Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder S.J. (January 29, 1906 – July 8, 1995) was a Dutch expert in the Old Javanese language. He came from Utrecht and was associated with the Society of Jesus by 1925. He worked at Leiden University in the 1930s. His first work appeared in 1930 and he continued to write into the 1990s. He lived in Yogyakarta and was interred in the Jesuit necropolis at Muntilan , Java .
53-557: Kakawin are long narrative poems composed in Old Javanese , also called " Kawi ", written in verse form with rhythms and meters derived from Sanskrit literature. Poets used a formalized literary language , rather than the vernacular . Poets composed and performed the poems at the courts of central and east Java kings between the 9th and 16th centuries, and in Bali . Although the poems depict events and characters from Hindu mythology,
106-503: A Javanese wedding , especially for the stylised meeting ritual of bride's parents with groom's parents in the ceremonies of Peningsetan and Panggih . Archaically or for certain nobles very strongly attached to tradition, it is used for the Midodareni , Siraman and Sungkeman ceremonies of the Javanese wedding. The island of Lombok has adopted Kawi as its regional language, reflecting
159-518: A Javanese dictionary written by Gericke-Roorda. Zoetmulder attempted to study the linguistics of old Javanese through this book. His study of old Javanese grammar was eventually published in Dutch in 1954 ( "De Taal van het Adiparwa" ) and in Indonesian in 1950 ( "Bahasa Parwa" ) with the help of I. R. Pedjawijatna. This book eventually was adopted as the basic textbook for the study of old Javanese. During
212-477: A demonstrative pronoun means 'that' which is used to differentiate from 'this'. If there is no such contrast, its function is that of a definite article, meaning ‘the’. Ika is put in front of the word to which it belongs and always combined with the definite article. Expression of possessiveness in Old Javanese is done with the help of possessive suffixes, such as suffix -(n)ing and -(n)ika . The suffix - ning
265-444: A long or a short syllable. It is an anceps . Old Javanese Old Javanese or Kawi is the oldest attested phase of the Javanese language . It was spoken in the eastern part of what is now Central Java and the whole of East Java , Indonesia . As a literary language, Kawi was used across Java and on the islands of Madura , Bali , and Lombok . It had a sizable vocabulary of Sanskrit loanwords but had not yet developed
318-763: A month's wait, he was finally able to arrive in Java via Hong Kong . One of his colleagues had died when the ship that he boarded was torpedoed by the German Navy. Upon arrival in Java, Zoet exclaimed "God had wished for me to be happy on Javanese soil." After he arrived in Jakarta , Zoetmulder was offered a post in the linguistics department of the University of Indonesia . However, his strong desire to further his study of Javanese drove him to choose to reside in Yogyakarta. He then taught at
371-431: A possessive relationship between two words, such as in "Wĕtunira sang Suyodhana" (the birth of Suyodhana). The third person pronominal suffixes can be used to nominalise verbs and adjectives such as widagdhanya (his skills) from adjective widagdha and pinintanira (his being asked) from the verb pininta . In Old Javanese, a large number of other words than personal pronouns are used by way of personal pronouns for
424-401: A syllable which contains a short one is called laghu (Sanskrit for "light"). The term guru laghu denotes the structure of a line. For example, each line of the kakawin metre called " Śardūlawikrīd[?]ita " consists of 19 syllables. The guru laghu of each line is as follows" ---|UU-|U-U|UU-|--U|--U| U. The notation "-" means that the syllable in question is long, while the "U" means that
477-406: A vowel, such as mānak (having a child) from anak (child), enak (at ease) from inak (ease), and mojar (having speech) from ujar (speech), while there is no change if the word begins with a consonant. Nouns can be qualified by adjectives. Verbs and adjectives, and also adverbs, can be qualified by adverbs. Adverbs are placed before of the words they qualify, except dahat (very, very much)
530-459: Is a copy of the original, dated some 120 years earlier; only this copy has been preserved. Its contents concern the construction of a dam for an irrigation canal near the river Śrī Hariñjing (now shortened to Srinjing ). This inscription is the last of its kind to be written using Pallava script ; all consequent examples of Old Javanese are written using Kawi script . Old Javanese was not static, and its usage covered approximately 500 years – from
583-403: Is a cover term for a wide variety of sound changes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. Old Javanese verbs are morphologically complex and are conjugated by taking on a variety of affixes reflecting focus/trigger, aspect, voice, and other categories. -i - akĕn prefix (m)aN- or infix -um- the suffix -ana the suffix -akna or - akĕn infix -in- the suffix -ana
