115-580: Jules Semon Bache (November 9, 1861 – March 24, 1944) was an American banker , art collector and philanthropist . Jules Bache was born into a Jewish family in New York City. His father, Semon Bache [né Bach], emigrated to the United States from his native Nuremberg , Bavaria , settling in New York City , where he started the glassmaking firm Semon Bache & Company. In 1881, he started work as
230-597: A miller and his mother was a baker's daughter. His mother was Catholic , and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church . Religion is a central theme in Rembrandt's works and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. As a boy, he attended a Latin school . In 1620, he was enrolled at the University of Leiden , although he had a greater inclination towards painting and
345-469: A Beard from a US private collection, Study of a Weeping Woman , owned by the Detroit Institute of Arts , and Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet , painted in 1640. The Old Man Sitting in a Chair is a further example: in 2014, Professor Ernst van de Wetering offered his view to The Guardian that the demotion of the 1652 painting Old Man Sitting in a Chair "was a vast mistake...it
460-665: A Stormy Sky , c. 1641; The Three Trees , 1643). From 1640 his work became less exuberant and more sober in tone, possibly reflecting personal tragedy. Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the New Testament than the Old Testament , as had been the case before. In 1642 he painted The Night Watch , the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period, and through which he sought to find solutions to compositional and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous works. In
575-412: A bank account is considered indispensable by most businesses and individuals. Non-banks that provide payment services such as remittance companies are normally not considered as an adequate substitute for a bank account. Banks issue new money when they make loans. In contemporary banking systems, regulators set a minimum level of reserve funds that banks must hold against the deposit liabilities created by
690-409: A bank varies from country to country. See the relevant country pages for more information. Under English common law , a banker is defined as a person who carries on the business of banking by conducting current accounts for their customers, paying cheques drawn on them and also collecting cheques for their customers. In most common law jurisdictions there is a Bills of Exchange Act that codifies
805-461: A cashier at Leopold Cahn & Co., a stockbrokerage firm founded by his uncle. In 1886, he was made a minority partner, and in 1892, he took full control of the business, renaming it J. S. Bache & Co. Jules Bache built the company into one of the top brokerage houses in the United States, outranked only by Merrill Lynch . In the process, he became an immensely wealthy individual, a patron of
920-562: A cause for later financial difficulties. The neighborhood sheltered many immigrants and was becoming the Jewish quarter. It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes. One of the great patrons at the early stages of his career was Amsterdam statesman Andries de Graeff . Although they were by now affluent, the couple suffered several personal setbacks; three children died within weeks of their births. Only their fourth child, Titus , who
1035-452: A central role over many centuries. The oldest existing retail bank is Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena (founded in 1472), while the oldest existing merchant bank is Berenberg Bank (founded in 1590). Banking as an archaic activity (or quasi-banking ) is thought to have begun as early as the end of the 4th millennium BCE, to the 3rd millennia BCE. The present era of banking can be traced to medieval and early Renaissance Italy, to
1150-856: A classical mode of composition and, considering the more expressive use of brushwork as well, may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art ( Susanna and the Elders , 1637–47). At the same time, there was a marked decrease in painted works in favor of etchings and drawings of landscapes. In these graphic works natural drama eventually made way for quiet Dutch rural scenes. In the 1650s, Rembrandt's style changed again. Colors became richer and brush strokes more pronounced. With these changes, Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier work and current fashion, which increasingly inclined toward fine, detailed works. His use of light becomes more jagged and harsh, and shine becomes almost nonexistent. His singular approach to paint application may have been suggested in part by familiarity with
1265-442: A collections of natural history specimens (two lion skins, a bird-of-paradise , corals and minerals). Unfortunately, the prices realized in the sale were disappointing. By February 1658, Rembrandt' house was sold at a foreclosure auction, and the family moved to more modest lodgings at Rozengracht . In 1660, he finished Ahasuerus and Haman at the feast of Esther which he sold to Jan J. Hinlopen . Early December 1660,
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#17328442276741380-540: A controversial nude Bathsheba at Her Bath . In June Hendrickje received three summonses from the Reformed Church to answer the charge "that she had committed the acts of a whore with Rembrandt the painter". In July she admitted her guilt and was banned from receiving communion . Rembrandt was not summoned to appear for the Church council. In October they had a daughter, Cornelia. Had he remarried he would have lost access to
1495-406: A fashionable lodging with a view of the river Amstel. In 1637, Rembrandt moved upriver to Vlooienburg , in a building on the previous site of the current Stopera . In May 1639 they moved to a recently modernized house in the upscale 'Breestraat' with artists and art dealers; Nicolaes Pickenoy , a portrait painter, was his neighbor. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be
1610-425: A large number of small to medium-sized institutions in its banking system. As of November 2009, China's top four banks have in excess of 67,000 branches ( ICBC :18000+, BOC :12000+, CCB :13000+, ABC :24000+) with an additional 140 smaller banks with an undetermined number of branches. Japan had 129 banks and 12,000 branches. In 2004, Germany, France, and Italy each had more than 30,000 branches – more than double
