The jus spolii (also called jus exuviarum or rapite capite ), the Latin for right of spoil , was a claim of succession to the property of deceased clerics, at least such as they had derived from their ecclesiastical benefices .
89-435: It was an outcome of ancient canons which forbade clerics to dispose by will of goods accruing from their ecclesiastical office. These canons were gradually relaxed because of the difficulty of distinguishing between ecclesiastical and patrimonial property. Abuses then arose: Churches were despoiled at the death of their incumbents; bishops and archdeacons seized for the cathedral the spoil of abbeys and other benefices, on
178-666: A Doctor of the Church , often referred to as the Doctor of the Assumption because of his writings on the Assumption of Mary. Those fathers who wrote in Latin are called the Latin (Church) Fathers. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus ( c. 155 – c. 222 ), who was converted to Christianity before 197, was a prolific writer of apologetic, theological, controversial and ascetic works. He
267-477: A Christian Platonism and has been described by scholars as "the founder of what was to become the great tradition of Christian philosophical theology." Due to his teaching on salvation and divine judgement in passages such as Paedagogus 1.8 and Stromata 7.2, Clement is often regarded as one of the first Christian universalists . Like Origen, he arose from the Catechetical School of Alexandria and
356-446: A concubine and became a Manichean . He later converted to Christianity, became a bishop, and opposed heresies, such as Pelagianism . His many works—including The Confessions , which is often called the first Western autobiography —have been read continuously since his lifetime. The Catholic religious order, the Order of Saint Augustine , adopted his name and way of life. Augustine is also
445-539: A distinction between the Father and the Son (a distinction that Nicea had been accused of blurring) but at the same time insisting on their essential unity. John Chrysostom ( c. 347 – c. 407 ), archbishop of Constantinople , is known for his eloquence in preaching and public speaking ; his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, recorded sermons and writings making him
534-461: A hierarchical structure in the Trinity , the temporality of matter, "the fabulous preexistence of souls", and "the monstrous restoration which follows from it." These alleged "Origenist errors" were declared anathema by a council in 553, three centuries after Origen had died in the peace of the church. Athanasius of Alexandria ( c. 293 – 373) was a theologian, Pope of Alexandria , and
623-502: A modified way the same claim, and it eventually became a principle of canon law that the goods of beneficed ecclesiastics, dying intestate , belonged of right to the papal treasury. This right however was not allowed in France, Germany, Belgium or Portugal. In the Kingdom of Naples a compromise was made at the close of the sixteenth century, whereby the right was renounced for an annual payment to
712-659: A noted Egyptian leader of the 4th century. He is remembered for his role in the conflict with Arianism and for his affirmation of the Trinity. At the First Council of Nicaea (325), Athanasius argued against the Arian doctrine that Christ is of a distinct substance from the Father. The Cappadocian Fathers are Basil the Great (330–379), who was bishop of Caesarea ; Basil's younger brother Gregory of Nyssa ( c. 332 – 395), who
801-406: A peaceful shelter for their mother. Abbess Macrina fostered the education and development of her three brothers Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa and Peter of Sebaste ( c. 340 – 391) who became bishop of Sebaste. These scholars set out to demonstrate that Christians could hold their own in conversations with learned Greek-speaking intellectuals. They argued that Christian faith, while it
890-468: A persecution. He later became a controversial figure and some of his writings were condemned as heretical. Using his knowledge of Hebrew, he produced a corrected Septuagint . He wrote commentaries on all the books of the Bible. In Peri Archon ( First Principles ), he articulated a systematic philosophical exposition of Christian doctrine. He at times employed an allegorical hermeneutic in his interpretation of
979-451: A synod at Constantinople on a question which concerned the see of Bostra in the patriarchate of Antioch. While there, Theodore had the opportunity to preach before the emperor Theodosius I , who was then starting for his last journey to the West. The sermon made a deep impression, and Theodosius, who had sat at the feet of Ambrose and Gregory Nazianzus , declared that he had never met with such
SECTION 10
