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42-613: Kampir Tepe was first discovered in 1972 by archeologist Edvard Rtveladze during a survey of the Amu Darya river bank. Excavations began in 1977, initially led by Galina Pugachenkova . The first dig was in the southern part of the citadel and a western suburb of Kampir Tepe. The majority of finds were from the reign of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka in the 2nd century AD, and it was one of the most complete Kushan era settlements ever found The ruins which are currently visible belong to

84-451: A vigesimal numeric system like Basque and (partially) French . Numbers greater than 20 and less than 100 are described as the sum of the greatest possible multiple of 20 plus the remainder. For example, "93" literally translates as 'four times twenty plus thirteen' ( ოთხმოცდაცამეტი , otkhmotsdatsamet’i ). One of the most important Georgian dictionaries is the Explanatory dictionary of

126-552: A Roman grammarian from the 2nd century AD. The first direct attestations of the language are inscriptions and palimpsests dating to the 5th century, and the oldest surviving literary work is the 5th century Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik by Iakob Tsurtaveli . The emergence of Georgian as a written language appears to have been the result of the Christianization of Georgia in the mid-4th century, which led to

168-504: A Thousand Domes," " Shakhrisabz ," " Termez ," " Jalal al-Din Mangburni ," and others. In recognition of his contributions, he was honored with the " State Prize of the Uzbek SSR ", named after Hamza, in 1985. Edvard Rtveladze achieved the academic title of "Doctor of Historical Sciences" in 1989, followed by the prestigious designation of professor in 1992. In 1995, he earned a place in

210-881: A bibliography titled "L. L. Rtveladze: Life, Science, Family." Edvard Rtveladze died in Tashkent , Uzbekistan on February 10, 2022. Lydia Lvovna (1941-14.04.2020), born Bukinich, was his wife. She was the granddaughter of D.D. Bukinich, an archaeologist and archivist who served as the director of the archives in the State Administration for the Preservation and Use of Cultural Heritage Objects in Uzbekistan for an extended period. Throughout their 50-year marriage, Edward and Lydia had three children: Anna, Grigory, Nelli. Georgian language Georgian ( ქართული ენა , kartuli ena , pronounced [ˈkʰartʰuli ˈena] )

252-665: A capital-like effect called Mtavruli for titles and inscriptions. Georgian is an agglutinative language with a complex verb structure that can include up to eight morphemes , exhibiting polypersonalism . The language has seven noun cases and employs a left-branching structure with adjectives preceding nouns and postpositions instead of prepositions. Georgian lacks grammatical gender and articles, with definite meanings established through context. Georgian's rich derivation system allows for extensive noun and verb formation from roots, with many words featuring initial consonant clusters. The Georgian writing system has evolved from ancient scripts to

294-399: A combination of written sources, and archaeological-stratigraphic and numismatic data. In total, Kampir Tepe was occupied for approximately 400 years. The course of the river then changed, and the inhabitants had to move. Kampir Tepe was a mud brick city built on an artificial terrace above a river port on the Amu Darya. There was a lighthouse on the edge of the harbour to guide ships across

336-619: A junior research fellow at the Institute of Art Studies within the Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan. From 1976 to 1985, he held the position of senior research fellow at the Institute of Art Studies within the Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan. He subsequently served as the department chairman at the Institute of Art Studies within the Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan from 1985 to 2009. As of the mid-2000s, he had actively participated in over 80 archaeological expeditions, spanning regions including Central Asia ,

378-700: A laboratory assistant and junior research fellow at the Institute of Art Studies within the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan . He taught at the Tashkent Institute of Theatre and Fine Arts from 1970 to 1973. In 1975 he defended his Ph.D. thesis titled "From the History of urban culture in Northern Caucasia and its Connections with Central Asia" in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg ). Between 1973 and 1976, he worked as

420-490: A ri means 'friend'; megobrebi ( megob Ø rebi ) means 'friends', with the loss of a in the last syllable of the word stem. Georgian has seven noun cases: nominative , ergative , dative , genitive , instrumental , adverbial and vocative . An interesting feature of Georgian is that, while the subject of a sentence is generally in the nominative case and the object is in the accusative case (or dative), one can find this reversed in many situations (this depends mainly on

462-399: A row, as may be seen in words like გვფრცქვნ ი gvprtskvni 'you peel us' and მწვრთნ ელი mts’vrtneli 'trainer'. Vicenik has observed that Georgian vowels following ejective stops have creaky voice and suggests this may be one cue distinguishing ejectives from their aspirated and voiced counterparts. Georgian has been written in a variety of scripts over its history. Currently