1725-643: A large scale, financing the purchase of shares in the Suez canal for the British government in 1875. The word bank was taken into Middle English from Middle French banque , from Old Italian banco , meaning "table", from Old High German banc, bank "bench, counter". Benches were used as makeshift desks or exchange counters during the Renaissance by Florentine bankers, who used to make their transactions atop desks covered by green tablecloths. The definition of
1840-438: A magnificent collection of prints by other artists, and many borrowings and influences in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as Mantegna , Raphael , Hercules Seghers , and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione . Drawings by Rembrandt and his pupils/followers have been extensively studied by many artists and scholars through the centuries. His original draughtsmanship has been described as an individualistic art style that
1955-526: A matter of ongoing debate. Contrary to what is often said, the work was hailed as a success from the beginning. Parts of the canvas were cut off (approximately 20% from the left-hand side was removed) to make the painting fit its new position when it was moved to the town hall in 1715. In 1817 this large painting was moved to the Trippenhuis . Since 1885 the painting is on display at the Rijksmuseum . In 1940
2070-491: A means of generating income. Rembrandt lost the guardianship of his son and thus control over his actions. A new guardian, Louis Crayers, claimed the house in settlement of Titus's debt. The sale list comprising 363 items offers insight into Rembrandt's diverse collections, which, encompassed Old Master paintings, drawings, Roman emperors busts, Greek philosophers statues, books (a bible), two globes , bonnets, armor , and various objects from Asia ( chinaware ), as well as
2185-557: A much more stable total of slightly under 300. It is likely Rembrandt made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2,000 but those extant are more rare than presumed. Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph status can be regarded as effectively "certain" is no higher than about 75, although this is disputed. The list was to be unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010. At one time, approximately 90 paintings were counted as Rembrandt self-portraits but it
2300-738: A painting's surface. The result is a richly varied handling of paint, deeply layered and often apparently haphazard, which suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner. In later years, biblical themes were often depicted but emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portrait-like figures ( James the Apostle , 1661). In his last years, Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self-portraits (from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen), and several moving images of both men and women ( The Jewish Bride , c. 1666)—in love, in life, and before God. Rembrandt produced etchings for most of his career, from 1626 to 1660, when he
2415-792: A period that historians call the Dutch Golden Age . Rembrandt never went abroad but was considerably influenced by the work of the Italian Old Masters and Dutch and Flemish artists who had studied in Italy. After he achieved youthful success as a portrait painter, Rembrandt's later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardships. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high, and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters. Rembrandt's portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from
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#17328442276742530-404: A postponement. The house required repairs prompting Rembrandt to borrow money from friends, including Jan Six . In November 1655, amid a year overshadowed by plague and the drafting of wills, Rembrandt's 14-year-old son Titus took a significant step by drafting a will that designated his father as the sole heir, effectively sidelining his mother's family. In December Rembrandt orchestrated
2645-457: A respected family: her father Rombertus was a lawyer and had been burgomaster (mayor) of Leeuwarden. The couple married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandt's relatives. In the same year, Rembrandt became a citizen of Amsterdam and a member of the local guild of painters . He also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck . In 1635, Rembrandt and Saskia rented
2760-457: A result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt. At the end of 1631, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam, a city rapidly expanding as the business and trade capital. He began to practice as a professional portraitist for the first time, with great success. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh , and in 1634, married Hendrick's cousin, Saskia van Uylenburgh . Saskia came from
2875-419: A sale of his paintings, yet the earnings failed to meet expectations. This tumultuous period deeply impacted the art industry, prompting Rembrandt to seek a high court arrangement known as cessio bonorum . Despite the financial difficulties, Rembrandt's bankruptcy was not forced. In July 1656, he declared his insolvency , taking stock and willingly surrendered his assets. Notably, he had already transferred
2990-461: A studio in Leiden, which he shared with friend and colleague Jan Lievens . In 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, among them Gerrit Dou and Isaac de Jouderville . Joan Huydecoper is mentioned as the first buyer of a Rembrandt painting in 1628. In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The Hague. As
3105-481: A style based on drawing but soon moved to one based on painting, using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with the acid to achieve different strengths of line. Towards the end of the 1630s, he reacted against this manner and moved to a simpler style, with fewer bitings. He worked on the so-called Hundred Guilder Print in stages throughout the 1640s, and it was the "critical work in the middle of his career", from which his final etching style began to emerge. Although
3220-462: A system known as fractional-reserve banking , under which banks hold liquid assets equal to only a portion of their current liabilities. In addition to other regulations intended to ensure liquidity , banks are generally subject to minimum capital requirements based on an international set of capital standards, the Basel Accords . Banking in its modern sense evolved in the fourteenth century in