#17328522462151068-625: A teacher (John of Antioch, ap. Facund. ii.2). Theodosius II inherited his grandfather's respect for Theodore, and often wrote to him. Another glimpse of Theodore's episcopal life is supplied by a letter of Chrysostom to him from Cucusus (AD 404–407) (Chrys. Ep. 212). The exiled patriarch "can never forget the love of Theodore, so genuine and warm, so sincere and guileless, a love maintained from early years, and manifested but now." Chrysostom (Ep. 204) thanks him profoundly for frequent though ineffectual efforts to obtain his release, and praises their friendship in such glowing terms that Theodore's enemies at
1157-484: Is anachronistic due to his use of the Psogos. The Psogos, along with the encomium, were both rhetorical techniques used in the ancient world in a polemical context. With the encomium "one passes over a man's faults in order to praise him, and in a psogos, one passed over his virtues to defame him. Such principles are explicit in the handbooks of the rhetors, but an interesting passage from the church historian Socrates, writing in
1246-556: Is best known as the translator of the Bible from Greek and Hebrew into Latin. He also was a Christian apologist. Jerome's edition of the Bible, the Vulgate , is still an important text of Catholicism . He is recognised by the Catholic Church as a Doctor of the Church. Augustine (354–430), Bishop of Hippo, was a philosopher and theologian. Augustine, a Latin Father and Doctor of the Church,
1335-526: Is contained in the genesis of various institutes of civil law, such as the law in continental Europe and Latin American countries. Indirectly, canon law has significant influence in contemporary society. Catholic Canonical jurisprudential theory generally follows the principles of Aristotelian - Thomistic legal philosophy . While the term "law" is never explicitly defined in the Catholic Code of Canon Law,
1424-528: Is one of the most important figures in the development of Western Christianity . In his early life, Augustine read widely in Greco-Roman rhetoric and philosophy, including the works of Platonists such as Plotinus . He framed the concepts of original sin and just war as they are understood in the West. When Rome fell and the faith of many Christians was shaken, Augustine wrote The City of God , in which he defended Christianity from pagan critics and developed
1513-607: Is recorded that he had been a disciple of "John". The options/possibilities for this John are John, the son of Zebedee , traditionally viewed as the author of the Gospel of John , or John the Presbyter . Traditional advocates follow Eusebius of Caesarea in insisting that the apostolic connection of Polycarp was with John the Evangelist and that he was the author of the Gospel of John, and thus
1602-852: Is the earliest extant epistle from a Church Father. In the epistle, Clement calls on the Christians of Corinth to maintain harmony and order. Copied and widely read in the Early Church , First Clement had been considered by some as part of the New Testament canon , e.g., listed as canonical in Canon 85 of the Canons of the Apostles , among other early canons of the New Testament, showing that it had canonical rank in at least some regions of early Christendom. As late as
1691-575: The Catechism of the Catholic Church cites Aquinas in defining law as "an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by the one who is in charge of the community" and reformulates it as "a rule of conduct enacted by competent authority for the sake of the common good". The law of the Eastern Catholic Churches in full communion with the Roman papacy was in much the same state as that of
1780-500: The Church of England , the ecclesiastical courts that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g. discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards). Their separate status dates back to the 12th century when the Normans split them off from
1869-542: The Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches promulgated in 1990 by Pope John Paul II . Roman Catholic canon law is a fully developed legal system, with all the necessary elements: courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code, principles of legal interpretation, and coercive penalties, though it lacks civilly-binding force in most secular jurisdictions. One example where conflict between secular and canon law occurred
SECTION 20
#17328522462151958-601: The Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches ), the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the individual national churches within the Anglican Communion . The way that such church law is legislated , interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these four bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was originally a rule adopted by a church council ; these canons formed
