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129-469: Abrahamic religions make up the largest major division in the study of comparative religion . By total number of adherents, Christianity and Islam comprise the largest and second-largest religious movements in the world, respectively. Judaism is the smallest of the three major Abrahamic religions, and Samaritanism is the smallest Abrahamic religion. Bábism and Druzism are offshoots of Abrahamic religions. The term Abrahamic religions (and its variations)

258-522: A belief in the prophethood of Zoroaster while also maintaining the prophethood of Gautama Buddha and Jesus Christ. It shares a dualist cosmology that pits good and light against evil and darkness, with an adversary to oppose the benevolent God. Manichaeism and Mandaeism also share a common belief in many of the figures and stories of the Abrahamic faiths, which has raised questions of influences and origins. In comparative religion, Indian religions are all

387-458: A break with Islam and started a new religious system, Bábism . However, in the 1860s a split occurred after which the vast majority of Bábís who considered Mirza Husayn `Ali or Bahá'u'lláh to be Báb's spiritual successor founded the Baháʼí Movement, while the minority who followed Subh-i-Azal came to be called Azalis . The Baháʼí division eventually became a full-fledged religion of its own,

516-566: A cornerstone. Nevertheless, there will be no more gloom for those who were in distress. In the past he humbled the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, but in the future he will honor Galilee of the nations, by the Way of the Sea, beyond the Jordan... According to both Jewish and Christian interpretation, the prophet Isaiah was commanded to inform the people of Israel in a prophecy that Sennacherib 's plunder of

645-451: A covenant of peace with them, an everlasting covenant. I will give to them, increase their numbers, and set my Sanctuary among them forever. My dwelling place will be with them; I will be their God, and they will be my people. (CJB) They will "live" ('made for thee to dwell' [KJV/ESV] in Song of The Sea Exodus 15:17) in the land. The "dwelling place" (Hebrew mishkan מִשְׁכָּן Exodus 25:9) recalls

774-447: A deeper understanding of the fundamental philosophical concerns of religion such as ethics , metaphysics and the nature and forms of salvation . It also considers and compares the origins and similarities shared between the various religions of the world. Studying such material facilitates a broadened and more sophisticated understanding of human beliefs and practices regarding the sacred , numinous , spiritual and divine . In

903-656: A direct ancestor; in any case, the emphasis is placed on faith being the only requirement for the Abrahamic Covenant to apply (see also New Covenant and supersessionism ). In Christian belief, Abraham is a role model of faith, and his obedience to God by offering Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son Jesus. Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity subsequent to, and sometimes rather than (as in supersessionism), being applied to Judaism, whose adherents rejected Jesus . They argue this on

1032-744: A holy temple in the Lord. In him you also are being built together into a dwelling place for God by the Spirit."). It is through the Messiah's exaltation all nations are drawn to him, as in Luke 24:47 ("...and that repentance and forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed in his name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem."). The prophecy that the Lord Jesus would destroy and rebuild the Jerusalem temple/temple of His Body in three days

1161-539: A non-Hindu tradition. He writes, "I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism." A Taoic religion is a religion, or religious philosophy, that focuses on the East Asian concept of Tao ("The Way"). This forms a large group of eastern religions including Taoism , Confucianism , Jeung San Do , Shintoism , I-Kuan Tao , Chondogyo , and Chen Tao . In large parts of East Asia, Buddhism has taken on some taoic features. Tao can be roughly stated to be

1290-570: A person coming from the House of David as the servant of God, unique Shepherd of Israel, which will rule over the House of Judah (v. 16) and over the Tribe of Joseph (v. 17) so that he will "make them one stick, and they shall be one in mine hand" (v. 19), in a unique nation of Israel. Verses from to 15 to 24 cannot be referring to King David, since the united monarchy of Israel was divided in two reigns after

1419-461: A prophet like you from among their kinsmen. I will put my words in his mouth, and he will tell them everything I order him. ( CJB ) By the time of Jesus, this promise of Moses was understood to refer to a special individual. In John 6:14, after the multiplication of the loaves, people are quoted as saying, "This is truly the Prophet, the one who is to come into the world." In John 7:40, On the last day of

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1548-437: A reference to the mother of Jesus. The prophet Isaiah , addressing king Ahaz of Judah, promises the king that God will destroy his enemies, and as a sign that his oracle is a true one he predicts that a "young woman" (" almah ") standing nearby will shortly give birth to a child whose name will be Immanuel, "God is with us", and that the threat from the enemy kings will be ended before the child grows up. The almah might be

1677-642: A sect within Judaism initially led by Jesus . His followers viewed him as the Messiah , as in the Confession of Peter ; after his crucifixion and death they came to view him as God incarnate , who was resurrected and will return at the end of time to judge the living and the dead and create an eternal Kingdom of God . In the 1st century AD, under the Apostles of Jesus of Nazareth ; Christianity spread widely after it