3335-480: A trust set up for Titus in Saskia's will. Rembrandt, despite his artistic success, found himself in financial turmoil. His penchant for acquiring art, prints, and rare items led him to live beyond his means. In January 1653 the sale of the property formally was finalized but Rembrandt still had to cover half of the remaining mortgage. Creditors began pressing for installments but Rembrandt, facing financial strain, sought
3450-399: A variety of different ways including interest, transaction fees and financial advice. Traditionally, the most significant method is via charging interest on the capital it lends out to customers. The bank profits from the difference between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities. This difference
3565-505: A women's house of correction at Gouda in August 1650. Rembrandt also took measures to ensure she stayed in the house of correction for as long as possible. Rembrandt paid for the costs. In early 1649, Rembrandt began a relationship with the 23-year-old Hendrickje Stoffels , who had initially been his maid. She may have been the cause of Geertje's leaving. In that year he made no (dated) paintings or etchings at all. In 1654 Rembrandt produced
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3680-446: Is a bank regulation , which sets a framework within which a bank or depository institution must manage its balance sheet . The categorisation of assets and capital is highly standardised so that it can be risk weighted . After the financial crisis of 2007–2008 , regulators force banks to issue Contingent convertible bonds (CoCos). These are hybrid capital securities that absorb losses in accordance with their contractual terms when
3795-436: Is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates a demand deposit while simultaneously making loans . Lending activities can be directly performed by the bank or indirectly through capital markets . Whereas banks play an important role in financial stability and the economy of a country, most jurisdictions exercise a high degree of regulation over banks. Most countries have institutionalized
3910-403: Is a list of the largest deals in history in terms of value with participation from at least one bank: Currently, commercial banks are regulated in most jurisdictions by government entities and require a special bank license to operate. Usually, the definition of the business of banking for the purposes of regulation is extended to include acceptance of deposits, even if they are not repayable to
4025-601: Is a most important painting. The painting needs to be seen in terms of Rembrandt's experimentation". This was highlighted much earlier by Nigel Konstam who studied Rembrandt throughout his career. Rembrandt's own studio practice is a major factor in the difficulty of attribution, since, like many masters before him, he encouraged his students to copy his paintings, sometimes finishing or retouching them to be sold as originals, and sometimes selling them as authorized copies. Additionally, his style proved easy enough for his most talented students to emulate. Further complicating matters
4140-639: Is not known but critics have drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly melded the earthly and spiritual. Earlier 20th century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had produced well over 600 paintings, nearly 400 etchings and 2,000 drawings. More recent scholarship, from the 1960s to the present day (led by the Rembrandt Research Project ), often controversially, has winnowed his oeuvre to nearer 300 paintings. His prints , traditionally all called etchings, although many are produced in whole or part by engraving and sometimes drypoint , have
4255-440: Is now known that he had his students copy his own self-portraits as part of their training. Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count to over forty paintings, as well as a few drawings and thirty-one etchings, which include many of the most remarkable images of the group. Some show him posing in quasi-historical fancy dress, or pulling faces at himself. His oil paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man, through
4370-431: Is referred to as the spread between the cost of funds and the loan interest rate. Historically, profitability from lending activities has been cyclical and dependent on the needs and strengths of loan customers and the stage of the economic cycle . Fees and financial advice constitute a more stable revenue stream and banks have therefore placed more emphasis on these revenue lines to smooth their financial performance. In
4485-487: Is the uneven quality of some of Rembrandt's own work, and his frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments. As well, there were later imitations of his work, and restorations which so seriously damaged the original works that they are no longer recognizable. Technical investigation of Rembrandt's paintings in the possession of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister and in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Kassel)
4600-705: The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as a regulator. However, for soundness examinations (i.e., whether a bank is operating in a sound manner), the Federal Reserve is the primary federal regulator for Fed-member state banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) is the primary federal regulator for national banks. State non-member banks are examined by the state agencies as well as
4715-575: The Great Depression , the U.S. Savings and Loan crisis in the 1980s and early 1990s, the Japanese banking crisis during the 1990s, and the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the 2000s. The 2023 global banking crisis is the latest of these crises: In March 2023, liquidity shortages and bank insolvencies led to three bank failures in the United States , and within two weeks, several of the world's largest banks failed or were shut down by regulators Assets of
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4830-474: The 15,000 branches in the United Kingdom. Between 1985 and 2018 banks engaged in around 28,798 mergers or acquisitions, either as the acquirer or the target company. The overall known value of these deals cumulates to around 5,169 bil. USD. In terms of value, there have been two major waves (1999 and 2007) which both peaked at around 460 bil. USD followed by a steep decline (−82% from 2007 until 2018). Here
4945-558: The Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His approximately 40 self-portraits form an intimate autobiography. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July 1606 in Leiden, in the Dutch Republic , now the Netherlands . He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck. His family was quite well-to-do; his father was