2047-479: The adversarial form of proceeding found in the common law system of English and U.S. law, which features such things as juries and single judges. The institutions and practices of Catholic canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently, both modern civil law and common law bear the influences of canon law. As Edson Luiz Sampel, a Brazilian expert in Catholic canon law, says, canon law
2136-521: The canon of the New Testament once it reached its final form. Many of the writings derive from the same time period and geographical location as other works of early Christian literature that did come to be part of the New Testament, and some of the writings found among the Apostolic Fathers' seem to have been just as highly regarded as some of the writings that became the New Testament. The first three, Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp, are considered
2225-499: The sacraments , the role of bishops , and the incarnation of Christ . Specifically, concerning ecclesiology, his letter to the Romans is often cited as a testament to the universal bounds of the Roman church. He is the second after Clement to mention Paul's epistles. Polycarp of Smyrna ( c. 69 – c. 155 ) was a Christian bishop of Smyrna (now İzmir in Turkey). It
2314-661: The state church of the Roman Empire . For many denominations of Christianity, the writings of the Ante-Nicene Fathers , Nicene Fathers and Post-Nicene Fathers are included in Sacred Tradition . As such, in traditional dogmatic theology, authors considered Church Fathers are treated as authoritative for the establishment of doctrine. The academic field of patristics , the study of the Church Fathers, has extended
2403-684: The "Father of the Latin Church". He was evidently a lawyer in Rome. He is said to have introduced the Latin term trinitas with regard to the Divine ( Trinity ) to the Christian vocabulary (but Theophilus of Antioch had already written of "the Trinity, of God, and His Word, and His Wisdom", which is similar but not identical to the Trinitarian wording), and also probably the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as
2492-455: The "Jus Spolii" in the case of deceased bishops, while the smaller feudal lords laid similar claim to the property of all clerics who died in their domains. Councils ( Tribur , 895; Trosly, 909; Clermont , 1095; II Lateran , 1139) of the Church legislated against these abuses, finally obtaining a renunciation of this so-called right. In the thirteenth century the Roman Church put forth in
2581-471: The 14th century Ibn Khaldun mentions it as part of the New Testament. Ignatius of Antioch (also known as Theophorus) ( c. 35 – c. 110 ) was the third bishop of Antioch , and was said to be a student of the Apostle John . En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved. Important topics addressed in these letters include ecclesiology ,
2670-519: The Anglican Communion; (2) Their existence can be factually established; (3) Each province or church contributes through its own legal system to the principles of canon law common within the Communion; (4) these principles have strong persuasive authority and are fundamental to the self-understanding of each of the member churches; (5) These principles have a living force, and contain within themselves
2759-605: The Apostle John. Polycarp tried and failed to persuade Pope Anicetus to have the West celebrate Passover on the 14th of Nisan , as in the Eastern calendar. Around AD 155, the Smyrnans of his town demanded Polycarp's execution as a Christian, and he died a martyr . The story of his martyrdom describes how the fire built around him would not burn him, and that when he was stabbed to death, so much blood issued from his body that it quenched
Jus spolii - Misplaced Pages Continue
2848-593: The Catholic Church. Chrysostom is also noted for eight of his sermons that played a considerable part in the history of Christian antisemitism , diatribes against Judaizers composed while a presbyter in Antioch, which were extensively exploited and misused by the Nazis in their ideological campaign against the Jews. Patristic scholars such as Robert L Wilken point out that applying modern understandings of antisemitism back to Chrysostom
2937-535: The Chalcedonian position that Jesus had both a human and a divine will. Maximus is venerated in both Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity. His Christological positions eventually resulted in his torture and exile, soon after which he died; however, his theology was vindicated by the Third Council of Constantinople , and he was venerated as a saint soon after his death. His feast day is celebrated twice during
3026-476: The Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity . The historical period in which they worked became known as the Patristic Era and spans approximately from the late 1st to mid-8th centuries, flourishing in particular during the 4th and 5th centuries, when Christianity was in the process of establishing itself as
