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60-693: Over the next several centuries, the Junii produced a number of very eminent men, such as Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus , three times consul and twice dictator during the period of the Samnite Wars , as well as Marcus and Decimus Junius Brutus , among the leaders of the conspiracy against Caesar . Although the Junii Bruti disappeared at the end of the Republic, another family, the Junii Silani, remained prominent under

120-583: A Arverni and not a Gallo-Roman; being the relations between the natives and the Franks seen not as Romans against barbarians, as is popularly believed, but as in the case of Gregory, a relationship of coexistence between Arverni and Franks (Franci) as equals. It must also be remembered that Clovis I was born in Gaul, so according to the Edict of Caracalla that made him a Roman citizen by birth, in addition to being recognized by

180-460: A pater familias , but he did not control the property or possessions of a woman and was generally only needed to give his permission when a woman wanted to perform certain legal actions, such as freeing her slaves. Officially, one required Roman citizenship status to enrol in the Roman legions, but this requirement was sometimes overlooked and exceptions could be made. Citizen soldiers could be beaten by

240-462: A branch of the Fabii at this time. Denarii minted by Decimus Junius Silanus in 91 BC picture Salus and may be intended to recall the founding of her temple by his ancestor. In their second joint consulship, both Junius Bubulcus and Aemilius Barbula refused to recognize the revision of the senate roll made the previous year by the censors Appius Claudius Caecus and Gaius Plautius Venox . Junius

300-799: A class of citizens who held the Latin rights ( ius Latii ), or the rights of ius commercii and ius migrationis (the right to migrate), but not the ius conubii . The term Latini originally referred to the Latins , citizens of the Latin League who came under Roman control at the close of the Latin War , but eventually became a legal description rather than a national or ethnic one. The Latin rights status could be assigned to different classes of citizens, such as freedmen , cives Romani convicted of crime, or colonial settlers. Under Roman law, citizens of another state that

360-440: A conquered people (a tribe or a city-state) like Sparta and the conquered Helots , Rome tried to make those under its rule feel that they had a stake in the system. The ability of non-Roman born individuals to gain Roman citizenship also provided increased stability for those under Roman rule, and the system of sub-division within the different types of citizenship allowed for Roman rulers to work cooperatively with local elites in

420-512: A conspiracy by their uncles, the Vitellii, to restore the Tarquins to power. They were condemned and executed by order of their own father, and this disgrace led to the abandonment of their names by future generations. The only noteworthy exception appears to be the orator Titus Junius, who lived in the final century of the Republic. The family names and surnames of the Junii which occur in the time of

480-596: A distinct stirps of the Junia gens. If so, the Bubulci were the only members of the family to use the praenomen Gaius . They appear in history during the Second Samnite War , at the same time as the other Junii Bruti emerge from two centuries of obscurity, with the agnomen Scaeva . This suggests that the family may have split into two distinct branches about this time. The origin of the cognomen Pera , which appears in

540-452: A fact which had considerable bearing on Paul's career and on the religion of Christianity. Citizenship in Rome could be acquired through various means. To be born as a citizen required that both parents be free citizens of Rome. Another method was via the completion of a public service, such as serving in the non-Roman auxiliary forces. Cities could acquire citizenship through the implementation of

600-402: A migration and reduction in status had to be a voluntary act. Roman citizenship was also used as a tool of foreign policy and control. Colonies and political allies would be granted a "minor" form of Roman citizenship, there being several graduated levels of citizenship and legal rights (the Latin rights was one of them). The promise of improved status within the Roman "sphere of influence" and

660-433: A response to plague may also have occasioned the temple, as Junius put out public contracts for its construction five years after the battle that is supposed to have prompted the vow, when he was censor in 307. As dictator in 302 he oversaw its dedication. The temple housed paintings by Gaius Fabius, a relative of Fabius Rullianus ; the cognomen Pictor, or "painter" (see Fabius Pictor ) is likely to have been acquired by

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720-408: A specific social class in Rome had modified versions of citizenship. Roman citizens enjoyed a variety of specific privileges within Roman society. Male citizens had the rights to vote ( ius suffragi ) and hold civic office ( ius honorum, only available to the aristocracy). They also possessed ius vitae necisque, "the right of life and death." The male head of a Roman family ( pater familias ) had