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#1732855640531636-422: Is an adjective-class base word, such as urip (alive). The second one is an adjective-class-derived word that uses affixation with the prefix (m)a- from noun base words, such as adoh (far away) from doh (distance), ahayu (beautiful) from hayu (beauty) and mastrī (married) from strī (wife). In case of derivation with the prefix (m)a- , the sandhi law is observed especially when the base word starts with
689-400: Is constructed from clitic -(n)i and the definite article (a)ng . The clitic -(n)i have no meaning and cannot self-standing, although it is required in the construction. It is generally written as -ning, while it is written as -ing after base word ending in n . The suffix -(n)ika is constructed from clitic -(n)i and definite article ika and is written as -nika generally, while it
742-795: Is disputed by several linguists, who hold the view that it is also possible that the occurrence of these retroflex consonants was an independent development within the Austronesian language family. A related question is the form in which Sanskrit words were loaned in Old Javanese. The borrowed Sanskrit words in Old Javanese are almost without exceptions nouns and adjectives in their undeclined form (Sanskrit lingga ). Old Javanese texts contain many more characters with similar phonology values to represent distinct vowels and consonants in Sanskrit such as unadapted loanwords. Wherever these diacritics occur in Old Javanese texts, they are neglected in pronunciation: bhaṭāra
795-493: Is not an indication of usage, but it is an indication that the Ancient Javanese knew and employed these Sanskrit words in their literary works. In any given Old Javanese literary work, approximately 25% of the vocabulary is derived from Sanskrit. Sanskrit has also influenced both the phonology and the vocabulary of Old Javanese. Old Javanese also contains retroflex consonants , which might have been derived from Sanskrit. That
848-490: Is placed after the word. The word tan is used to express 'not' and have several forms as tatan , tātan , ndatan , and ndātan . There are several prepositions in Old Javanese, in which the noun preceded by the preposition is definite, such as: However, there are particularities in the expression of 'inside' or 'from inside' in Old Javanese. Old Javanese use a combination of either jĕro or dalĕm (inner part, depth) followed by clitic -ni , such as dalĕmnikang to express
901-523: Is related to the Pallava script and Kadamba script in South India. Nowadays, Old Javanese can be written with Balinese script and Javanese script in modern literatures which are descendants of Kawi script. Kawi is not truly extinct as a spoken language. It is commonly used in some Javanese traditional events such as wayang golek , wayang wong and wayang kulit , in addition to high activities such as
954-534: Is said to be compatible with his feeling of being Javanese. He had resided there for nine years. Father Zoet was a fan of Beethoven and Mozart . In addition to his religious and scientific textbooks, he also devoured volumes of novels poetry, and detective series. It was said that he owned more than 1,000 detective books in his room, including those written by Ngaio Marsh . He was friends with detective writer John le Carré , and while staying in Bonn , Germany, he received
1007-550: Is taken the National motto of Indonesia: " Bhinneka Tunggal Ika " . Although often glibly translated as "Unity in Diversity", it is more correctly rendered as "[although] scattered, remaining [as] one"— referring to the scattered islands of the archipelago nation, not as an expression of multicultural solidarity as may be perceived in modern times. A more modern work is the poem "Susila Budhi Dharma" , by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo ,
1060-412: Is the pronunciation of /a/ in open syllables: now å, then /a/, such as in wana (forest). Although, Old Javanese made a distinction between those "short vowels" and "long vowels" in writing such as ā, ö, e, ī, ū, and o, however, these "long vowels" have no distinction in phonology with those "short vowels". This distinction is generally happened with unadapted loanwords from Sanskrit which differentiates
1113-558: Is the same as baṭara (loss of vowel length and aspiration is also shared by Elu Prakrit , the ancestor of Sinhala ). Nor do they influence the order of the words in the dictionary: the variants s, ṣ, and ś, for example, are all treated like s. Medieval poems written in Old Javanese using the Kawi script continued to be circulated within the courts of Kartasura , Surakarta , and Yogyakarta . The poems were called layang kawi (Kawi books) or kakawin and were held in high regard. Starting in
