donald Laycock and Stephen Wurm did. In
520-564: Is because the Kamula had originally lived in camps near Samokopa in the northern area, but a group had split off and moved to Wasapea in the south only around 50 years ago. In the northern villages of Kesiki and Samokopa, Kamula children were reported as preferring to speak Doso over Kamula. A minority of Kamula people in the northern area also live in Dibiyaso -speaking villages, where they are multilingual in Kamula, Doso, and Dibiyaso. Kamula people in
572-515: Is essentially restricted to comparing pronouns . Ross reconstructed pronouns sets for Foley's basic families and compared these reconstructions, rather than using a direct mass comparison of all Papuan languages; attempted to then reconstruct the ancestral pronouns of the proto-Trans–New Guinea language, such as *ni "we", *ŋgi "you", *i "they"; and then compared poorly supported branches directly to this reconstruction. Families required two apparent cognates to be included. However, if any language in
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#1733202264885624-527: Is incomplete and there are many other peoples in the area each with diverse set of customs and traditions. The Huon Peninsula is a part of the New Guinea Orogen , which is a mountain range that was formed as a result of the collision between the Australian and Pacific tectonic plates . It is known for its complex geology, including repeated episodic uplift events. These uplift events have resulted in
676-450: Is known for its production of cocoa, copra, and palm oil, which are exported to other parts of Papua New Guinea and to international markets. Additionally, small-scale farming is common in the area, with many families growing crops such as bananas, taro, and sweet potato for subsistence and sale. At intermediate altitudes within the region mandarins are produced as a cash crop. In addition to its natural attractions, Huon Peninsula also has
728-460: Is needed): Groups and isolates sometimes classified as Trans-New Guinea, but rejected by Pawley and Hammarström (2018) as Trans-New Guinea: Glottolog , of which Hammarström is one of the editors, accepts 10 groups as part of a Nuclear Trans–New Guinea family, based on Foley (2000), Pawley (2005) and Edgar Suter (1997). Matthew Dryer used lexicostatistics to evaluate Pawley and Hammarström (2018), based on 40-word Swadesh list data from
780-404: Is perhaps the third-largest language family in the world by number of languages. The core of the family is considered to be established, but its boundaries and overall membership are uncertain. The languages are spoken by around 3 million people. There have been several main proposals as to its internal classification. Although Papuan languages for the most part are poorly documented, several of
832-555: Is readily borrowed—many of the Austronesian languages in New Guinea have grammatical structures similar to their Papuan neighbors, for example, and conversely many Papuan languages resemble typical Austronesian languages typologically—other linguists were skeptical. William A. Foley rejected Wurm's and even some of Voorhoeve's results, and he broke much of TNG into its constituent parts: several dozen small but clearly valid families, plus
884-469: Is the Morobe provincial capital Lae to the south, while settlements on the north coast include the former German town of Finschhafen , the district capital of Wasu , Malalamai and Saidor with its World War II era Saidor Airport . The Huon Peninsula is home to a diverse range of indigenous communities, each with their own unique cultures and traditions. The region is known for its rich biodiversity, with
936-484: The ASJP database. Dryer concludes that the following language families are likely to be Trans–New Guinea. They are listed in order of highest to lowest score, i.e. starting with the most likely. Dryer does not consider that evidence based solely on pronouns and the word for 'louse' is sufficient to conclude that a family is a member of Trans-New Guinea. This is because they are more likely to be an areal form ( Wanderwort ) in
988-675: The Allies launched in the Pacific in late 1943 and resulted in the Japanese being pushed north from Lae to Sio on the northern coast of New Guinea over the course of a four-month period. The campaign was preceded by an amphibious landing by troops from the Australian 9th Division east of Lae on 4 September 1943. Below is a table containing some of the traditional inhabitants of the region, their spoken languages, and some notes about their culture. This list
1040-410: The Huon Peninsula montane rain forests ecoregion . The rainforest of the hillsides consists of shorter trees and more herbs than you would find in lowland rainforests around the world, with predominant species of tree including Pometia , Canarium , Anisoptera , Cryptocarya laurels, and Terminalia , while the higher slopes have thicker forests of yet smaller trees and the higher slopes of
1092-469: The nominal domain , are commonly found among Trans–New Guinea languages: Huon Peninsula Huon Peninsula is a large rugged peninsula on the island of New Guinea in Morobe Province , eastern Papua New Guinea . It is named after French explorer Jean-Michel Huon de Kermadec . The peninsula is dominated by the steep Saruwaged and Finisterre and Cromwell Mountains . The nearest large town