780-477: A vow to the goddess Salus , presumably for a narrow escape in battle. Salus was the divine embodiment of health, welfare, safety, and salvation both personal and public. This was also a time of plague, and in 313 Poetelius Libo Visolus had been appointed dictator clavi figendi causa , that is, the dictator appointed to drive a nail, a much-debated ritual intended in this instance to stop the outbreak. Reverence toward Salus's power to grant or withhold her favor as

840-566: Is not connected with the Greek Silenus , who was nonetheless depicted on their coins. In manuscripts the variants Syllanus and Sillanus are found. The Junii Silani first appear in history during the Second Punic War , and for the next four hundred years they occupied the highest offices of the state. From the middle of the second century BC, at least some of the Silani were descended from

900-421: Is not impossible that there were younger sons, or that the elder sons had children of their own. Brutus is also known to have had a brother, who was put to death by his uncle the king, and there may have been other relatives. Moreover, Niebuhr raised the possibility that Brutus himself was a plebeian. But even if he had been a patrician, as the weight of tradition holds, his descendants may still have gone over to

960-627: The Empire , were plebeians. However, it seems inconceivable that Lucius Junius Brutus, the nephew of Tarquin the Proud, was a plebeian. So jealous of their prerogatives were the patricians of the early Republic, that in 450 BC, the second year of the Decemvirate , a law forbidding the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians was made a part of the Twelve Tables , the fundamental principles of early Roman law. It

1020-457: The Latin law , wherein people of a provincial city of the empire could elect people to public office and therefore give the elected official citizenship. The legal classes varied over time, however the following classes of legal status existed at various times within the Roman state: The cives Romani were full Roman citizens, who enjoyed full legal protection under Roman law. Cives Romani were sub-divided into two classes: The Latini were

1080-561: The Roman family , Roman citizens possessed the right of ius conubii, defined as the right to a lawful marriage in which children from the union would also be Roman citizens. Earlier Roman sources indicate that Roman women could forfeit their individual rights as citizens when entering into a manus marriage . In a manus marriage, a woman would lose any properties or possessions she owned herself and they would be given to her husband, or his pater familias . Manus marriages had largely stopped by

1140-591: The Vestini . In 313 BC, as consul with Lucius Papirius Cursor who was in his fifth term, Junius is credited with the capture of Nola , Atina , and Calatia by some sources. The following year, he was appointed either dictator or magister equitum , and was sent with troops to the Marrucini , with some success. In 311, Junius held command in Samnium . The Augustan historian Livy says that allied Etruscans attacked

1200-575: The centurions and senior officers for reasons related to discipline. Non-citizens joined the Auxilia and gained citizenship through service. Following the early 2nd-century BC Porcian Laws , a Roman citizen could not be tortured or whipped and could commute sentences of death to voluntary exile , unless he was found guilty of treason. If accused of treason, a Roman citizen had the right to be tried in Rome, and even if sentenced to death, no Roman citizen could be sentenced to crucifixion . Ius gentium

1260-453: The colony of Sutrium , an exposed outpost, and Junius fought a battle that ended with nightfall rather than resolution. The outcome of the campaign seems ambiguous: "The sum total of his achievement apparently was to sack some otherwise unknown hamlets, Talium, Cataracta, and Ceraunilia." According to Livy, Junius regained Cluviae and captured Bovianum , a town of the Pentri , but this may be

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1320-404: The ius gentium were considered to be held by all persons; it is thus a concept of human rights rather than rights attached to citizenship. Ius migrationis was the right to preserve one's level of citizenship upon relocation to a polis of comparable status. For example, members of the cives Romani maintained their full civitas when they migrated to a Roman colony with full rights under

1380-631: The Aequi ceased to exist as a separate people at this time. There is a consul in 292 of the same name, this may be him or an unknown son. Roman citizenship Citizenship in ancient Rome ( Latin : civitas ) was a privileged political and legal status afforded to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance. Citizenship in ancient Rome was complex and based upon many different laws, traditions, and cultural practices. There existed several different types of citizenship, determined by one's gender, class, and political affiliations, and