1806-533: A shared sense of duality between the forces of good and evil, or light and darkness. In addition to this, there is a shared belief in the resurrection of the dead as well as an emphasis on free will and the moral responsibility of mankind. These are seen by some as having influenced the three major Abrahamic faiths as well as Gnosticism and the Baháʼí Faith. Manichaeism is another Iranian faith that shares many similarities to Zoroastrianism. In fact, Manichaeism shares

1935-601: A son, and will call his name Immanuel". The Hebrew word translated here as "maiden" is almah , meaning a young woman who is ripe for marriage, i.e. aged less than 13, or between 12 and 14 years old, according to other sources, rather than a virgin. Matthew, however, used the Septuagint text of Isaiah rather than the Masoretic Text , and the word that appears there is παρθένος ( parthenos ), meaning virgin. Seventy weeks are decreed for your people and your holy city: to finish

2064-469: A troubled time. After the sixty-two weeks, an anointed one shall be cut off and shall have nothing, and the troops of the prince who is to come shall destroy the city and the sanctuary. Its end shall come with a flood, and to the end there shall be war. Desolations are decreed. He shall make a strong covenant with many for one week, and for half of the week he shall make sacrifice and offering cease; and in their place shall be an abomination that desolates, until

2193-575: A vassal kingdom of the Assyrians. The reign of Hezekiah saw a notable increase in the power of the Judean state. Hezekiah was successful in his wars against the Philistines, driving them back in a series of victorious battles as far as Gaza. He thus not only retook all the cities that his father had lost, but even conquered others belonging to the Philistines. He also looked to attempting to reincorporate some of

2322-516: Is a universal religion (i.e. membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called tawhid or "strict monotheism". The story of the creation of the world in the Quran is elaborated less extensively than in the Hebrew scripture, emphasizing the transcendence and universality of God, instead. According to the Quran, God says kun fa-yakūnu . The Quran describes God as

2451-530: Is a Kurdish religion which combines elements of Shi'a Islam with pre-Islamic Kurdish beliefs; it has been classified as Abrahamic due to its monotheism, incorporation of Islamic doctrines, and reverence for Islamic figures, especially Ali ibn Abi Talib , the fourth caliph and first imam of Shia Islam . A number of sources include the Baháʼí Faith established in the 19th century, since it historically emerged in an Islamic milieu, and shares several beliefs with

2580-406: Is a collective religious descriptor for elements shared by Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . It features prominently in interfaith dialogue and political discourse but also has entered academic discourse . However, the term has also been criticized for being uncritically adopted. Although historically the term Abrahamic religions was limited to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, restricting

2709-456: Is a theological claim. Ancient Jews before the first century CE had a variety of views about the Messiah, but none included a Jesus-like Savior. Mainstream Bible scholars state that no view of the Messiah as based on the Old Testament predicted a Messiah who would suffer and die for the sins of all people, and that the story of Jesus' death, therefore, involved a profound shift in meaning from

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2838-465: Is about to search for the child to destroy him." And he rose and took the child and his mother by night, and departed to Egypt, and remained there until the death of Herod. This was to fulfill what the Lord had spoken by the prophet, "Out of Egypt have I called my son" Therefore the Lord himself shall give you a sign; Behold, the young woman shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel Early Christian tradition interpreted this verse as

2967-720: Is also a noted similarity between the Tao being "the Way" as well as Christ claiming to be "the Way." While scholarship rejects this view today, it was a notable view in the history of comparative religion. These beliefs were ultimately opposed and disavowed by the Catholic Church in the 18th century. The introduction of Nestorian Christianity to China under the Tang dynasty also led to increasing similarities between Chinese Buddhism and Nestorian Christianity . Christians began using Buddhist and Taoist concepts to explain their faith. During this time

3096-677: Is also sometimes classified as Abrahamic, in particular due to its monotheism and use of the Bible as scripture. Chrislam , a group of related Nigerian religious movements which seek to syncretise Christianity and Islam, is sometimes also considered a minor Abrahamic religion. Other African diaspora religions, such as Haitian Vodou and Candomblé , are not classified as Abrahamic, despite originating in syncretism between Christianity and African traditional religions, since they are not monotheistic, and Abraham plays no role in them. Scholarly sources do not classify Sikhism as an Abrahamic religion, but it

3225-469: Is an academic discipline which has been developed within Christian theology faculties, and it has a tendency to force widely differing phenomena into a kind of strait-jacket cut to a Christian pattern. The problem is not only that other 'religions' may have little or nothing to say about questions which are of burning importance for Christianity, but that they may not even see themselves as religions in precisely

3354-728: Is believed by Muslims to be the final prophet of Islam , and the Khatam an-Nabiyyin , meaning the last of the prophets ever sent by Allah ("seal of the prophets"). Based on the Muslim figure of the Mahdī , the ultimate savior of humankind and the final Imām of the Twelve Imams, Ali Muhammad Shirazi , later known as Bab, created the Bábí movement out of the belief that he was the gate to the Twelfth Imām. This signaled