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#17332022648851144-618: The proto-language broke up. Ross speculates that the TNG family may have spread with the high population densities that resulted from the domestication of taro , settling quickly in the highland valleys along the length of the cordillera but spreading much more slowly into the malarial lowlands, and not at all into areas such as the Sepik River valley where the people already had yam agriculture, which thus supported high population densities. Ross suggests that TNG may have arrived at its western limit,
1196-511: The 19th century, Christian missionaries established missions on the peninsula, leading to significant changes in the region's social and cultural landscape. During World War II, the Huon Peninsula played a pivotal role in the Pacific War . The Australian and American militaries established bases in the area, and the peninsula became a major staging ground for military operations. After the war,
1248-522: The Cromwell Range in particular hold the best-preserved large forest of Dacrydium conifers in the southern hemisphere. Mammals indigenous to the Huon region include the endangered Matschie's tree-kangaroo , while the birds include many of typical Australasian families such as bowerbirds , Australian robins , honeyeaters (including the endemic spangled honeyeater ) and birds of paradise (including
1300-473: The Huon Peninsula underwent rapid development, with new infrastructure being built to support the growing population. Agriculture and mining became major industries, attracting people from all over Papua New Guinea. The Huon Peninsula campaign was a series of battles fought in north-eastern Papua New Guinea in 1943–1944 during the Second World War . The campaign formed the initial part of an offensive that
1352-465: The Trans-New Guinea database: Trans%E2%80%93New Guinea languages Irian Jaya, W to E PNG highlands, W to E Southern PNG, E to W Trans–New Guinea ( TNG ) is an extensive family of Papuan languages spoken on the island of New Guinea and neighboring islands, a region corresponding to the country Papua New Guinea as well as parts of Indonesia . Trans–New Guinea
1404-580: The branches of Trans–New Guinea have been recognized for some time. The Eleman languages were first proposed by S. Ray in 1907, parts of Marind were recognized by Ray and JHP Murray in 1918, and the Rai Coast languages in 1919, again by Ray. The precursor of the Trans–New Guinea family was Stephen Wurm 's 1960 proposal of an East New Guinea Highlands family. Although broken up by Malcolm Ross in 2005, it united different branches of what became TNG for
1456-411: The case of the word for 'louse' or to be highly conservative in the case of pronouns. Dryer states that similarities solely in pronouns mean that the families are related but that the relationship is so distant as to be "undetectable". Dryer notes that this is a preliminary quantitative analysis and only gives a rough prediction of the families that may or may not belong within Trans–New Guinea, and that
1508-1288: The classification is based on a single feature – shared pronouns, especially 1sg and 2sg – and thus is subject to false positives as well as to missing branches that have undergone significant sound changes, since he does not have the data to establish regular sound correspondences. Although Ross based his classification on pronoun systems, many languages in New Guinea are too poorly documented for even this to work. Thus there are several isolates that were placed in TNG by Wurm but that cannot be addressed by Ross's classification. A few of them (Komyandaret, Samarokena, and maybe Kenati) have since been assigned to existing branches (or ex-branches) of TNG, whereas others (Massep, Momuna) continue to defy classification. Ross removed 95 languages from TNG. These are small families with no pronouns in common with TNG languages, but that are typologically similar, perhaps due to long periods of contact with TNG languages. Andrew Pawley and Harald Hammarström (2018) accept 35 subgroups as members of Trans-New Guinea. Groups and isolates considered by Pawley and Hammarström (2018) as having weaker or disputed claims to membership in Trans-New Guinea (some of which they suggest may ultimately turn out to be Trans-New Guinea, but further evidence
1560-421: The colonial era, and remnants of the mining operations can still be seen in the area today. The limestone formations on the peninsula have also contributed to the unique landscape of the region. Studies have shown that up to six regressive terraces occur on the youngest Holocene reef tract , while up to 15 occur on older reef tracts II and III. These tracts span the interval from 33,000 to 52,000 years ago, and
1612-500: The details are as yet unclear. The families from the Ross and Glottolog classifications that are not included are Kaure, Pauwasi, Engan, Chimbu–Wahgi, Madang, Eleman, Kiwaian, Binanderean, Goilalan, and the several Papuan Gulf families. Usher only includes families that have a regular reflex of the 2sg pronoun, so there may be additional TNG families that have changed their pronouns. A number of colexification patterns (called 'semantic conflations' by Donald Laycock ), particularly in