1440-513: The Great had tried to "mingle" his Greeks with the Persians, Egyptians, Syrians, etc. in order to assimilate the people of the conquered Persian Empire , but after his death this policy was largely ignored by his successors . The idea was not to assimilate , but to turn a defeated and potentially rebellious enemy (or their sons) into Roman citizens. Instead of having to wait for the unavoidable revolt of

1500-525: The Republic are, Brutus , Bubulcus , Gracchanus , Paciaecus , Pennus , Pera , Pullus , and Silanus . Norbanus was formerly supposed to be a surname of the Junia gens, but in fact it seems to have been a gentile name . A few Junii are mentioned without any cognomen . Many Junii appear under the Empire with other surnames, but most of them cannot be regarded as part of the gens; these included many descendants of freedmen , and of citizens enrolled during

1560-578: The Roman Emperor Caracalla , which declared that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in the Empire were given the same rights as Roman women, with the exception of the dediticii , people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves. By the century previous to Caracalla, Roman citizenship had already lost much of its exclusiveness and become more available between

1620-515: The Social War, or who were willing to cease hostilities immediately. This was extended to all the Italian socii states when the war ended (except for Gallia Cisalpina ), effectively eliminating socii and Latini as legal and citizenship definitions. Provinciales were those people who fell under Roman influence, or control, but who lacked even the rights of the foederati , essentially having only

1680-450: The census. The exact extent of civic duties varied throughout the centuries. Much of Roman law involving the rights and functions of citizenship revolved around legal precedents. Documents from Roman writer Valerius Maximus indicate that Roman women were in later centuries able to mingle freely about the Forum and to bring in concerns on their own volition, providing they acted in a manner that

1740-471: The construction and dedication process. The desultory manner in which Junius Bubulcus survives in the historical record obscures the stature indicated by the number of high offices he held from 317 to 302 BC; it has been observed that he "cannot have been as colourless as he appears in Livy ." Junius was consul in 317 BC with the patrician Quintus Aemilius Barbula . The two were joint consuls again in 311. From

1800-412: The early Empire . Junius , the nomen of the gens, may be etymologically connected with the goddess Juno , after whom the month of Junius was also named. Scholars have long been divided on the question of whether the Junii were originally patrician. The family was prominent throughout the whole of Roman history, and all of the members who are known, from the early times of the Republic and on into

1860-516: The exact duties or expectations of a citizen varied throughout the history of the Roman Empire . The oldest document currently available that details the rights of citizenship is the Twelve Tables , ratified c. 449 BC. Much of the text of the Tables only exists in fragments, but during the time of Ancient Rome the Tables would be displayed in full in the Roman Forum for all to see. The Tables detail

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1920-453: The inhabitants throughout the different provinces of the Roman Empire and between nobles such as kings of client countries. Before the Edict, however, a significant number of provincials were non-Roman citizens and held instead the Latin rights . The Bible's Book of Acts indicates that Paul the Apostle was a Roman citizen by birth – though not clearly specifying which class of citizenship –

1980-545: The last years of unity of the pars occidentalis , a moment in which the old tribalisms and the proto-feudalism of Celtic origins, until then dormant, would re-emerge, mixing with the new ethnic groups of Germanic origin. This being observed in the writings of Gregory of Tours , who does not use the dichotomy Gallo-Roman - Frankish , but uses the name of each of the gens of that time existing in Gaul (arverni, turoni, lemovici, turnacenses, bituriges, franci, etc.), considering himself

2040-463: The latter part of the second century BC, on account of his friendship with Gaius Gracchus . Paciaecus or Paciacus , the cognomen of another member of the gens, does not appear to be of Roman origin, although it may be that Paccianus or Pacianus is the correct form. Silanus appears to be a lengthened form of Silus , "snub-nosed", which occurs as a cognomen in the Sergia and Terentia gentes, and

2100-405: The law: a colonia civium Romanorum . Latins also had this right, and maintained their ius Latii if they relocated to a different Latin state or Latin colony ( Latina colonia ). This right did not preserve one's level of citizenship should one relocate to a colony of lesser legal status; full Roman citizens relocating to a Latina colonia were reduced to the level of the ius Latii , and such

2160-416: The magistracies of the various Junii. Brutus was the name of a plebeian family of the Junia gens, which claimed descent from Lucius Junius Brutus. This possibility was denied by some ancient authorities, on the grounds that the first consul was a patrician, and because his two sons preceded him in death. However, one tradition states that there was a third son, from whom the later Bruti were descended. It