3115-625: The Gospels of Matthew , Mark , Luke and John all be accepted as canonical . Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215) was the first member of the church of Alexandria whose writings have survived, and was one of its most distinguished teachers. He saw wisdom in Greek philosophy and sought to harmonize it with Christian doctrine. Clement opposed Gnosticism , and yet used some of its terminology; for instance, he valued gnosis that with communion for all people could be held by common Christians. He developed
3204-613: The Greek (Church) Fathers. In addition to the Apostolic Fathers, famous Greek Fathers include: Justin Martyr , Irenaeus of Lyons , Clement of Alexandria , Athanasius of Alexandria , the Cappadocian Fathers ( Basil of Caesarea , Gregory Nazianzus , Gregory of Nyssa ), Peter of Sebaste , Diodorus of Tarsus , Theodore of Mopsuestia , John Chrysostom , Cyril of Alexandria , Maximus the Confessor , and John of Damascus . Justin Martyr
3293-550: The Hagiorite , has compiled canons and commentaries upon them in a work known as the Pēdálion ( Ancient Greek : Πηδάλιον , 'Rudder'), so named because it is meant to "steer" the church in her discipline. The dogmatic determinations of the Councils are to be applied rigorously since they are considered to be essential for the church's unity and the faithful preservation of the Gospel. In
3382-503: The Latin " tres Personae , una Substantia " (itself from the Koine Greek "τρεῖς ὑποστάσεις, ὁμοούσιος; treís hypostasis , Homoousios "), and also the terms vetus testamentum ( Old Testament ) and novum testamentum ( New Testament ). In his Apologeticus , he was the first Latin author who qualified Christianity as the vera religio , and systematically relegated the classical Roman imperial religion and other accepted cults to
3471-595: The Latin Church before 1917; much more diversity in legislation existed in the various Eastern Catholic Churches. Each had its own special law, in which custom still played an important part. One major difference in Eastern Europe however, specifically in the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches, was in regards to divorce. Divorce started to slowly be allowed in specific instances such as adultery being committed, abuse, abandonment, impotence, and barrenness being
3560-457: The Old Testament, and was partly influenced by Stoic , Neo-Pythagorean , and Platonist thought. Like Plotinus , he has been thought to believe that the soul passes through successive stages before incarnation as a human and after death, eventually reaching God. However, more recent scholarship has concluded that Origen actually denied the preexistence of disembodied souls, and simply taught
3649-526: The Son is of like substance with the Father ( homoiousios ), as against the outright Arians who taught that the Son was unlike the Father ( heterousian ). So the Son was held to be like the Father but not of the same essence as the Father. The Cappadocians worked to bring these semi-Arians back to the Orthodox cause. In their writings they made extensive use of the formula "three substances ( hypostases ) in one essence ( homoousia )", and thus explicitly acknowledged
Jus spolii - Misplaced Pages Continue
3738-493: The activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church. It was the first modern Western legal system and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West. In the Latin Church , positive ecclesiastical laws, based directly or indirectly upon immutable divine law or natural law , derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from the supreme legislator (i.e., the Supreme Pontiff ), who possesses
3827-525: The chief ones. Clement of Rome (also known as Pope Clement I) was a late 1st-century bishop of Rome who, according to Tertullian , was ordained by St. Peter . According to Irenaeus , Clement was the fourth bishop of Rome after Anacletus . Eusebius described him as the "co-laborer" of Paul and identified him with the Clement mentioned in Philippians 4:3 . The First Epistle of Clement ( c. 96 )
3916-584: The church: the term canon, κανὠν, means in Greek, a rule. There is a very early distinction between the rules enacted by the church and the legislative measures taken by the state called leges , Latin for laws. The Apostolic Canons or Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles is a collection of ancient ecclesiastical decrees (eighty-five in the Eastern , fifty in the Western Church) concerning
4005-478: The concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God , distinct from the material City of Man. Augustine's work defined the start of the medieval worldview , an outlook that would later be firmly established by Pope Gregory the Great . Augustine was born in present-day Algeria to a Christian mother, Monica of Hippo . He was educated in North Africa and resisted his mother's pleas to become Christian. He took