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#17328556405311166-405: Is the same as in main clauses: the subject follows the predicate. However, different from main clauses, in sub-clauses headed by an no separating particle is used. In a basic clause, predicate and subject are separated from each other by a particle ( ta ) marking the border between both parts of the sentence. For example, " lunghā ta sira " means "he leaves" as leave ( lunghā ), particle ( ta ), and
1219-437: Is written as -ika after base word ending in n . The possessiveness can be expressed with pronominal suffixes, in which no definite article is added in a such case. Honorific articles can also express possessiveness and definiteness, such as ujar sang guru (the word of the teacher), by placing the honorific article after the possessed noun and followed by the possessor. Old Javanese have two types of adjectives. The first one
1272-626: The Indonesian National Revolution , he was nearly killed by a freedom fighter due to his Dutch complexion while he was at the Kemetiran Residence, in Yogyakarta. Fortunately, a Javanese man defended him and claimed that he was a "holy man." After escaping the Internment camp Baros-I in 1945, he began to teach at Gadjah Mada University . Five years later he was made a Distinguished Permanent Professor of Pedagogic Literature at
1325-453: The 18th century, literature inspired by Old Javanese was written using the modern Javanese language and verse. Old Javanese has six vowels. Those vowels are "a", "ĕ" /ə/, "e" /e/, i, u, and o in Latin transliteration. Little can be said about the pronunciation of Old Javanese. It is believed that it has not been much different from the pronunciation of modern Javanese. However, the major difference
1378-467: The 1990s. Zoetmulder was born in Utrecht, Netherlands . From his early childhood, "Piet"—as he was called—was able to read and write even before entering school. His mother Catharina née Noelege was a professional pianist and had been a patient teacher to Piet such that he was able to be admitted to primary school without having to attend kindergarten due to his reading and writing skills. At school, he
1431-715: The AMS and counted among his students Prof. Dr. Koentjaraningrat, Dr. Sukmono, and Dr. S. Supomo. When Japanese forces entered Indonesia in 1942, Zoetmulder was interned as a citizen of the Netherlands. He was fortunate to be allowed to bring his books and pens as a prisoner. When he was transferred to the Cimahi prison he was able to smuggle the Adiparwa edited by Dr. H. H. Juynboll ( Âdiparwa ; Hendrik Herman Juynboll, ed., 1906 Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, M. Nijhoff) and
1484-723: The East Indies, he had to undergo an intermediate study of religion for a year in Belgium . Unfortunately for him, the outbreak of World War II and the occupation of Belgium by Nazi forces forced him to seek refuge in France in June 1940. He was finally able to obtain passage on a ship to the Dutch East Indies but had to make a stop in Britain to avoid German sea mines blocking the sea routes. After
1537-602: The Old Javanese language was almost exclusively Sanskrit influence. There is no evidence of Indian linguistic elements in Old Javanese other than Sanskrit. This is different from, for example, the influence of Indian linguistics in the (Old) Malay language. Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting impact on the vocabulary of the Javanese language. The Old Javanese–English Dictionary , written by Professor P.J. Zoetmulder in 1982, contains approximately 25,500 entries, no fewer than 12,500 of which are borrowed from Sanskrit. This large number
1590-764: The Sukabumi (Kediri, East Java) inscription until the founding of the Majapahit empire in 1292. The Javanese language which was spoken and written in the Majapahit era already underwent some changes and is therefore already closer to the Modern Javanese language. The most important shaping force on Old Javanese was its Austronesian heritage in vocabulary, sentence structure, and grammar that it shared with its sister languages in Southeast Asia. The Indian linguistic influence in
1643-512: The first and second person. They consist of fixed expressions in which the original meaning of the words involved does not play a role and a virtually boundless list of words referring to functions and family relations. Proper names do not play a role in this respect. For example, first person pronouns can be manifested as nghulun ( hulun , slave) and ngwang ( wwang , man). Old Javanese has four sets of demonstrative pronouns. The members of each set represent different degrees of distance seen from
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1696-420: The first, second, and third person. The pronoun is not differentiated by singular and plural and social status in general. Sira may be used as an honorific particle, similar to sang . The personal pronoun has corresponding pronominal suffixes which serve to express either the possessive relationship or an agent . The suffixes exhibit sandhi features, such as The third person pronominal suffixes can express