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504-589: A word. Georgian vowels in non-initial syllables are pronounced with a shorter duration compared to vowels in initial syllables. long polysyllabic words may have a secondary stress on their third or fourth syllable. Georgian contains many "harmonic clusters" involving two consonants of a similar type (voiced, aspirated, or ejective) that are pronounced with only a single release; e.g. ბგ ერა bgera 'sound', ცხ ოვრება tskhovreba 'life', and წყ ალი ts’q’ali 'water'. There are also frequent consonant clusters , sometimes involving more than six consonants in

546-494: Is in the shape of an irregular triangle surrounded by mud brick walls. Seven structures originally thought to be ceramic furnaces were covered by a single false vault. These were two-part altars used to burn sacred plants. They are similar to those found in the temple of Demeter and Kore in Eleusis . Excavation of a terraced house in the southeast part of Kampir Tepe revealed a pit filled with moulds for early Hellenistic vessels. It

588-512: Is most closely related to the Zan languages ( Megrelian and Laz ) and more distantly to Svan . Georgian has various dialects , with standard Georgian based on the Kartlian dialect, and all dialects are mutually intelligible. The history of Georgian spans from Early Old Georgian in the 5th century, to Modern Georgian today. Its development as a written language began with the Christianization of Georgia in

630-998: Is rather light, and in fact Georgian transliterates the tenuis stops in foreign words and names with the ejectives. The coronal occlusives ( /tʰ tʼ d n/ , not necessarily affricates) are variously described as apical dental, laminal alveolar, and "dental". Per Canepari, the main realizations of the vowels are [ i ], [ e̞ ], [ ä ], [ o̞ ], [ u ]. Aronson describes their realizations as [ i̞ ], [ e̞ ], [ ä ] (but "slightly fronted"), [ o̞ ], [ u̞ ]. Shosted transcribed one speaker's pronunciation more-or-less consistently with [ i ], [ ɛ ], [ ɑ ], [ ɔ ], [ u ]. Allophonically, [ ə ] may be inserted to break up consonant clusters, as in /dɡas/ [dəɡäs] . In casual speech, /iV, Vi/ sequences can be realized phonetically as [jV~i̯V, Vj~Vi̯]. Phrase-final unstressed vowels may sometimes be partially reduced. Prosody in Georgian involves stress, intonation, and rhythm. Stress

672-415: Is the most widely spoken Kartvelian language ; it serves as the literary language or lingua franca for speakers of related languages. It is the official language of Georgia and the native or primary language of 88% of its population. Its speakers today amount to approximately 3.8 million. Georgian is written with its own unique Georgian scripts , alphabetical systems of unclear origin. Georgian

714-640: Is thought that these were ritual items placed here during a sacrifice to the gods. Larger pieces of pottery are also still visible at the site Many coins have been found at Kampir Tepe. The earliest of these depict the Greek god Apollo, and there are more from the reign of Euthydemus I. Statuettes of Greek soldiers were also found in Kampir Tepe. Edvard Rtveladze Edvard Vasilevich Rtveladze ( Georgian : ედუარდ ბასილის ძე რთველაძე ; Uzbek : Edvard Vasilyevich Rtveladze ; May 14, 1942 – February 10, 2022)

756-401: Is very weak, and linguists disagree as to where stress occurs in words. Jun, Vicenik, and Lofstedt have proposed that Georgian stress and intonation are the result of pitch accents on the first syllable of a word and near the end of a phrase. According to Borise, Georgian has fixed initial word-level stress cued primarily by greater syllable duration and intensity of the initial syllable of

798-452: The Dittionario giorgiano e italiano . These were meant to help western Catholic missionaries learn Georgian for evangelical purposes. On the left are IPA symbols, and on the right are the corresponding letters of the modern Georgian alphabet, which is essentially phonemic. Former /qʰ/ ( ჴ ) has merged with /x/ ( ხ ), leaving only the latter. The glottalization of the ejectives

840-494: The Mkhedruli script is almost completely dominant; the others are used mostly in religious documents and architecture. Mkhedruli has 33 letters in common use; a half dozen more are obsolete in Georgian, though still used in other alphabets, like Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan. The letters of Mkhedruli correspond closely to the phonemes of the Georgian language. According to the traditional account written down by Leonti Mroveli in