4094-620: The debates of the Council of Chalcedon , the fourth ecumenical council . Gregory I the Great ( c. 540 – 604) was pope from 3 September 590 until his death. He is also known as Gregorius Dialogus ( Gregory the Dialogist ) in Eastern Orthodoxy because of the Dialogues he wrote. He was the first of the popes from a monastic background. Gregory is a Doctor of the Church and one of
4183-541: The early development of Christian theology, and he is recognized as a saint by both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church. He was a notable early Christian apologist . He was also a disciple of Polycarp. In his best-known book, Against Heresies (c. 180) he enumerated heresies and attacked them. Irenaeus wrote that the only way for Christians to retain unity was to humbly accept one doctrinal authority—episcopal councils. Irenaeus proposed that
4272-632: The evolution of modern European civil law traditions. The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods: the jus antiquum , the jus novum , the jus novissimum and the Code of Canon Law . In relation to the Code, history can be divided into the jus vetus (all law before the Code) and the jus novum (the law of the Code, or jus codicis ). The canon law of the Eastern Catholic Churches , which had developed some different disciplines and practices, underwent its own process of codification, resulting in
4361-599: The faithful Pars dynamica (trial procedure) Canonization Election of the Roman Pontiff Academic degrees Journals and Professional Societies Faculties of canon law Canonists Institute of consecrated life Society of apostolic life In the Catholic Church , canon law is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the church's hierarchical authorities to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct
4450-438: The fifth Ecumenical Council made unsuccessful efforts to deny the identity of Chrysostom's correspondent with the bishop of Mopsuestia. Cyril of Alexandria ( c. 378 – 444) was the Bishop of Alexandria when the city was at its height of influence and power within the Roman Empire . Cyril wrote extensively and was a leading protagonist in the Christological controversies of the late 4th and early 5th centuries. He
4539-442: The flames around him. Very little is known of Papias apart from what can be inferred from his own writings. He is described as "an ancient man who was a hearer of John and a companion of Polycarp" by Polycarp's disciple Irenaeus ( c. 180 ). Eusebius adds that Papias was Bishop of Hierapolis around the time of Ignatius of Antioch . In this office, Papias was presumably succeeded by Abercius of Hierapolis . The name Papias
SECTION 50
#17328522462154628-422: The foundation of canon law. Greek kanon / Ancient Greek : κανών , Arabic qaanoon / قانون , Hebrew kaneh / קָנֶה , 'straight'; a rule, code, standard, or measure; the root meaning in all these languages is 'reed'; see also the Romance-language ancestors of the English word cane . In the fourth century, the First Council of Nicaea (325) calls canons the disciplinary measures of
4717-584: The government and discipline of the Early Christian Church, incorporated with the Apostolic Constitutions which are part of the Ante-Nicene Fathers . Jus novum ( c. 1140 -1563) Jus novissimum ( c. 1563 -1918) Jus codicis (1918-present) Other Sacraments Sacramentals Sacred places Sacred times Supra-diocesan/eparchal structures Particular churches Juridic persons Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law Clerics Office Juridic and physical persons Associations of
4806-425: The heresies of Apollinarianism and Macedonianism, and sent legates (papal representatives) to the First Council of Constantinople that was convoked in 381 to address these heresies. He also wrote in defense of the Roman See's authority, and inaugurated use of Latin in the Mass , instead of the Koine Greek that was still being used throughout the Church in the west in the liturgy. Jerome ( c. 347 – 420)
4895-421: The main five rites (groups) of churches which are in full union with the Holy See and the Latin Church: All of these church groups are in full communion with the Supreme Pontiff and are subject to the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches . The Catholic Church has what is claimed to be the oldest continuously functioning internal legal system in Western Europe , much later than Roman law but predating
4984-500: The mid-fifth century, shows that the rules for invective were simply taken for granted by men and women of the late Roman world." Chrysostom's sermons along with Basil the Great's have greatly influenced the Christian Church's understanding of economic and distributive justice for the poor, being cited extensively by the Catechism of the Catholic Church as well as Pope Francis in his own sermons critiquing modern-day forms of capitalism. Theodore of Mopsuestia ( c. 350 – 428 )