1749-536: The formal krama language register, to be used with one's social superiors that is characteristic of modern Javanese. While evidence of writing in Java dates to the Sanskrit Tarumanegara inscription of 450 AD, the oldest example written entirely in Javanese, called the Sukabumi inscription, is dated 25 March 804 AD. This inscription, located in the district of Pare in the Kediri Regency of East Java,
1802-439: The founder of Subud . In this work, he provides a framework for understanding the experience of the latihan kejiwaan. Famous poems, epics and other literature include: The following are notable authors of literary works in Kawi. Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder His work was important in the understanding of linguistic studies of Java. He also did works on Monism and Muhammad . Merle Ricklefs translated his thesis in
1855-509: The idea of 'inside' or 'from inside'. The preposition of the inside is expressed by placing either (r)i or sake before either jĕro or dalĕm (inner part, depth) without placement of both clitic -ni and definite articles. It is important to remember that (r)i can be used as an object marker of transitive verb and proper noun maker. There are several conjunctions in Old Javanese; the most common ones are an , yan , apan , and yarapwan . The order of elements in sub-clauses headed by an
1908-562: The island of Java. Following his mentor's advice, Zoetmulder departed for the Dutch East Indies as a 19-year novice. He was placed at the Intermediate Seminary in Yogyakarta, Central Java . Surprisingly, three years later his former mentor Willekens himself joined him in Java as a Visiting Apostolic . Upon meeting his former student, Willekens commented "In addition to studying philosophy , you must also learn old Javanese." He
1961-409: The narratives are set in the local landscapes of the islands. They are rich sources of information about courtly society in Java and Bali. A kakawin stanza consists of four lines. Each line has a set number of syllables per line, set in patterns of long and short syllables based on Sanskrit rules of prosody . A syllable which contains a long vowel is called guru (Sanskrit for "heavy"), while
2014-470: The noun and cannot stand by themselves. The definite article is (a)ng and it is written combined with particles. Examples of honorific articles that express a certain amount of respect are si , pun , sang , sang hyang , ḍang hyang , śrī, and ra . Besides the definite article and the articles of respect, ika can be used to express definiteness. The word ika has two functions, those are definite article and demonstrative pronoun. The word ika as
2067-523: The predicate is a verb. The predicate can also be a nominal predicate, where the predicate can be an adjective and nouns, including proper names, and pronouns. Old Javanese verbs are not conjugated and do not formally distinguish between present and past time. Old Javanese was written with Kawi or Old Javanese script in 8th–16th century. The Kawi script is a Brahmic script found primarily in Java and used across much of Maritime Southeast Asia . The Kawi script
2120-739: The same university, by a mandate from the Minister of Education and Culture. At this time he relinquished his former citizenship. His daily work was increased by his role as a representative of the dean of the Literature Department Prof. Dr. R. M. Ng. Poerbatjaraka, who was spending most of his time in Jakarta. In addition, he was teaching Old Javanese in the Yogyakarta area. When he first started lecturing, Zoetmulder used Javanese. However, he then came to realize that many students came from outside of Java and hence did not speak Javanese fluently. To make
2173-518: The short and long vowels. There are twenty consonants in Old Javanese which are written as b, c, d, ḍ, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ñ, ŋ, p, r, s, t, ṭ, w, and y in Latin transliteration. The consonant ñ sometimes is written as the digraph ny and IPA ɲ, while the consonant ŋ sometimes is written as the digraph ng. The presence of such aspirated consonants, retroflex nasal, palatal sibilant, and retroflex sibilant are used for unadapted loanwords from Indo-Aryan languages (specifically Sanskrit ). Sandhi
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2226-477: The speaker, while the four sets at least in theory express different shades of stress. Old Javanese does not have an indefinite article. A noun without an article is indefinite. Old Javanese has three sorts of articles to express definiteness: a definite article, several honorific articles, and ika (there are still other ways of expressing definiteness in Old Javanese, for example, the possessive suffix). Both definite articles and honorific articles are placed before