5060-494: The Cross , Joseph Telling His Dreams , and The Stoning of Saint Stephen , Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the crowd. Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was for Rembrandt "a kind of diary, an account of moments in his own life". Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt's work are his use of chiaroscuro , the theatrical employment of light and shadow derived from Caravaggio , or, more likely, from
5175-591: The Dutch Caravaggisti but adapted for very personal means. Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects, devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed, and a deeply felt compassion for mankind, irrespective of wealth and age. His immediate family—his wife Saskia, his son Titus and his common-law wife Hendrickje—often figured prominently in his paintings, many of which had mythical , biblical or historical themes. Throughout his career, Rembrandt took as his primary subjects
5290-522: The FDIC. National banks have one primary regulator – the OCC. Each regulatory agency has its own set of rules and regulations to which banks and thrifts must adhere. The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC) was established in 1979 as a formal inter-agency body empowered to prescribe uniform principles, standards, and report forms for the federal examination of financial institutions. Although
5405-456: The FFIEC has resulted in a greater degree of regulatory consistency between the agencies, the rules and regulations are constantly changing. Rembrandt Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn ( / ˈ r ɛ m b r æ n t , ˈ r ɛ m b r ɑː n t / ; Dutch: [ˈrɛmbrɑnt ˈɦɑrmə(n)ˌsoːɱ vɑn ˈrɛin] ; 15 July 1606 – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt ,
5520-786: The Jewish Bride and his final self-portraits but struggled with rent arrears. Notably, Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany , visited Rembrandt twice, and returned to Florence with one of the self-portraits. Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje and Titus; he died on Friday 4 October 1669 and was buried four days later in a rented grave in the Westerkerk . His illegitimate child , Cornelia (1654–1684), eventually moved to Batavia in 1670 accompanied by an obscure painter and her mother's inheritance. Titus' considerable inheritance passed to his only child, Titia (1669-1715) who married her cousin and lived at Blauwburgwal . Rembrandt's life
5635-659: The Name, Please?, Funk & Wagnalls, 1936.) In addition to his high profile in the business world, Jules Bache would also become well known for his art collecting, which received much press attention in 1929 when he purchased the portrait of " Giuliano de Medici ," then attributed to Raphael . He would acquire numerous other important works, including those by or attributed to Rembrandt , Titian (including The Bache Madonna ), Albrecht Dürer , Diego Velázquez , Gerard David , Giovanni Bellini , and Sandro Botticelli , amongst others. In 1937, he opened his magnificent art collection to
5750-568: The National Gallery in London. The entire array of pigments employed by Rembrandt can be found at ColourLex. The best source for technical information on Rembrandt's paintings on the web is the Rembrandt Database containing all works of Rembrandt with detailed investigative reports, infrared and radiography images and other scientific details. "Rembrandt" is a modification of the spelling of
5865-567: The UK, for example, the Financial Services Authority licenses banks, and some commercial banks (such as the Bank of Scotland ) issue their own banknotes in addition to those issued by the Bank of England , the UK government's central bank. Banking law is based on a contractual analysis of the relationship between the bank (defined above) and the customer – defined as any entity for which
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#17328442276745980-401: The approximately three hundred etchings, about thirty show a landscape. As for his painted landscapes, one does not even get beyond eight works. One third of his etchings are of religious subjects, many treated with a homely simplicity, whilst others are his most monumental prints. A few erotic, or just obscene, compositions have no equivalent in his paintings. He owned, until forced to sell it,
6095-530: The arts, and a philanthropist. During World War I , Jules Bache donated money to the American Field Service in France , and his wife was the honorary treasurer of the "War Babies' Cradle," a charity that provided aid for mothers and children in distress in war-torn Northern France and Belgium to provide them with food, clothing, heating fuel, and medical care. In the 1920 presidential election , Bache
6210-407: The authenticity of works attributed to Rembrandt, using all methods available, including state-of-the-art technical diagnostics, and to compile a complete new catalogue raisonné of his paintings. As a result of their findings, many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from their list, although others have been added back. Many of those removed are now thought to be
6325-639: The bank agrees to conduct an account. The law implies rights and obligations into this relationship as follows: These implied contractual terms may be modified by express agreement between the customer and the bank. The statutes and regulations in force within a particular jurisdiction may also modify the above terms or create new rights, obligations, or limitations relevant to the bank-customer relationship. Some types of financial institutions, such as building societies and credit unions , may be partly or wholly exempt from bank license requirements, and therefore regulated under separate rules. The requirements for
6440-401: The bank is structured or regulated. The business of banking is in many common law countries not defined by statute but by common law, the definition above. In other English common law jurisdictions there are statutory definitions of the business of banking or banking business . When looking at these definitions it is important to keep in mind that they are defining the business of banking for
6555-416: The bank is to restore, not the same money, but an equivalent sum, whenever it is demanded and money, when paid into a bank, ceases altogether to be the money of the principal (see Parker v. Marchant, 1 Phillips 360); it is then the money of the banker, who is bound to return an equivalent, by paying a similar sum to that deposited with him, when he is asked for it. The goldsmith paid interest on deposits. Since