Kamula language - Misplaced Pages Continue
1664-440: The endemic Huon astrapia ). There are also endemic butterflies. Although some logging has taken place, the forests of the Huon Peninsula mountains are mostly undisturbed. Below is a table containing some of the frogs and lizards commonly found within the area. The below table contains some of the birds commonly encountered at higher elevations along the Huon peninsula. The raised beach coastal terraces of Huon were added to
1716-546: The evidence for this was typological , and Wurm stated that he did not expect it to stand up well to scrutiny. Although he based the phylum on characteristic personal pronouns , several of the branches had no pronouns in common with the rest of the family, or even had pronouns related to non-TNG families, but were included because they were grammatically similar to TNG. Other families that had typical TNG pronouns were excluded because they did not resemble other TNG families in their grammatical structure. Because grammatical typology
1768-410: The fact that German words gut "good" and besser "better" resemble their English counterparts would be stronger evidence that German is related to English than the mere lexical correspondence between German rot and English red for the color. However, because of the great morphological complexity of many Papuan languages, and the poor state of documentation of nearly all, in New Guinea this approach
1820-592: The first time, linking Engan, Chimbu–Wahgi, Goroka, and Kainantu. (Duna and Kalam were added in 1971.) Then in 1970, Clemens Voorhoeve and Kenneth McElhanon noted 91 lexical resemblances between the Central and South New Guinea (CSNG) and Finisterre–Huon families, which they had respectively established a few years earlier. Although they did not work out regular sound correspondences, and so could not distinguish between cognates due to genealogical relationship, cognates due to borrowing, and chance resemblances, their research
1872-564: The following families as less likely to be Trans–New Guinea. They have few basic vocabulary items in common with Trans–New Guinea: Timothy Usher and Edgar Suter, in consultation with Papuan language researchers such as William Croft , Matthew Dryer , John Lynch , Andrew Pawley , and Malcolm Ross , have reconstructed low-level constituents of Trans–New Guinea to verify, through the establishment of regular sound changes, which purported members truly belong to it, and to determine their subclassification. In many cases Usher has created new names for
1924-425: The formation of regressive terraces that are cut into raised late Quaternary reef tracts . The peninsula is primarily composed of sedimentary and volcanic rocks , with a few areas of metamorphic rocks . The Huon Peninsula also has significant mineral deposits, including gold , copper , and silver . The area around the town of Wau in the central part of the peninsula was once a major gold mining center during
1976-602: The highlands of Irian Jaya mark the object of a transitive verb with a set of verbal prefixes, a first person singular in /n/ and second person singular in a velar stop , is overwhelming evidence that these languages are all genetically related; the likelihood of such a system being borrowed vanishingly small." He considered the relationship between the Finisterre–Huon, Eastern Highlands (Kainantu–Gorokan), and Irian Highlands (Dani – Paniai Lakes) families (and presumably some other smaller ones) to be established, and he said that it
2028-550: The islands near Timor , perhaps four to 4.5 thousand years ago, before the expansion of Austronesian into this area. Roger Blench associates the spread of Trans–New Guinea languages with the domestication of the banana . Wurm et al. identify the subdivisions in their Papuan classification as families (on the order of relatedness of the Germanic languages ), stocks (on the order of the Indo-European languages ), and phyla (on
2080-473: The languages of the island of Timor to the west of New Guinea, Angan , Goilalan , Koiarian , Dagan , Eleman , Wissel Lakes , the erstwhile Dani-Kwerba family, and the erstwhile Trans-Fly–Bulaka River family (which he had established in 1970), expanding TNG into an enormous language phylum that covered most of the island of New Guinea, as well as Timor and neighboring islands, and included over 500 languages spoken by some 2,300,000 people. However, part of
2132-524: The lexical similarities it is based on may be due to loanwords, areal forms ( Wanderwörter ) and so forth. (Pawley and Hammarström (2018) do not classify Bayono–Awbono and Damal as Trans–New Guinea.) Dryer lists the following families as "borderline". They have a somewhat higher basic lexical similarity with Trans–New Guinea than with non-Trans–New Guinea families: (Pawley and Hammarström (2018) do not classify South Bird's Head , Timor–Alor–Pantar or Teberan as Trans–New Guinea.) Dryer lists
Kamula language - Misplaced Pages Continue
2184-467: The list given here, the uncontroversial families that are accepted by Foley and other Papuanists and that are the building blocks of Ross's TNG are printed in boldface . Language isolates are printed in italics . Ross removed about 100 languages from Wurm's proposal, and only tentatively retained a few dozen more, but in one instance he added a language, the isolate Porome . Ross did not have sufficient evidence to classify all Papuan groups. In addition,