2279-416: The study easier, he wanted to write a dictionary of old Javanese, starting his work in 1950. In the beginning, he was convinced that he would be able to do it in 10 years, but in reality, he would take longer to finish the dictionary. He also wrote a compendium entitled "Sekar Sumawur: Bunga Rampai Bahasa Djawa Kuno" . His book "Kalangwan" , containing an account of old Javanese belles lettres and writers,
2332-462: The suffix -akna or -akĕn There are various particles in Old Javanese. Particle ta is the most common one. The other particles that occur regularly are pwa , ya, and sira . These ya and sira as particles must be differentiated from the personal pronouns ya and sira , ‘he, she’. Sometimes they are combined such as ta pwa and ta ya . It is not compulsory to use them; they are often left out. Old Javanese have several personal pronouns for
2385-471: The syllable is short. As an example, the opening stanza of the Kakawin Arjunawiwaha , which is in the metre Śardūlawikrīd[?]ita , is taken: A syllable which contains a long vowel is automatically long (ā, ī, ū, ö, e, o, ai, and au) and thus guru . But on the other hand, a syllable with a vowel followed by two consonants is also long. In addition to that the last syllable of a line may both contain
2438-423: The third person pronoun ( sira ). The predicate comes first in the sentence, the subject follows the predicate, which is the normal order. However, the reversed order also occurs which it signals of some particularity such as stress intended by the writer. These sentences lack an indication of time. Subject in Old Javanese can be personal pronoun, noun, and proper names. The predicate can be a verbal predicate where
2491-462: The town of Heerlen for his work as a public health engineer, so Piet attended a gymnasium at Rolduc instead, which was also his father's alma mater. He graduated in the A and B academic tracks. In 1925 he was admitted to the Society of Jesus Novitiate School to begin his training as a priest. Father J. Willekens, S.J., his mentor at the novitiate, advised Zoetmulder to consider working for the mission on
2544-499: The usual three years customarily taken, with a degree in the history of Java and archeology . In October 1935 he successfully defended his doctoral thesis "Pantheïsme en Monisme in de Javaansche Soeloek Literatuur," with the help of Berg. He graduated cum laude. Father Zoet, as he is affectionately called, had to finish his studies in theology before he returned to Java. For four years he studied in Maastricht . Before returning to
2597-543: The very strong influence of East Java . Today, it is taught in primary school education as part of the compulsory secondary language unit of National curriculum. Traditionally, Kawi is written on lontar prepared palm leaves. Kawi remains in occasional use as an archaic prose and literary language, in a similar fashion to Shakespeare -era English . There are many important literary works written in Kawi, most notably Empu Tantular 's epic poem, "Kakawin Sutasoma", from which
2650-553: Was buried at the Jesuit cemetery in Muntilan , Magelang, Central Java. Zoetmulder was an avid reader and liked to play the violin . He considered himself Indonesian, or more specifically Javanese. "God had placed my heart in Indonesia. My residence has been decided to be here," he said. On March 3, 1951, he was naturalized as an Indonesian citizen. He enjoyed his stay at Kemetiran, which
2703-589: Was introduced to Prof. C. C. Berg, who was an instructor in Surakarta , to help him study the language. In 1931 Zoetmulder graduated cum laude and was made a candidate priest in Girisonta, Ungaran, near Semarang . Upon his graduation from his study with Berg, Zoetmulder went to the University of Leiden in the Netherlands. He graduated with an associate degree in one year, contrary to the usual three years. He earned his bachelor's degree also in one year, contrary again to
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#17328556405312756-578: Was known to be a conscientious, talented, and smart student. His father was an engineer . Piet was raised in a Roman Catholic family, and while attending the Canisius College Mater Dei gymnasium he became interested in becoming a priest , specifically as a member of the Society of Jesus . Two of his uncles were priests, and an aunt had been a nun in Africa and Suriname . His father had to move to
2809-594: Was published in 1974, to be followed by the "Old Javanese-English Dictionary" in 1982. He admitted difficulty in writing due to his having to collect his material from microfilm located at the University of Leiden. Zoetmulder was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1948. Zoetmulder died on July 8, 1995, at the priest's residence in Kemetiran, Yogyakarta. He
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