6670-411: The bank will not repay it), and interest rate risk (the possibility that the bank will become unprofitable, if rising interest rates force it to pay relatively more on its deposits than it receives on its loans). Banking crises have developed many times throughout history when one or more risks have emerged for the banking sector as a whole. Prominent examples include the bank run that occurred during
6785-667: The bank, and collecting cheques deposited to customers' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as Automated Clearing House (ACH), Wire transfers or telegraphic transfer , EFTPOS , and automated teller machines (ATMs). Banks borrow money by accepting funds deposited on current accounts, by accepting term deposits , and by issuing debt securities such as banknotes and bonds . Banks lend money by making advances to customers on current accounts, by making installment loans , and by investing in marketable debt securities and other forms of money lending. Banks provide different payment services, and
6900-627: The baroque style of Rubens . With the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh's workshop, he painted numerous portrait commissions both small ( Jacob de Gheyn III ) and large ( Portrait of the Shipbuilder Jan Rijcksen and his Wife , 1633, Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp , 1632). By the late 1630s, Rembrandt had produced a few paintings and many etchings of landscapes . Often these landscapes highlighted natural drama, featuring uprooted trees and ominous skies ( Cottages before
7015-533: The capital of the issuing bank falls below a certain level. Then debt is reduced and bank capitalisation gets a boost. Owing to their capacity to absorb losses, CoCos have the potential to satisfy regulatory capital requirement. The economic functions of banks include: Banks are susceptible to many forms of risk which have triggered occasional systemic crises. These include liquidity risk (where many depositors may request withdrawals in excess of available funds), credit risk (the chance that those who owe money to
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#17328442276747130-483: The cheque has lost its primacy in most banking systems as a payment instrument. This has led legal theorists to suggest that the cheque based definition should be broadened to include financial institutions that conduct current accounts for customers and enable customers to pay and be paid by third parties, even if they do not pay and collect cheques . Banks act as payment agents by conducting checking or current accounts for customers, paying cheques drawn by customers in
7245-423: The cross-selling of complementary products. Banks face a number of risks in order to conduct their business, and how well these risks are managed and understood is a key driver behind profitability, and how much capital a bank is required to hold. Bank capital consists principally of equity , retained earnings and subordinated debt . Some of the main risks faced by banks include: The capital requirement
7360-408: The customer's order – although money lending, by itself, is generally not included in the definition. Unlike most other regulated industries, the regulator is typically also a participant in the market, being either publicly or privately governed central bank . Central banks also typically have a monopoly on the business of issuing banknotes . However, in some countries, this is not the case. In
7475-401: The dapper and very successful portrait-painter of the 1630s, to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age. Together they give a remarkably clear picture of the man, his appearance and his psychological make-up, as revealed by his richly weathered face. In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms
7590-459: The decade following the Night Watch , Rembrandt's paintings varied greatly in size, subject, and style. The previous tendency to create dramatic effects primarily by strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of color. Simultaneously, figures came to be placed parallel to the picture plane. These changes can be seen as a move toward
7705-538: The execution is uneven and favour different attributions for different parts of the work. A similar issue was raised by Schama concerning the verification of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt's works. For example, the exact subject being portrayed in Aristotle with a Bust of Homer , recently retitled by curators at the Metropolitan Museum, has been directly challenged by Schama applying
7820-425: The first few impressions. His prints have similar subjects to his paintings, although the 27 self-portraits are relatively more common, and portraits of other people less so. The landscapes, mostly small, largely set the course for the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th century. Of the many hundreds of drawings Rembrandt made, only about two hundred have a landscape motif as their subject, and of
7935-589: The funding of these loans, in order to ensure that the banks can meet demands for payment of such deposits. These reserves can be acquired through the acceptance of new deposits, sale of other assets, or borrowing from other banks including the central bank. Activities undertaken by banks include personal banking , corporate banking , investment banking , private banking , transaction banking , insurance , consumer finance , trade finance and other related. Banks offer many different channels to access their banking and other services: A bank can generate revenue in
8050-467: The goldsmiths of London became the forerunners of banking by creating new money based on credit. The Bank of England originated the permanent issue of banknotes in 1695. The Royal Bank of Scotland established the first overdraft facility in 1728. By the beginning of the 19th century Lubbock's Bank had established a bankers' clearing house in London to allow multiple banks to clear transactions. The Rothschilds pioneered international finance on
8165-564: The high personal U.S. surtaxes, a fact for which he would be publicly criticized as a result of the Federal investigations during the 1930s into the causes of the 1929 Wall Street Crash . Bache, however, believed that high taxation was a hindrance to economic growth and published a booklet titled " Release business from the slavery of taxation ." A major shareholder in Dome Mines Limited , Bache served as company president from 1919 until 1942 and