5073-421: The mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other courts of England, the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a civil law system, not common law , although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes. Since the Reformation , ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts. The teaching of canon law at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge
5162-410: The most prolific of the eastern fathers, and his ascetic sensibilities. After his death (or according to some sources, during his life) he was given the Greek epithet chrysostomos , meaning "golden mouthed", rendered in English as Chrysostom. Chrysostom is known within Christianity chiefly as a preacher and theologian, particularly in the Eastern Orthodox Church; he is the patron saint of orators in
5251-420: The papal treasury. Canon law Canon law (from Ancient Greek : κανών , kanon , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler ') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. Canon law includes the internal ecclesiastical law, or operational policy, governing the Catholic Church (both
5340-406: The patron saint of many institutions and a number have been named after him. Pope Leo I ( c. 400 – 461) was pope from 29 September 440 until his death. He was active in defending the Latin Church against the threat of schism associated with Monophysitism , Miaphysitism and Dyophysitism , most remembered theologically for issuing the Tome of Leo , a document which was a major foundation to
5429-438: The position of mere "superstitions". He used the early church's symbol for fish—the Greek word for "fish" being ΙΧΘΥΣ , which is an acronym for Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ (Jesus Christ, God's Son, Saviour)—to explain the meaning of baptism, since fish are born in water. He wrote that human beings are like little fish. Cyprian ( c. 200 – 258) was bishop of Carthage and an important early Christian writer. He
SECTION 60
#17328522462155518-454: The possibility for further development; and (6) The existence of the principles both demonstrates and promotes unity in the Communion. In Presbyterian and Reformed churches, canon law is known as "practice and procedure" or "church order", and includes the church's laws respecting its government, discipline, legal practice, and worship. Ante-Nicene Fathers The Church Fathers , Early Church Fathers , Christian Fathers , or Fathers of
5607-432: The preexistence of individuals' logoi in the mind of God. Yet Origen did suggest, based on 1 Corinthians 15:22–28, that all creatures, possibly including even the fallen angels, will eventually be restored and reunited to God when evil is finally eradicated. For Origen, God was the First Principle , and Christ , the Logos through whom salvation is accomplished. Origen's various writings were interpreted by some to imply
5696-435: The pretence that all other churches were but offshoots of the cathedral. After the fall of the Western Empire , anyone present at the death of a cleric felt at liberty to carry off whatever property of the deceased, ecclesiastical or otherwise, he could seize ( rapite capite , seize and take). As the civil power became more conscious of itself it began to restrain this indiscriminate plunder. The sovereign claimed for himself
5785-449: The primary justifications for divorce. Eventually, the church began to allow remarriage to occur (for both spouses) post-divorce. In 1929 Pius XI informed the Eastern Churches of his intention to work out a Code for the whole of the Eastern Church. The publication of these Codes for the Eastern Churches regarding the law of persons was made between 1949 through 1958 but finalized nearly 30 years later. The first Code of Canon Law (1917)
5874-545: The scope of the term, and there is no definitive list. Some, such as Origen and Tertullian , made major contributions to the development of later Christian theology, but certain elements of their teaching were later condemned. The Apostolic Fathers were Christian theologians who lived in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, who are believed to have personally known some of the Twelve Apostles , or to have been significantly influenced by them. Their writings, though popular in Early Christianity , were ultimately not included in
5963-409: The study of canon law. Much of Catholic canon law's legislative style was adapted from the Roman Code of Justinian . As a result, Roman ecclesiastical courts tend to follow the Roman Law style of continental Europe with some variation, featuring collegiate panels of judges and an investigative form of proceeding, called " inquisitorial ", from the Latin "inquirere", to enquire. This is in contrast to