3483-472: Is by the sea, in the regions of Zebulun and Naphtali, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by Isaiah the prophet, saying: "The land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, By the way of the sea, beyond the Jordan, Galilee of the Gentiles: The people who sat in darkness have seen a great light, And upon those who sat in the region and shadow of death Light has dawned." The interpretation of Isaiah 9:1–2 by

3612-467: Is controversial, given Mandaeism does not accept Abraham as a prophet, despite revering as prophets several other figures from the Jewish scriptures – on the contrary, they believe that Abraham was originally a priest of their religion, but became an apostate from it. Druze is another religion which emerged from Islam in the 11th century, and hence is sometimes also considered an Abrahamic religion. Yarsanism

3741-631: Is intimately tied to the complex concept of De , or literally "virtue" or "power." De is the active expression of Tao . Taoism and Chan Buddhism for centuries had a mutual influence on each other in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. These influences were inherited by Zen Buddhism when Chan Buddhism arrived in Japan and adapted as Zen Buddhism. Despite being too far from each other to have had any influence, some have historically noted similarities between traditional Chinese religious beliefs and Christianity. This

3870-874: Is its connection with the Miʿrāj , where, according to traditional Muslim belief, Muhammad ascended through the Seven heavens on a horse like winged beast named Buraq , guided by the Archangel Gabriel , beginning from the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount , in modern times under the Dome of the Rock . Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs. For Jews , Abraham

3999-502: Is known by different names. Each of these religions preaches that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives. However, although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods—but rather in three persons , or hypostases, united in one essence —the Trinitarian doctrine , a fundamental of faith for the vast majority of Christian denominations, conflicts with Jewish and Muslim concepts of monotheism. Since

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4128-483: Is primarily a revered ancestor or patriarch (referred to as Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו in Hebrew ) "Abraham our father") to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberless descendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the " Promised Land "). According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was the first post- Flood prophet to reject idolatry through rational analysis, although Shem and Eber carried on

4257-409: Is singular ( tawḥīd ) unique ( wāḥid ) and inherently One ( aḥad ), all-merciful and omnipotent. According to Islamic teachings, God exists without place and according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things." God, as referenced in the Quran, is the only God. Islamic tradition also describes

4386-431: Is sometimes popularly misconceived as being one, in particular due to the theory that it is a syncretism of Hinduism and Islam, which was popular in older accounts but has been rejected as inaccurate by contemporary scholarship. Zoroastrianism is not considered an Abrahamic religion, since Abraham is not part of Zoroastrian religious traditions. All Abrahamic religions accept the tradition that God revealed himself to

4515-493: Is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence. In contrast to the Jewish and Christian traditions, which depict God usually as anthropomorph, the Islamic conception of God is less personal, but rather of a conscious force behind all aspects of the universe only known through signs of nature, metaphorical stories, and revelation by the prophets and angels. Islam emphasizes that God

4644-452: Is the founding patriarch of the children of Israel. God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you." With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come". It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant. Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham. Abraham

4773-727: Is typically viewed as the heresy of idolatry by Islam and Judaism. Jerusalem is considered Judaism's holiest city. Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE, when according to Biblical tradition David established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son Solomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah . Since the Hebrew Bible relates that Isaac's sacrifice took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews predates even these prominent events. Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for

4902-483: The 99 names of God . These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian. Comparative religion Comparative religion is the branch of the study of religions with the systematic comparison of the doctrines and practices, themes and impacts (including migration ) of the world's religions . In general the comparative study of religion yields

5031-406: The Baháʼí Faith . In comparison to the other Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the number of adherents for Baháʼí faith and other minor Abrahamic religions are not very significant. Out of the three major Abrahamic faiths, Christianity and Judaism are the two religions that diverge the most in theology and practice. The historical interaction of Islam and Judaism started in

5160-600: The God of Abraham eventually became strictly monotheistic present-day Rabbinic Judaism . Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenant that God established with the Children of Israel . Jews hold that the Torah is part of the larger text known as the Tanakh or the Hebrew Bible , they also believe in a supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as

5289-579: The Hasmonean Kingdom , and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today. Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity . There has been a continuous Christian presence there since. William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the history of Christianity at the University of Virginia , Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to the Islamic conquest in

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5418-584: The Hebrew Bible or from post-biblical Jewish traditions. These practices are known collectively as the Isra'iliyat . The historical interaction between Christianity and Islam connects fundamental ideas in Christianity with similar ones in Islam. Islam accepts many aspects of Christianity as part of its faith – with some differences in interpretation – and rejects other aspects. Islam believes