8280-434: The house to his son. Both the authorities and his creditors showed leniency, granting him ample time to settle his debts. Jacob J. Hinlopen allegedly played a role. In November 1657 another auction was held to sell his paintings, as well as a substantial number of etching plates and drawings, some by renowned artists such as Raphael , Mantegna and Giorgione . Remarkably, Rembrandt was permitted to retain his tools as
8395-406: The issue of banknotes emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries. Merchants started to store their gold with the goldsmiths of London , who possessed private vaults , and who charged a fee for that service. In exchange for each deposit of precious metal, the goldsmiths issued receipts certifying the quantity and purity of the metal they held as a bailee ; these receipts could not be assigned, only
8510-442: The issue of a bank license vary between jurisdictions but typically include: Banks' activities can be divided into: Most banks are profit-making, private enterprises. However, some are owned by the government, or are non-profit organisations . The United States banking industry is one of the most heavily regulated and guarded in the world, with multiple specialised and focused regulators. All banks with FDIC-insured deposits have
8625-496: The jewish groom. This toxic arsenic yellow was rarely used in oil painting. One painting (Saskia van Uylenburgh as Flora) reportedly contains gamboge . Rembrandt very rarely used pure blue or green colors, the most pronounced exception being Belshazzar's Feast in the National Gallery in London . The book by Bomford describes more recent technical investigations and pigment analyses of Rembrandt's paintings predominantly in
8740-509: The label still reading "Rembrandt" and not "attributed to" or "school of". More recent opinion has shifted even more decisively in favor of the Frick; In his 1999 book Rembrandt's Eyes , Simon Schama and the Rembrandt Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering (Melbourne Symposium, 1997) both argued for attribution to the master. Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt's authorship feel that
8855-409: The largest 1,000 banks in the world grew by 6.8% in the 2008–2009 financial year to a record US$ 96.4 trillion while profits declined by 85% to US$ 115 billion. Growth in assets in adverse market conditions was largely a result of recapitalisation. EU banks held the largest share of the total, 56% in 2008–2009, down from 61% in the previous year. Asian banks' share increased from 12% to 14% during
8970-436: The law in relation to negotiable instruments , including cheques, and this Act contains a statutory definition of the term banker : banker includes a body of persons, whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business of banking' (Section 2, Interpretation). Although this definition seems circular, it is actually functional, because it ensures that the legal basis for bank transactions such as cheques does not depend on how
9085-403: The line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas. A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed; and the nose, bright and obvious, thrusting into the riddle of halftones, serves to focus the viewer's attention upon, and to dramatize, the division between a flood of light—an overwhelming clarity—and a brooding duskiness. In a number of biblical works, including The Raising of
9200-492: The master. In the 1980s, however, Dr. Josua Bruyn of the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt's closest and most talented pupils, Willem Drost , about whom little is known. But Bruyn's remained a minority opinion, the suggestion of Drost's authorship is now generally rejected, and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution,
9315-430: The matter amicably, but to pay her lawyer she pawned the diamond ring he had given her that once belonged to Saskia. On 14 October they came to an agreement; the court particularly stated that Rembrandt had to pay a yearly maintenance allowance, provided that Titus remained her only heir and she sold none of Rembrandt's possessions. As Dircx broke her promise, Rembrandt and members of Dircx's own family had her committed to
9430-420: The original depositor could collect the stored goods. Gradually the goldsmiths began to lend money out on behalf of the depositor , and promissory notes , which evolved into banknotes, were issued for money deposited as a loan to the goldsmith. Thus, by the 19th century, we find in ordinary cases of deposits, of money with banking corporations, or bankers, the transaction amounts to a mere loan, or mutuum , and
9545-518: The painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an anonymous pupil, possibly Aert de Gelder. The composition bears superficial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master's command of illumination and modeling. The attribution and re-attribution work is ongoing. In 2005 four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt's students were reclassified as the work of Rembrandt himself: Study of an Old Man in Profile and Study of an Old Man with
9660-674: The painting was moved to Kasteel Radboud ; in 1941 to a bunker near Heemskerk ; in 1942 to St Pietersberg ; in June 1945 it was shipped back to Amsterdam. In 1968, the Rembrandt Research Project began under the sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research; it was initially expected to last a highly optimistic ten years. Art historians teamed up with experts from other fields to reassess
9775-455: The past 20 years, American banks have taken many measures to ensure that they remain profitable while responding to increasingly changing market conditions. This helps in making a profit and facilitates economic development as a whole. Recently, as banks have been faced with pressure from fintechs, new and additional business models have been suggested such as freemium, monetisation of data, white-labeling of banking and payment applications, or
9890-426: The plate. He also experimented with the effects of printing on different kinds of paper, including Japanese paper , which he used frequently, and on vellum . He began to use " surface tone ", leaving a thin film of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it completely clean to print each impression. He made more use of drypoint , exploiting, especially in landscapes, the rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to