2220-414: The mid-4th century to the early 3rd century BC, several plebeian-patrician " tickets " repeated joint terms, suggesting a deliberate political strategy of cooperation. The Second Samnite War was a formative time in the creation of a ruling elite (the nobiles ) that comprised both patricians and plebeians who had risen to power. As consul, Junius exerted force in central Italy to restore Roman control over

2280-462: The middle of the third century BC, is not known, but the filiations of the two Perae suggest that they may have been descended from the Junii Bruti. Pennus , also a surname of the Quinctia gens , is probably derived from a Latin adjective meaning "sharp". This family flourished for about a century from the time of the Second Punic War . The surname Gracchanus was assumed by one of the Junii in

2340-665: The older meaning of the adjective brutus was "serious" or "grave", in which case the surname is much the same as Severus . A less probable explanation suggests a common origin with the name with that of the Bruttii , a people of southern Italy who broke away from the Samnites in the fourth century BC, and whose name is said to have meant, "runaway slaves". The surname Bubulcus refers to one who plows with oxen. The only persons known to have borne this cognomen also bore that of Brutus , and therefore may have belonged to that family, rather than

2400-412: The other families of the Junii also used these names, although some added Gaius and others Quintus . The Junii were by far the most prominent family to make regular use of Decimus . The names Titus and Tiberius were carefully avoided by the Junii throughout most of their history. According to tradition, these were the names of the sons of Lucius Junius Brutus, the first consul, who joined in

2460-471: The patrician Manlii , from whom they inherited the additional surname Torquatus . In 30 BC, Augustus raised Marcus Junius Silanus to the patriciate. Many of this family were related to, or even descended from, Augustus and the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty . Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus ( fl. late 4th century BC) was a Roman general and statesman, he

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2520-427: The plebeians. The name of Brutus is said to have been given to Lucius because he feigned idiocy after the execution of his brother, in hope of avoiding the same fate. However, his father is also referred to as Brutus by the ancient authorities, and while this may have come about merely for narrative convenience, it is possible that the surname had already been borne by the family for some time. According to Festus ,

2580-431: The propaganda of his gens . Diodorus gives a more laudatory report of Roman actions, while Zonaras gives a less favorable ending. The varying assessments of Roman success may indicate a slim and costly victory. Whatever the scale of his victories, Junius celebrated a triumph which featured praeda pecorum , booty in the form of cattle. During a Samnite ambush, Junius had prayed to Jupiter and Mars , but made

2640-507: The provinces. With the settlement of Romanization and the passing of generations, a new unifying feeling began to emerge within Roman territory, the Romanitas or "Roman way of life", the once tribal feeling that had divided Europe began to disappear (although never completely) and blend in with the new wedge patriotism imported from Rome with which to be able to ascend at all levels. The Romanitas , Romanity or Romanism would last until

2700-508: The right to legally execute any of his children at any age, although it appears that this was mostly reserved in deciding to raise newborn children. More general rights included: the rights to property ( ius census ), to enter into contracts ( ius commercii ), ius provocationis, the right to appeal court decisions, the right to sue and to be sued, to have a legal trial, and the right of immunity from some taxes and other legal obligations, especially local rules and regulations. With regards to

2760-599: The rights afforded to the socii and with the growing manpower demands of the legions (due to the protracted Jugurthine War and the Cimbrian War ) led eventually to the Social War of 91–87 BC in which the Italian allies revolted against Rome. The Lex Julia (in full the Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis Danda ), passed in 90 BC, granted the rights of the cives Romani to all Latini and socii states that had not participated in

2820-529: The rights of citizens in dealing with court proceedings, property, inheritance, death, and (in the case of women) public behavior. Under the Roman Republic , the government conducted a census every five years in Rome to keep a record of citizens and their households. As the Roman Empire spread so did the practice of conducting a census. Roman citizens were expected to perform some duties ( munera publica ) to

2880-555: The rights of the ius gentium (rules and laws common to nations under Rome's rule). A peregrinus (plural peregrini ) was originally any person who was not a full Roman citizen, that is someone who was not a member of the cives Romani . With the expansion of Roman law to include more gradations of legal status, this term became less used, but the term peregrini included those of the Latini , socii , and provinciales , as well as those subjects of foreign states. Individuals belonging to