2236-466: The location of the proto-Trans–New Guinea homeland, is in the interior highlands of Papua New Guinea, in the central-to-eastern New Guinea cordillera where Wurm first posited his East New Guinea Highlands family. Indonesian Papua and the Papuan Peninsula of Papua New Guinea (the "bird's tail") have fewer and more widely extended branches of TNG, and were therefore likely settled by TNG speakers after
2288-444: The member families to reflect their geographic location. Much of Usher's classification is accepted by Glottolog , though under different names. As of 2024, his classification is as follows, including correspondences to the names in earlier classifications. He expects to expand the membership of the family as reconstruction proceeds. These branches may cluster together (the southwestern branches, for example, may group together), but
2340-658: The most notable sites include the Madang Museum , the War Cemetery in Lae , and the ruins of the Japanese wartime base at Salamaua . Within several areas of the region some of the local populations practice a type of soil erosion prevention, they do so by weaving the stems of Piper aduncum into 2-3 meter tall fences which are then used to create a type of terrace . The rainforests that cover these remote mountains provide habitats for many birds and animals and have been designated
2392-529: The north coast. For over 40,000 years, the region has been home to indigenous communities, such as the Yabob and Morwap , who have relied on hunting, fishing, and gathering for their survival. Their way of life remained largely unchanged until the arrival of European explorers in the 16th century. Stone tools dating back to around 40,000 years ago have been discovered by archaeologists on top of stone terraces, they were believed to be used for agricultural purposes. In
2444-462: The order of the Nostratic hypothesis). Trans-New Guinea is a phylum in this terminology. A language that is not related to any other at a family level or below is called an isolate in this scheme. ('Family-level' groups are listed in boldface ) As of 2003, William A. Foley accepted the core of TNG: "The fact, for example, that a great swath of languages in New Guinea from the Huon Peninsula to
2496-601: The region varies depending on the location, with some areas receiving up to 6,000 millimeters (236 inches) of rain annually. The rainy season typically lasts from December to March, with the heaviest rainfall occurring in February. The dry season, which lasts from June to September, is characterized by less rainfall and lower humidity. The Huon Peninsula also experiences occasional tropical cyclones and monsoons , which can bring extremely heavy rain and strong winds. These weather events can cause flooding and landslides . The region
2548-656: The southern village of Wasapea are also fluent in Gogodala . The little data that exists for Kamula pronouns does not fit in with the neighboring East Strickland or Bosavi languages (though 1sg nê likely reflects proto-TNG *na), so Kamula is best left as an unclassified language an independent branch of Trans–New Guinea pending further study. Attested pronouns are 1sg nɛ̃ , 2sg wɛ̃ , and ̩ pl diɛ . Kamula phonology: Kamula has 12 consonants. Kamula has 7 vowels. The following basic vocabulary words are from Dutton (2010), Reesink (1976), and Shaw (1986), as cited in
2600-472: The uplift events are believed to be coseismic, meaning they are caused by earthquakes. The mean recurrence interval of uplift events was found to be between 1,000 and 1,300 years in both the Holocene and late Pleistocene periods. The amplitude of uplift events averages around 3 meters, and generally increases from northwest to southeast in keeping with the regional late Quaternary trend. However, for some events,
2652-659: The uplift is approximately horizontal over 20 kilometers. Some of the most notable settlements along the Huon peninsula are listed in a table below. The Huon Peninsula experiences a tropical rainforest climate . This type of climate is characterized by high humidity, high temperatures, and abundant rainfall throughout the year. The annual average temperature on the peninsula is around 27°C (81°F), with very little seasonal variation. The warmest months are from October to March, when temperatures can reach up to 32°C (90°F). The coolest months are from May to August, with temperatures averaging around 23°C (73°F). The amount of rainfall in
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#17332022648852704-717: Was taken seriously. They chose the name Trans–New Guinea because this new family was the first to span New Guinea, from the Bomberai Peninsula of western West Irian to the Huon Peninsula of eastern PNG. They also noted possible cognates in other families Wurm would later add to TNG: Wurm's East New Guinea Highlands, Binandere in the ' Bird's Tail ' of PNG, and two families that John Z'graggen would later (1971, 1975) unite in his 100-language Madang–Adelbert Range family. In 1975, Wurm accepted Voorhoeve and McElhanon's suspicions about further connections, as well as Z'graggen's work, and postulated additional links to, among others,
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