5547-722: The Ishmaelites are descended from Abraham through his son Ishmael in the Arabian Peninsula. In its early stages, the Israelite religion shares traits with the Canaanite religions of the Bronze Age ; by the Iron Age , it had become distinct from other Canaanite religions as it shed polytheism for monolatry . They understood their relationship with their god, Yahweh , as a covenant and that

5676-668: The Islamic Golden Age and considered as the "fathers of comparative religion", compared the study of religious pluralism and their works have been significant in the fields of theology and philosophy. The Persian Al-Biruni discussed his idea of history in The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries ( c.  1000 AD) which was translated by Eduard Sachau in 19th century. It is a comparative study of calendars of different cultures and civilizations, interlaced with mathematical, astronomical, and historical information, exploring

5805-534: The Jingjiao documents were created, sometimes called sutras , that demonstrated the blending of Christianity with Buddhism. The two also formed a monastic tradition that furthered the similarities. This fusion became so heavy that when Emperor Wuzong of the Tang dynasty began persecuting Buddhists in the 9th century, he claimed that Christianity was merely a heresy of Buddhism rather than its own religion. This equation of

5934-902: The Last Supper in an "upper room" (traditionally the Cenacle ) there the night before he was crucified on the cross and was arrested in Gethsemane . The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. His crucifixion at Golgotha , his burial nearby (traditionally the Church of the Holy Sepulchre ), and his resurrection and ascension and prophecy to return all are said to have occurred or will occur there. Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third after Mecca and Medina . The Al-Aqsa , which translates to "farthest mosque" in sura Al-Isra in

6063-674: The Midrash and the Talmud . Christians believe that Christianity is the fulfillment and continuation of the Jewish Old Testament . Christians believe that Jesus (Hebrew Yeshua יֵשׁוּעַ) is the awaited Messiah (Christ) foretold in the Old Testament prophecies , and believe in subsequent New Testament scripture . Christians in general believe that Jesus is the incarnation or Son of God . Their creeds generally hold in common that

6192-696: The Parsis in India and Pakistan. Scholars have often noted the similarities between Zoroastrianism and the Abrahamic religions, especially Christianity. They've particularly noted this due to the historic relationship between the Jews and the Zoroastrian Persian Empires, as well as the relationship between Greek philosophy, Persia, and Christianity. They've debated whether Zoroastrianism played an influencing role on these religions or not. Particular areas of concern are

6321-591: The Ten Tribes was at hand, and that Nebuchadnezzar 's spoil of Jerusalem , in later years, was coming nearer. During the Syro-Ephraimite War , Isaiah opposed an alliance with Assyria, and counseled Ahaz to rely instead on the assurances of the Davidic covenant. This view was not well received at court. Assyria absorbed the lands of Zebulon and Naphtali to form the provinces of Galilee, Dor, and Gilead. Judah became

6450-605: The prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel (Bani Israil), the Zabur ( Psalms ) revealed to Dawud ( David ) and the Injil (the Gospel ) revealed to Isa ( Jesus ). The Quran also mentions God having revealed the Scrolls of Abraham and the Scrolls of Moses . The relationship between Islamic and Hebrew scriptures and New Testament differs significantly from the relationship between

6579-482: The restrictions on pork consumption found in Jewish and Islamic dietary law), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith not shared by Judaism (e.g., the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus ). Jewish tradition claims that the Twelve Tribes of Israel are descended from Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob , whose sons formed the nation of the Israelites in Canaan ; Islamic tradition claims that twelve Arab tribes known as

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6708-457: The siege of Jerusalem (70 CE), forced Jews to reconcile their belief-system with the destruction of the Second Temple and associated rituals. At this time, both Judaism and Christianity had to systematize their scriptures and beliefs, resulting in competing theologies both claiming Abrahamic heritage. Christians could hardly dismiss the Hebrew scriptures as Jesus himself refers to them according to Christian reports, and parallels between Jesus and

6837-423: The " sons of God " rather than "children of Abraham". For Muslims, Abraham is a prophet , the " messenger of God" who stands in the line from Adam to Muhammad, to whom God gave revelations,, who "raised the foundations of the House" (i.e., the Kaaba ) with his first son, Isma'il , a symbol of which is every mosque. Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in a genealogy for Muhammad. Islam considers Abraham to be "one of

6966-407: The 16th century, the birth and growth of Protestantism during the Reformation further split Christianity into many denominations . Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches , Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization . Islam is based on the teachings of the Quran . Although it considers Muhammad to be the Seal of

7095-456: The 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things." In the 8th century, John of Damascus listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted. As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the Lord's Prayer , stating that the Father is in Heaven ), others based on theological reasoning. In Islamic theology , God ( Arabic : الله Allāh )

7224-434: The 7th century AD, Islam was founded by Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through the early Muslim conquests , shortly after his death. Islam understands its form of "Abrahamic monotheism" as preceding both Judaism and Christianity, and in contrast with Arabian Henotheism . The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of God . Islam, like Christianity,