10005-535: The print medium as well. The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique, sometimes leaving large areas of white paper to suggest space, at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones. Lastman's influence on Rembrandt was most prominent during his period in Leiden from 1625 to 1631. Paintings were rather small but rich in details (for example, in costumes and jewelry). Religious and allegorical themes were favored, as were tronies . In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings,
10120-431: The print only survives in two states , the first very rare, evidence of much reworking can be seen underneath the final print and many drawings survive for elements of it. In the mature works of the 1650s, Rembrandt was more ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states, up to eleven, often radically changed. He now used hatching to create his dark areas, which often take up much of
10235-438: The promissory notes were payable on demand, and the advances (loans) to the goldsmith's customers were repayable over a longer time-period, this was an early form of fractional reserve banking . The promissory notes developed into an assignable instrument which could circulate as a safe and convenient form of money backed by the goldsmith's promise to pay, allowing goldsmiths to advance loans with little risk of default . Thus
10350-700: The prosperous cities of Renaissance Italy but, in many ways, functioned as a continuation of ideas and concepts of credit and lending that had their roots in the ancient world . In the history of banking , a number of banking dynasties – notably, the Medicis , the Pazzi , the Fuggers , the Welsers , the Berenbergs , and the Rothschilds – have played
10465-677: The public, and in 1943, he donated some of his works to the Detroit Institute of Arts . Bache was a major donor to the Department of Decorative Arts at the Metropolitan Museum of Art . At the time of his death in 1944, most of his picture collection, up until that time gifted to the Jules Bache Foundation, was given to the Museum; the remaining works of art from his estate at 814 Fifth Avenue were sold at auction. Banker A bank
10580-487: The purposes of the legislation, and not necessarily in general. In particular, most of the definitions are from legislation that has the purpose of regulating and supervising banks rather than regulating the actual business of banking. However, in many cases, the statutory definition closely mirrors the common law one. Examples of statutory definitions: Since the advent of EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale), direct credit, direct debit and internet banking ,
10695-570: The rich cities in the centre and north like Florence , Lucca , Siena , Venice and Genoa . The Bardi and Peruzzi families dominated banking in 14th-century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici set up one of the most famous Italian banks, the Medici Bank , in 1397. The Republic of Genoa founded the earliest-known state deposit bank, and Banco di San Giorgio (Bank of St. George), in 1407 at Genoa , Italy. Fractional reserve banking and
10810-414: The sale of the house was finalized but the proceeds went directly to Titus' guardian. Two weeks later, Hendrickje and Titus established a dummy corporation as art dealers, allowing Rembrandt, who had board and lodging , to continue his artistic pursuits. In 1661, they secured a contract for a major project at the newly completed town hall . The resulting work, The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis ,
10925-440: The scholarship of Paul Crenshaw. Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter Apelles who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle. Another painting, Pilate Washing His Hands , is also of questionable attribution. Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905, when Wilhelm von Bode described it as "a somewhat abnormal work" by Rembrandt. Scholars have since dated
11040-430: The tactile quality of the paint itself. Rembrandt must have realized that if he kept the paint deliberately loose and "paint-like" on some parts of the canvas, the perception of space became much greater. A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt's skill as a printmaker. In the etchings of his maturity, particularly from the late 1640s onward, the freedom and breadth of his drawings and paintings found expression in
11155-516: The themes of portraiture, landscape and narrative painting. For the last, he was especially praised by his contemporaries, who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail. Stylistically, his paintings progressed from the early "smooth" manner, characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form, to the late "rough" treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces, which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by
11270-500: The value of his art collection. Nonetheless, half of his assets were earmarked for Titus' inheritance. In March 1663, with Hendrickje's illness, Titus assumed a more prominent role. Isaac van Hertsbeeck, Rembrandt's primary creditor, went to the High Court and contested Titus' priority for payment, leading to legal battles that Titus ultimately won in 1665 when he came of age. During this time, Rembrandt worked on notable pieces like
11385-792: The wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame. In 1629, he completed Judas Repentant, Returning the Pieces of Silver and The Artist in His Studio , works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and variety of paint application and constitute the first major progress in his development as a painter. During his early years in Amsterdam (1632–1636), Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological scenes in high contrast and of large format ( The Blinding of Samson , 1636, Belshazzar's Feast , c. 1635 Danaë , 1636 but reworked later), seeking to emulate
11500-445: The work of Titian , and could be seen in the context of the then current discussion of 'finish' and surface quality of paintings. Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt's brushwork, and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings. The tactile manipulation of paint may hearken to medieval procedures, when mimetic effects of rendering informed
11615-512: The work of his students. One example of activity is The Polish Rider , now housed in the Frick Collection in New York City. Rembrandt's authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar, Alfred von Wurzbach, at the beginning of the twentieth century but for many decades later most scholars, including the foremost authority writing in English, Julius S. Held , agreed that it was indeed by