6052-408: The totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person, while particular laws derive formal authority from a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition, and therefore extending beyond what is taken as revealed truth . The Catholic Church also includes
6141-586: The year: on 21 January and on 13 August. His title of Confessor means that he suffered for the faith, but not to the point of death, and thus is distinguished from a martyr. His Life of the Virgin is thought to be the earliest complete biography of Mary, the mother of Jesus. John of Damascus ( c. 676 – 749) was a Syrian Christian monk, priest, hymnographer and apologist. Born and raised in Damascus , he died at his monastery, Mar Saba , near Jerusalem. A polymath whose fields of interest and contribution included law, theology, philosophy, and music, he
6230-403: Was Bishop of Poitiers and is a Doctor of the Church. He was sometimes referred to as the "Hammer of the Arians" ( Latin : Malleus Arianorum ) and the "Athanasius of the West." His name comes from the Graeco-Latin word for happy or cheerful. His optional memorial in the General Roman Calendar is 13 January. In the past, when this date was occupied by the Octave Day of the Epiphany, his feast day
6319-442: Was a Christian theologian, and Bishop of Mopsuestia (as Theodore II) from 392 to 428 AD. He is also known as Theodore of Antioch, from the place of his birth and presbyterate. He is the best known representative of the middle Antioch School of hermeneutics . He is known to be a prolific writer and exegete with strong emphases on the literal, historical and rational interpretation of Christian scriptures. Throughout his lifetime, he
6408-559: Was a central figure in the First Council of Ephesus in 431, which led to the deposition of Nestorius as Archbishop of Constantinople . Cyril's reputation within the Christian world has resulted in his titles "Pillar of Faith" and "Seal of all the Fathers". Maximus the Confessor (also known as Maximus the Theologian and Maximus of Constantinople) ( c. 580 – 662) was a Christian monk, theologian, and scholar. In his early life, he
6497-548: Was a civil servant and an aide to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius ; however, he gave up this life in the political sphere to enter into the monastic life. After moving to Carthage , Maximus studied several Neo-Platonist writers and became a prominent author. When one of his friends began espousing the Christological position known as Monothelitism , Maximus was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported
6586-494: Was abolished by the Criminal Law Act 1827 . The academic degrees in Catholic canon law are the J.C.B. ( Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus , Bachelor of Canon Law, normally taken as a graduate degree), J.C.L. ( Juris Canonici Licentiatus , Licentiate of Canon Law ) and the J.C.D. ( Juris Canonici Doctor , Doctor of Canon Law ). Because of its specialized nature, advanced degrees in civil law or theology are normal prerequisites for
6675-520: Was abrogated by Henry VIII ; thereafter practitioners in the ecclesiastical courts were trained in civil law , receiving a Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) degree from Oxford , or a Doctor of Laws ( LL.D. ) degree from Cambridge . Such lawyers (called "doctors" and "civilians") were centered at " Doctors Commons ", a few streets south of St Paul's Cathedral in London, where they monopolized probate , matrimonial, and admiralty cases until their jurisdiction
6764-593: Was against many of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle (and other Greek philosophers), was an almost scientific and distinctive movement with the healing of the soul of man and his union with God at its center. They made major contributions to the definition of the Trinity finalized at the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and the final version of the Nicene Creed . Subsequent to the First Council of Nicea, Arianism did not simply disappear. The semi-Arians taught that
6853-658: Was an early Christian apologist , and is regarded as the foremost interpreter of the theory of the Logos in the 2nd century. He was martyred , alongside some of his students, and is considered a saint by the Catholic Church , Anglicanism , the Eastern Orthodox Church , and the Oriental Orthodox Churches . Irenaeus was bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul , which is now Lyon (s), France. His writings were formative in
6942-462: Was bishop of Nyssa ; and a close friend, Gregory of Nazianzus (329–389), who became Patriarch of Constantinople . The Cappadocians promoted early Christian theology and are highly respected in both Western and Eastern churches as saints. They were a 4th-century monastic family, led by Macrina the Younger (324–379) to provide a central place for her brothers to study and meditate, and also to provide