7353-503: The 7th century CE with the origin and spread of Islam . There are many common aspects between Islam and Judaism, and as Islam developed , it gradually became the major religion closest to Judaism. As opposed to Christianity, which originated from interaction between ancient Greek , Roman , and Hebrew cultures, Judaism is very similar to Islam in its fundamental religious outlook, structure, jurisprudence and practice. There are many traditions within Islam originating from traditions within

7482-480: The Abrahamic faiths, including monotheism and recognising Jewish, Christian and Islamic figures as prophets. Some also include Bábism , another 19th century movement which was a precursor to the Baháʼí Faith – but while most followers of Bábism became Baháʼís, a minority did not, and Bábism survives today as an independent religion, albeit only with a few thousand remaining followers. Rastafari , an Afrocentric religion which emerged from Christianity in 1930s Jamaica,

7611-412: The Abrahamic religions themselves. Proponents of the term argue that all three religions are united through the deity worshipped by Abraham. The Catholic scholar of Islam Louis Massignon stated that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source. The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference to dīn Ibrāhīm ("religion of Ibrahim"),

7740-564: The Arabic form of Abraham's name. In Christianity, Paul the Apostle , in Romans 4:11–12 , refers to Abraham as "father of all", including those "who have faith, circumcised or uncircumcised." From its founding, Islam likewise conceived of itself as the religion of Abraham. The Bahá’í scriptures state that the religion's founder, Baháʼu’lláh, descended from Abraham through his wife Keturah 's sons. The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as "Abrahamic religions" and related terms has been challenged. Adam Dodds argues that

7869-430: The Biblical stories of creation and redemption starting with Abraham in the Book of Genesis . The distant God asserted by Jesus according to the Christians, created a form of dualism between Creator and creation and the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo , which later heavily influenced Jewish and Islamic theology. By that, Christians established their own identity, distinct from both Greeks and Jews, as those who venerate

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7998-414: The Kingdom is both spiritual and will be of this world in a Messianic Age where Jesus will rule on the throne of David. Most Jews hold that the Kingdom of God will be on earth and the Messiah will occupy the throne of David. Christians (in particular Evangelicals) believe that it is both, and claim that it is spiritual (the historical Jesus completed salvation) and within right now, and physical and outward at

8127-413: The Messiah has not yet arrived namely because of the belief that the Messianic Age has not started yet. Jews believe that the Messiah will completely change life on earth and that pain and suffering will be conquered, thus initiating the Kingdom of God and the Messianic Age on earth. Christian belief varies, with one segment holding that the Kingdom of God is not worldly at all, while another believe that

8256-407: The New Testament and the Hebrew Bible . Whereas the New Testament draws heavily on the Hebrew Bible and interprets its text in light of the foundations of the new religion, the Quran only alludes to various stories of Biblical writings, but remains independent of both, focusing on establishing a monotheistic message by utilizing the stories of the prophets in a religious decentralized environment. In

8385-434: The Old Testament tradition. While certain critical scholars have claimed that the Gospels misquoted the Hebrew Bible , some Christian scholars argue the New Testament authors read the Bible through figural reading, where a meaning is realized only after a second event adds new significance to the first. Approaches include sensus plenior , where a text contains both a literal authorial meaning and deeper ones by God that

8514-414: The Quran and its surroundings are addressed in the Quran as "the holy land". Muslim tradition as recorded in the ahadith identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem. The first Muslims did not pray toward Kaaba , but toward Jerusalem. The qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill the order of Allah of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144–150). Another reason for its significance

8643-483: The Quran is the final revelation from God and a completion of all previous revelations, including the Bible . Mandaeism , sometimes also known as Sabianism (after the mysterious Sabians mentioned in the Quran , a name historically claimed by several religious groups), is a Gnostic and monotheistic religion. John the Baptist is their chief prophet and frequent baptism is part of their core beliefs. According to most scholars, Mandaeism originated sometime in

8772-410: The acceptability of new Bible translations by the way they deal with Isaiah 7:14. And he shall be for a sanctuary; but for a stone of stumbling and for a rock of offence to both the houses of Israel, for a gin and for a snare to the inhabitants of Jerusalem. (KJV) 1 Peter 2:8 interprets the stone as Christ, quoting Isaiah 8:14 along with Psalm 118:22 and Isaiah 28:16 , which mention a stone and

8901-417: The annual Hajj pilgrimage. The conception of God as universal remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions. The Abrahamic God is conceived of as eternal , omnipotent , omniscient and as the creator of the universe . God is further held to have the properties of holiness, justice, omnibenevolence , and omnipresence . Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also transcendent , but at

9030-400: The author of the Gospel of Matthew has led Christian authors to hint at its messianic applications . While the Gospel of Matthew modifies a Greek Septuagint interpretation of scripture (Isaiah 8:23–9:2), in the Masoretic text it refers to the "region of the nations ". For a child has been born to us, a son given to us, and the authority is upon his shoulder, and the wondrous adviser,