882-506: The Georgian Orthodox Church and together are called Khutsuri 'priest alphabet'. In Mkhedruli , there is no case. Sometimes, however, a capital-like effect, called Mtavruli ('title' or 'heading'), is achieved by modifying the letters so that their vertical sizes are identical and they rest on the baseline with no descenders. These capital-like letters are often used in page headings, chapter titles, monumental inscriptions, and

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924-452: The Kartlian dialect. Over the centuries, it has exerted a strong influence on the other dialects. As a result, they are all, generally, mutually intelligible with standard Georgian, and with one another. The history of the Georgian language is conventionally divided into the following phases: The earliest extant references to Georgian are found in the writings of Marcus Cornelius Fronto ,

966-577: The "Cultural Heritage of Uzbekistan in World Collections" project, aiming to document and gather historical artifacts, manuscripts, and monuments from Uzbekistan's ancient history, housed in museum collections across the globe. These valuable resources were made accessible to scholars and the general public, with findings compiled into books and encyclopedia articles, and discussions held at academic conferences and media forums. The inaugural conference in Tashkent and Samarkand on May 15–16, 2017, marked

1008-452: The 11th century, the first Georgian script was created by the first ruler of the Kingdom of Iberia , Pharnavaz , in the 3rd century BC. The first examples of a Georgian script date from the 5th century AD. There are now three Georgian scripts, called Asomtavruli 'capitals', Nuskhuri 'small letters', and Mkhedruli . The first two are used together as upper and lower case in the writings of

1050-548: The 4th century. Georgian phonology features a rich consonant system, including aspirated, voiced, and ejective stops , affricates , and fricatives . Its vowel system consists of five vowels with varying realizations. Georgian prosody involves weak stress, with disagreements among linguists on its placement. The language's phonotactics include complex consonant clusters and harmonic clusters. The Mkhedruli script , dominant in modern usage, corresponds closely to Georgian phonemes and has no case distinction, though it employs

1092-554: The Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan . In 1999 the Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan awarded E. Rtveladze a gold medal and diploma of the Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan "For Outstanding Contribution to the Study of Culture", and for the book "Velikiy shelkoviy put" E. Rtveladze received a diploma of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic for the best research in the field of the humanities. In 2016, Edvard with PhD Firdavs Abdukhalikov initiated

1134-688: The Caucasus , Cyprus , France , and Japan . Leading the Tocharistan Expedition, Edward Rtveladze directed archaeological excavations at the significant site of Kampir Tepe , an ancient city from the Kushan Empire era. Under his guidance, collaborative commemorative monographs were produced, shedding light on historical cities in Uzbekistan and eminent figures from the past. Notable works include "Amir Timur in World History," " Khiva - City of

1176-568: The Georgian language ( ქართული ენის განმარტებითი ლექსიკონი ). It consists of eight volumes and about 115,000 words. It was produced between 1950 and 1964, by a team of linguists under the direction of Arnold Chikobava . Georgian has a word derivation system, which allows the derivation of nouns from verb roots both with prefixes and suffixes, for example: It is also possible to derive verbs from nouns: Likewise, verbs can be derived from adjectives, for example: In Georgian many nouns and adjectives begin with two or more contiguous consonants. This

1218-403: The character of the verb). This is called the dative construction . In the past tense of the transitive verbs, and in the present tense of the verb "to know", the subject is in the ergative case. Georgian has a rich word-derivation system. By using a root, and adding some definite prefixes and suffixes, one can derive many nouns and adjectives from the root. For example, from the root - kart -,

1260-452: The current Mkhedruli, used for most purposes. The language has a robust grammatical framework with unique features such as syncope in morphophonology and a left-branching syntax. Georgian's vocabulary is highly derivational, allowing for diverse word formations, while its numeric system is vigesimal. No claimed genetic links between the Kartvelian languages and any other language family in

1302-512: The discovery of a new coin depicting Apollo . In stage 2 (235-200 BC), the fortress was reconstructed. New defensive walls were built, each 4m thick, and two square mud brick towers were added. The dating of this period of the city is clear from coin finds linked to the reign of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus I (230-200 BC). The third period of construction was towards the end of the 2nd century BC. Evidence for this chronology comes from