7031-591: Was born in North Africa , probably at the beginning of the 3rd century, perhaps at Carthage, where he received an excellent classical ( pagan ) education. After converting to Christianity, he became a bishop and eventually died a martyr at Carthage. He emphasized the necessity of the unity of Christians with their bishops, and also the authority of the Roman See, which he claimed was the source of "priestly unity"'. Hilary of Poitiers ( c. 300 – c. 368 )
7120-541: Was born in Carthage, the son of a Roman centurion. Tertullian denounced Christian doctrines he considered heretical, such as allowing widows to remarry and permitting Christians to flee from persecution, but later in life adopted Montanism , regarded as heretical by the mainstream Church, which prevented his canonization. He wrote three books in Greek and was the first great writer of Latin Christianity, thus sometimes known as
7209-587: Was exclusively for the Latin Church , with application to the Eastern Churches only "in cases which pertain to their very nature". After the Second Vatican Council (1962 - 1965), the Vatican produced the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches which became the first code of Eastern Catholic Canon Law. The Eastern Orthodox Church , principally through the work of 18th-century Athonite monastic scholar Nicodemus
7298-474: Was given the by-name of Chrysorrhoas (Χρυσορρόας, literally "streaming with gold", i.e. "the golden speaker"). He wrote numerous works expounding the Christian faith, and composed hymns which are still used both liturgically in Eastern Christian practice throughout the world as well as in western Lutheranism at Easter. He was particularly known for his defense of icons . The Catholic Church regards him as
7387-631: Was hailed as one of the outstanding, prolific biblical theologians and staunch defender of Christ's humanity. More than a century after his death, he was condemned in person in the Chalcedonian Church at the Second Council of Constantinople . However he continues to be recognised as a Greek Doctor in the Church of the East, which honours him with the title 'Theodore the Interpreter'. In 394, he attended
7476-498: Was in the English legal system, as well as systems, such as the U.S., that derived from it . Here criminals could apply for the benefit of clergy . Being in holy orders, or fraudulently claiming to be, meant that criminals could opt to be tried by ecclesiastical rather than secular courts. The ecclesiastical courts were generally more lenient. Under the Tudors , the scope of clerical benefit
7565-464: Was moved to 14 January. Ambrose was an archbishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was a governor before becoming bishop. He is counted as one of the four original doctors of the Church. He offered a new perspective on the theory of atonement . Pope Damasus I (305–384) was active in defending the Catholic Church against the threat of schisms. In two Roman synods (368 and 369) he condemned
7654-588: Was removed to the common law courts in the mid-19th century. Other churches in the Anglican Communion around the world (e.g., the Episcopal Church in the United States and the Anglican Church of Canada ) still function under their own private systems of canon law. In 2002 a Legal Advisors Consultation meeting at Canterbury concluded: (1) There are principles of canon law common to the churches within
7743-464: Was steadily reduced by Henry VII , Henry VIII , and Elizabeth I . The papacy disputed secular authority over priests' criminal offenses. The benefit of clergy was systematically removed from English legal systems over the next 200 years, although it still occurred in South Carolina in 1855. In English Law, the use of this mechanism, which by that point was a legal fiction used for first offenders,
7832-761: Was very common in the region, suggesting that he was probably a native of the area. The work of Papias is dated by most modern scholars to about AD 95–120. Despite indications that the work of Papias was still extant in the Late Middle Ages , the full text is now lost; however, extracts appear in a number of other writings, some of which cite a book number. Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: Those who wrote in Greek are called
7921-612: Was well-versed in pagan and biblical literature. Origen, or Origen Adamantius ( c. 185 – c. 254 ) was a scholar and theologian. According to tradition, he was an Egyptian who taught in Alexandria, reviving the Catechetical School where Clement had taught. The patriarch of Alexandria at first supported Origen but later expelled him for being ordained without the patriarch's permission. He relocated to Caesarea Maritima and died there after being tortured during
#214785