9159-455: The basis that just as Abraham as a Gentile (before he was circumcised ) "believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness" (cf. Rom. 4:3, James 2:23), "those who have faith are children of Abraham" (see also John 8:39). This is most fully developed in Paul's theology where all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham. However, with regards to Rom. 4:20 and Gal. 4:9, in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as

9288-408: The birth of Jesus as the Messiah. The verse reads in Christian bible versions: For a child will be born to us, a son will be given to us; And the government will rest on His shoulders; And His name will be called Wonderful, Counselor, The Mighty God, The Everlasting Father, The Prince of Peace. And he shall set up a banner for the nations, and shall assemble the outcasts of Israel, and gather together

9417-518: The category to these three religions has come under criticism. The late-19th-century Baháʼí Faith has been listed as Abrahamic by scholarly sources in various fields since it is a monotheistic religion that recognizes Abraham. The figure of Abraham is suggested as a common ground for Judaism, Christianity, Islam and a hypothesized eschatological reconciliation of the three. Commonalities may include creation , revelation , and redemption , but such shared concepts vary significantly between and within

9546-497: The conception of a divine Trinity is not amenable to tawhid , the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islam regards Christianity as variously polytheistic . Christianity and Islam both revere Jesus ( Arabic : Isa or Yasu among Muslims and Arab Christians respectively) but with vastly differing conceptions: However, the worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known as shirk in Islam and as shituf in Judaism),

9675-543: The creator of "heavens and earth", to emphasize that it is a universal God and not a local Arabian deity here. While many sources limit the list of Abrahamic religions to only include Judaism, Christianity and Islam, some sources include other religions as well. Samaritanism diverged from Judaism in the 6th to 3rd centuries BCE; although sometimes considered a branch of Judaism, most consider it to be an independent Abrahamic religion. Some sources consider Mandaeism to be an Abrahamic religion – however, that classification

9804-598: The customs and religions of different peoples. In the seventeenth century, antiquarians such as Athanasius Kircher along with Sir Thomas Browne were pioneering scholars of comparative religion. Social scientists in the 19th century took a strong interest in comparative and "primitive" religion through the work of Max Müller , Edward Burnett Tylor , William Robertson Smith , James George Frazer , Émile Durkheim , Max Weber , and Rudolf Otto . Nicholas de Lange , Professor of Hebrew and Jewish Studies at Cambridge University , says that The comparative study of religions

9933-410: The death of his son Solomon (999–931 BCE), son of David . Furthermore, Ezekiel (622–570 BCE) wrote in the seventh century BCE, four centuries after this subject of the biblical narration, nevertheless adopting a prophecy that is by its nature usually referred to future happenings. Therefore, as the "stick of Judah" stands for the House of Judah, and the "stick of Joseph" stands for his tribe (verse 19),

10062-615: The decreed end is poured out upon the desolator. The general scholarly view is that the author of Daniel is writing a contemporaneous account of the Maccabean Revolt c. 167 BCE and the "an anointed one shall be cut off" refers to the murder of the high priest Onias III ; the " abomination that desolates " refers to Antiochus IV Epiphanes erecting a statue of Zeus in the Temple. References to "most holy", "anointed one" and "prince" have been interpreted by Christians as speaking of Jesus, and

10191-642: The deity of Jesus. After several periods of alternating persecution and relative peace vis-à-vis the Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, but has been split into various churches from its beginning . An attempt was made by the Byzantine Empire to unify Christendom , but this formally failed with the East–West Schism of 1054. In

10320-631: The deity promised Abraham a permanent homeland. While the Book of Genesis speaks of multiple gods ( ʾĔlōhīm ), comparable to the Enūma Eliš speaking of various gods of the Canaanite pantheon to create the earth, at the time of the Babylonian captivity , Jewish theologians attributed the six-day narrative all to Yahweh , reflecting an early conception of Yahweh as a universal deity. The monolatrist nature of Yahwism

10449-655: The deliverance of the Israelites living in the northern provinces. According to Jewish tradition , the salvation of which he speaks is the miraculous end of Sennacherib's siege of Jerusalem (see Isaiah 36 and 37 ) in the days of the Prince of Peace, King Hezekiah , a son of King Ahaz . Matthew cites the messianic oracle, when Jesus began his ministry in Galilee: And leaving Nazareth , He came and dwelt in Capernaum , which

10578-488: The desolate northern territories into the kingdom of Judah and thus restore the boundaries of the country as it was under David. At this time Judah was the strongest nation on the Assyrian-Egyptian frontier. The "messianic oracle" ("The people walking in darkness have seen a great light; Upon those living in the land of deep darkness a light has dawned.") may have coincided with the coronation of Hezekiah and looked toward