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1344-588: The earliest of which began in the 4th century BC. Excavations at Kampir Tepe are ongoing, but by August 2019 Rtveladze had amassed enough evidence to announce that Kampir Tepe was the same site described by Ptolemy as Alexandria on the Oxus . This claim was previously made by archeologists excavating Ai Khanum in Afghanistan , but Kampir Tepe is another possible location. Kampir Tepe was built in three phases: Hellenistic , Saka - Parthian , and Kushan . Construction of

1386-572: The earliest part of the site began in the 4th century BC and included foundations and the fortress. It coincided with Alexander the Great ’s invasion of Central Asia, during which Alexander built numerous fortresses and cities. Evidence that Kampir Tepe is the same city described by Ptolemy includes not only the dating of the site, but also cartographic evidence, the design of gates, which are an exact architectural match with those discovered in Greece and Turkey; and

1428-504: The establishment of the World Scientific Society for the Study, Preservation, and Popularization of Uzbekistan's Cultural Heritage. In 2019, Edward made an announcement regarding the possible discovery of the lost Greco-Bactrian city of Alexandria Oxiana during archaeological excavations, unveiling significant scientific findings at the ancient site of Kampir Tepe . In 2021, he paid tribute to his late wife by publishing

1470-498: The following words can be derived: Kart veli ('a Georgian person'), Kart uli ('the Georgian language') and Sa kart velo ('the country of Georgia'). Most Georgian surnames end in - dze 'son' (Western Georgia), - shvili 'child' (Eastern Georgia), - ia (Western Georgia, Samegrelo ), - ani (Western Georgia, Svaneti ), - uri (Eastern Georgia), etc. The ending - eli is a particle of nobility, comparable to French de , Dutch van , German von or Polish - ski . Georgian has

1512-676: The fortifications built by the Kushans in the 1st-2nd century CE, on top of an earlier Hellenistic plan dating to the 4th century BC. There was evidence of older layers below, which warranted further investigation. The large-scale study of Kampir Tepe’s Hellenistic layers began in 2000 with the establishment of the Tokharistan Archaeological Expedition (TAE), led by Edvard Rtveladze . These excavations were held jointly with scientists from France, India, and Japan. They identified three distinct periods of development at Kampir Tepe,

1554-498: The like. This is the Georgian standard keyboard layout. The standard Windows keyboard is essentially that of manual typewriters . Georgian is an agglutinative language . Certain prefixes and suffixes can be joined in order to build a verb. In some cases, one verb can have up to eight different morphemes in it at the same time. An example is ageshenebinat ('you [all] should've built [it]'). The verb can be broken down to parts: a-g-e-shen-eb-in-a-t . Each morpheme here contributes to

1596-472: The meaning of the verb tense or the person who has performed the verb. The verb conjugation also exhibits polypersonalism ; a verb may potentially include morphemes representing both the subject and the object. In Georgian morphophonology , syncope is a common phenomenon. When a suffix (especially the plural suffix - eb -) is attached to a word that has either of the vowels a or e in the last syllable, this vowel is, in most words, lost. For example, megob

1638-617: The replacement of Aramaic as the literary language . By the 11th century, Old Georgian had developed into Middle Georgian. The most famous work of this period is the epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin , written by Shota Rustaveli in the 12th century. In 1629, a certain Nikoloz Cholokashvili authored the first printed books written (partially) in Georgian, the Alphabetum Ibericum sive Georgianum cum Oratione and

1680-471: The river. The fortress was constructed from rectangular mud bricks. The fortress walls were intersected with rounded towers and gatehouses. The southwest gate complex was built to the same design as the one at Sillyum, Pamphylia , which Alexander besieged in 333 BC. The semi-oval courtyard was common in Pamphylia but has not been recorded elsewhere. Kampir Tepe’s sanctuary is on a second artificial terrace. It

1722-399: The world are accepted in mainstream linguistics. Among the Kartvelian languages, Georgian is most closely related to the so-called Zan languages ( Megrelian and Laz ); glottochronological studies indicate that it split from the latter approximately 2700 years ago. Svan is a more distant relative that split off much earlier, perhaps 4000 years ago. Standard Georgian is largely based on

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1764-671: Was a Soviet, Georgian, and Uzbek scientist. His credentials included membership in the Senate of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the Doctor of Historical Sciences, the academician from the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan, and tenure as a professor. He was born on May 14, 1942, in the city of Borjomi , Georgian SSR . Edvard Rtveladze obtained his degree in history and archaeology from National University of Uzbekistan in 1967. From 1967 to 1969, he served as

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