2940-455: The rivalry with one's neighbours for status, kept the focus of many of Rome's neighbours and allies centered on the status quo of Roman culture, rather than trying to subvert or overthrow Rome's influence. The granting of citizenship to allies and the conquered was a vital step in the process of Romanization . This step was one of the most effective political tools and (at that point in history) original political ideas. Previously, Alexander

3000-408: The state in order to retain their rights as citizens. Failure to perform citizenship duties could result in the loss of privileges, as seen during the Second Punic War when men who refused military service lost their right to vote and were forced out of their voting tribes. Women were exempt from direct taxation and military service. Anyone living in any province of Rome was required to register with

3060-431: The time of Augustus and women instead remained under the protection of their pater familias. Upon his death, both the men and women under the protection of the pater familias would be considered sui iuris and be legally independent, able to inherit and own property without the approval of their pater familias. Roman woman however would enter into a tutela , or guardianship. A woman's tutor functioned similarly to

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3120-479: The very birth of the Roman Republic may have been exceptions. On balance, it seems more likely that the Junii were at first numbered amongst the patricians, and that they afterward passed over to the plebeians; but this question may remain unsettled. At the end of the Republic, the Junii Silani were raised to patrician status by Augustus , and one of them even held the office of Flamen Martialis ; but this family

3180-399: Was magister equitum in 310 and possibly again in 309; his office in the latter year may have been dictator . As censor in 307 with Marcus Valerius Maximus , he removed Lucius Annius from the senate on moral grounds. Annius had divorced his wife even though she had been a virgin when they married, and had done so without honoring his social obligations by consulting his friends. Junius

3240-487: Was allied to Rome via treaty were assigned the status of socii . Socii (also known as foederati ) could obtain certain legal rights of under Roman law in exchange for agreed upon levels of military service, i.e., the Roman magistrates had the right to levy soldier from such states into the Roman legions . However, foederati states that had at one time been conquered by Rome were exempt from payment of tribute to Rome due to their treaty status. Growing dissatisfaction with

3300-448: Was appointed dictator again in 302 BC. Livy's account of this year is somewhat confused. He makes both Junius and Valerius Maximus dictatores , but military campaigns on at least four fronts may account for the multiplicity of appointments. Junius's war against the Aequi is one of a series from 304 to 300 BC. Junius swiftly put down an insurrection that broke out when Alba was colonized, and

3360-635: Was becoming of their family and station. Much of our basis for understanding Roman law comes from the Digest of Emperor Justinian . The Digest contained court rulings by juries and their interpretations of Roman law and preserved the writings of Roman legal authors. The Edict of Caracalla (officially the Constitutio Antoniniana in Latin: "Constitution [or Edict] of Antoninus") was an edict issued in AD 212 by

3420-561: Was descended from one of the Silani who had been adopted from the patrician gens Manlia . Several of them bore the surname Torquatus , the name of a great family of the Manlia gens. The praenomina favored by the early Junii were Marcus , Lucius , and Decimus . Except for the Bruti Bubulci, who favored the praenomen Gaius and may have been a cadet branch of the family, the Junii Bruti relied exclusively on these three names. Many of

3480-431: Was elected consul of the Roman Republic thrice, he was also appointed dictator or magister equitum thrice, and censor in 307 BC. In 311, he made a vow to the goddess Salus that he went on to fulfill, becoming the first plebeian to build a temple. The temple was one of the first dedicated to an abstract deity, and Junius was one of the first generals to vow a temple and then oversee its establishment through

3540-413: Was not until the passage of the lex Licinia Sextia in 367 BC that plebeians were permitted to stand for the consulship. Still, it has been suggested that the divisions between the orders were not firmly established during the first decades of the Republic, and that as many as a third of the consuls elected before 450 may in fact have been plebeians. Even if this were not the case, the consuls chosen at

3600-501: Was the legal recognition, developed in the 3rd century BC, of the growing international scope of Roman affairs, and the need for Roman law to deal with situations between Roman citizens and foreign persons. The ius gentium was therefore a Roman legal codification of the widely accepted international law of the time, and was based on the highly developed commercial law of the Greek city-states and of other maritime powers. The rights afforded by

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