10707-599: The dispersed of Judah from the four corners of the earth. Some commentators view this as an unfulfilled prophecy, arguing that the Jewish people have not all been gathered in Israel. Some Christians refer to the foundation of the State of Israel as fulfillment of this prophecy. Others argue that the fulfillment is that Jesus as Messiah brings all nations to himself (cf. 11:10 "Nations will seek his counsel / And his abode will be honored.") citing John 12:32 ("And I, when I am lifted up from

10836-501: The doctrine of Advaita Vedanta . Gautama Buddha is mentioned as an Avatar of Vishnu in the Puranic texts of Hinduism. Most Hindus believe the Buddha accepted and incorporated many tenets of Hinduism in his doctrine. Prominent modern Hindu reformers such as Mahatma Gandhi and Vivekananda acknowledge Buddhist influence. Like Hindus, Gandhi himself did not believe Buddha established

10965-500: The earth, will draw all people to myself.") and Paul in Romans 15:12 when he quotes Isaiah 11:10 , emphasizing the inclusion of the gentiles into the people of God. Some Christians also believe that Isaiah 2:2 is to be understood in connection with Isaiah 11:10,12 . In the days to come, The Mount of the Lord’s house Shall stand firm above the mountains And tower above the hills; And all

11094-534: The expression "David my servant shall be king over them" (verse 24) may be read as a prophecy about a person of the House of David, which would have ruled over one nation in one land, gathered upon the mountains of Israel on every side of the earth. The narration continues as follows: They will live in the land I gave to Ya'akov my servant, where your ancestors lived; they will live there – they, their children, and their grandchildren, forever; and David my servant will be their leader forever. I will make

11223-419: The feast ( tabernacles /Booths), the great day...Many of the people, therefore, when they heard this saying, said, Of a truth this is the Prophet. In Acts 3:18–22 , Peter said that Jesus was the fulfillment of this promise. And David my servant [shall be] king over them; and they all shall have one shepherd: they shall also walk in my judgments, and observe my statutes, and do them. Ezekiel 37:24 refers to

11352-528: The field of comparative religion, a common geographical classification of the main world religions distinguishes groups such as Middle Eastern religions (including Abrahamic religions and Iranian religions ), Indian religions , East Asian religions , African religions , American religions , Oceanic religions , and classical Hellenistic religions . There also exist various sociological classifications of religious movements . Al-Biruni (973 – c.  1050 ) and Ibn Hazm (994 – 1064), both of

11481-536: The field of comparative religion, a common geographical classification discerns the main world religions as follows: In the study of comparative religion, the category of Abrahamic religions consists of the three monotheistic religions, Christianity , Islam and Judaism , which claim Abraham (Hebrew Avraham אַבְרָהָם; Arabic Ibrahim إبراهيم ) as a part of their sacred history. Smaller religions such as Baháʼí Faith that fit this description are sometimes included but are often omitted. The original belief in

11610-457: The first Muslims" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism was lost, and the community of those faithful to God, thus being referred to as ابونا ابراهيم or "Our Father Abraham", as well as Ibrahim al-Hanif or "Abraham the Monotheist". Also, the same as Judaism, Islam believes that Abraham rejected idolatry through logical reasoning. Abraham is also recalled in certain details of

11739-878: The first three centuries CE, in either southwestern Mesopotamia or the Syro-Palestinian area . However, some scholars take the view that Mandaeism is older and dates from pre-Christian times. Mandaeans assert that their religion predates Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as a monotheistic faith. Mandaeans believe that they descend directly from Shem , Noah 's son, and also from John the Baptist's original disciples. Several important religions and religious movements originated in Greater Iran , that is, among speakers of various Iranian languages . They include Zoroastrianism , Mithraism , Ætsæg Din , Yazdanism , Ahl-e Haqq , Zurvanism , Manichaeism , and Mazdakism . Perhaps one of

11868-480: The flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order. It is believed to be the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered and is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao . The flow of qi , as the essential energy of action and existence, is compared to the universal order of Tao . Following the Tao is also associated with a "proper" attitude, morality and lifestyle. This

11997-431: The form of soteriology . Comparative study of religions may approach religions with a base idea of salvation with eternal life after death, but religions like Hinduism or Buddhism don't necessarily share this view. Instead, Hinduism and Theravada Buddhism both speak of a falling back into nonexistence and escaping the cycle of reincarnation , rather than eternal life after death. According to Charles Joseph Adams , in

12126-602: The incarnation, ministry , suffering , death on the cross , and resurrection of Jesus was for the salvation of mankind. Islam believes the present Christian and Jewish scriptures have been corrupted over time and are no longer the original divine revelations as given to the Jewish people and to Moses , Jesus , and other prophets. For Muslims, the Quran is the final, complete revelation from God (Arabic الله Allah ), who believe it to have been revealed to Muhammad alone, who