11730-456: The world. The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the Kloveniersdoelen , the musketeer branch of the civic militia . Rembrandt departed from convention, which ordered that such genre pieces should be stately and formal, rather a line-up than an action scene. Instead, he showed the militia readying themselves to embark on a mission, though the exact nature of the mission or event is
11845-459: The year, while the share of US banks increased from 11% to 13%. Fee revenue generated by global investment in banking totalled US$ 66.3 billion in 2009, up 12% on the previous year. The United States has the most banks in the world in terms of institutions (5,330 as of 2015) and possibly branches (81,607 as of 2015). This is an indicator of the geography and regulatory structure of the US, resulting in
11960-847: Was Chairman of the Board at the time of his passing. After the brokerage firm of Dillon, Read & Co. acquired the Dodge Brothers Automobile Company in 1923, Jules Bache acquired a substantial position in Chrysler Corporation . A supporter of American theatre and Broadway , Jules Bache helped found the New York branch of the Escholier Club in 1941. Bache married Florence R. Scheftel on May 23, 1892, and they had two daughters. Jules Bache died in 1944 in Palm Beach, Florida , and
12075-598: Was a Dutch Golden Age painter , printmaker , and draughtsman . He is generally considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of Western art . It is estimated Rembrandt produced a total of about three hundred paintings, three hundred etchings, and two thousand drawings. Unlike most Dutch painters of the 17th century, Rembrandt's works depict a wide range of styles and subject matter, from portraits and self-portraits to landscapes, genre scenes , allegorical and historical scenes, biblical and mythological themes and animal studies. His contributions to art came in
12190-505: Was a presidential elector for Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge . Jules Bache was a shareholder of a number of prominent corporations and sat on the boards of directors of many of them. Among his personal holdings, Bache had sizeable interests in Canadian mining companies. His equity in these companies was held by his Bahamas -based corporation, which allowed him to legally avoid some of
12305-458: Was born in 1641, survived into adulthood. Saskia died in 1642, probably from tuberculosis . Rembrandt's drawings of her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving works. After Saskia's illness, the widow Geertje Dircx was hired as Titus' caretaker and dry nurse; at some time, she also became Rembrandt's lover. In May 1649 she left and charged Rembrandt with breach of promise and asked to be awarded alimony . Rembrandt tried to settle
12420-472: Was called De Nachtwacht by the Dutch and The Night Watch by Sir Joshua Reynolds because by 1781 the picture was so dimmed and defaced that it was almost indistinguishable, and it looked quite like a night scene. After it was cleaned, it was discovered to represent broad day—a party of 18 musketeers stepping from a gloomy courtyard into the blinding sunlight. For Théophile Thoré it was the prettiest painting in
12535-400: Was conducted by Hermann Kühn in 1977. The pigment analyses of some thirty paintings have shown that Rembrandt's palette consisted of the following pigments: lead white , various ochres , Vandyke brown, bone black, charcoal black , lamp black , vermilion , madder lake , azurite , ultramarine , yellow lake and lead-tin-yellow . Synthetic orpiment was shown in the shadows of the sleeve of
12650-445: Was forced to sell his printing-press and practically abandoned etching. Only the troubled year of 1649 produced no dated work. He took easily to etching and, though he learned to use a burin and partly engraved many plates, the freedom of etching technique was fundamental to his work. He was very closely involved in the whole process of printmaking, and must have printed at least early examples of his etchings himself. At first he used
12765-685: Was interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York . His tomb is a replica of Trajan's Kiosk at Philae . In 1927, his daughter, Kathryn Bache Miller , married the theatrical producer Gilbert Miller in Paris , France. His granddaughter, Muriel Bache Richards, married Francis Warren Pershing, the son of General John J. Pershing . He told the Literary Digest his name was pronounced Baitch , "A rhyme with aitch ." ( Charles Earle Funk , What's
12880-503: Was marked by more than just artistic achievements; he navigated numerous legal and financial challenges, leaving a complex legacy. In a letter to Huygens, Rembrandt offered the only surviving explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art, writing that, "the greatest and most natural movement", translated from de meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid . The word "beweegelijkheid" translates to "emotion" or "motive". Whether this refers to objectives, material, or something else,
12995-518: Was rejected by the mayors and returned to the painter within a few weeks; the surviving fragment (in Stockholm) is only a quarter of the original. Despite these setbacks, Rembrandt continued to receive significant portrait commissions and completed notable works, such as the Sampling Officials in 1662. It remains a challenge to gauge Rembrandt's wealth accurately as he may have overestimated
13110-404: Was soon apprenticed to Jacob van Swanenburg , with whom he spent three years. After a brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the history painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, Rembrandt stayed a few months with Jacob Pynas in 1625, though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that Rembrandt was taught by Joris van Schooten and then started his own workshop. In 1625, Rembrandt opened
13225-654: Was very similar to East Asian old masters, most notably Chinese masters: Rembrandt was interested in Mughal miniatures , especially around the 1650s. He drew versions of some 23 Mughal paintings and may have owned an album of them. These miniatures include paintings of Shah Jahan , Akbar , Jahangir and Dara Shikoh and may have influenced the costumes and other aspects of his works. Rembrandt painted The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq between 1640 and 1642, and it became his most famous work. This picture
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