12255-628: The later definitive form produced by the Ecumenical Council of 381 . Trinitarians, who form the large majority of Christians , hold it as a core tenet of their faith. Nontrinitarian denominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways. The theology of the attributes and nature of God has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with Irenaeus writing in

12384-455: The majority of these quotations and references are taken from the prophetic Book of Isaiah , but they range over the entire corpus of Jewish writings. Jews do not regard any of these as having been fulfilled by Jesus, and in some cases do not regard them as messianic prophecies at all. Old Testament prophecies that were regarded as referring to the arrival of Christ are either not thought to be prophecies by critical biblical scholars , as

12513-557: The middle of the 7th century, the Roman province of Syria Palaestina was a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city. According to the New Testament , Jerusalem was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the temple and for the feast of the Passover . He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove the money changers in disarray from the temple there, held

12642-636: The mighty God, the everlasting Father, called his name, "the prince of peace." In Jewish translations of the Hebrew Bible the verse numbering is different (9:6 in the Christian Old Testament is numbered 9:5 in Hebrew Bible versions). Newer Jewish versions do not translate the verse as follows: This verse is expressly applied to the Messiah in the Targum , i.e. Aramaic commentary on the Hebrew Bible. Some Christians believe that this verse refers to

12771-571: The most important religions to have come out of Iran was Zoroastrianism. While not, properly speaking, a world religion, it became widespread in the Iranian world, especially through the Achaemenid and Sasanian Empires. It went into decline alongside many Iranian religions with the rise of Islam and the Caliphates . The religion still survives today in small numbers, with a particularly notable example being

12900-566: The most successful have been those religions that paired up with empires, kingdoms, or caliphates early in their history (e.g., Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism). A few major groups of religion are given below. Jesus and Messianic prophecy The books of the New Testament frequently cite Jewish scripture to support the claim of the Early Christians that Jesus was the promised Jewish Messiah . Scholars have observed that few of these citations are actual predictions in context;

13029-461: The mother of Hezekiah or a daughter of Isaiah, although there are problems with both candidates – Hezekiah, for example, was apparently born nine years before the prophecy was given,  – but the biblical chronology for Hezekiah is confused, and his identity as the prophesied child is strongly suggested by the reference to Immanuel's "land" in 8.8 and 10. The Gospel of Matthew references this verse to support its claim of

13158-423: The mouth of Jesus, sometimes as his own commentary on the narrative, and Luke makes allusions to all but three of the Old Testament books. An example of one is Matthew 1:23: "'Look, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and they shall name him Emmanuel,' which means, 'God is with us.'". This references Isaiah 7:14: "therefore the Lord himself shall give you a sign: the maiden is with child and she will bear

13287-406: The name is given to Moses when YHWH calls himself " I Am that I Am ", ( Hebrew : אהיה אשר אהיה ’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye ), seemingly connecting it to the verb hayah (הָיָה), meaning 'to be', but this is likely not a genuine etymology. Jewish tradition accords many names to God, including Elohim , Shaddai , and Sabaoth . In Christian theology , God is the eternal being who created and preserves

13416-550: The nations Shall gaze on it with joy. Some Christians believe that Jesus the Messiah is the ultimate "house" or dwelling place of God, as is told in John 1:14 ("And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we have seen his glory") and 2:19–21 ("Jesus answered them, 'Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up.' The Jews then said, 'It has taken forty-six years to build this temple, and will you raise it up in three days?' But he

13545-602: The original writers did not realize. The Hebrew scriptures were an important source for the New Testament authors. There are 27 direct quotations in the Gospel of Mark , 54 in Matthew , 24 in Luke , and 14 in John , and the influence of the scriptures is vastly increased when allusions and echoes are included, with half of Mark's gospel being made up of allusions to and citations of the scriptures. Matthew contains all Mark's quotations and introduces around 30 more, sometimes in

13674-452: The patriarch Abraham. All of them are monotheistic , and all of them conceive God to be a transcendent creator and the source of moral law . Their religious texts feature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings. Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups. In

13803-506: The phrase "anointed one shall be cut off" as pointing to his crucifixion , the "troops of the prince who is to come" being taken to refer to the Romans who destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple in 70 AD . Deuteronomy 18 speaks of a prophet who would be raised up from among the Jewish nation: The LORD will raise up for you a prophet like me from among yourselves, from your own kinsmen. You are to pay attention to him ... I will raise up for them

13932-463: The prophets , Islam teaches that every prophet preached Islam, as the word Islam literally means submission, the main concept preached by all prophets. Although the Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God, other Islamic books considered to be revealed by God before the Quran, mentioned by name in the Quran are the Tawrat ( Torah ) revealed to

14061-551: The religions that originated in South Asia . It is thought that "the kinship of the religions of India stems from the fact that Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs look back to Hinduism as their common mother." Al-Biruni deeply studied the Vedic religions and through his works essential details about pre-11th century India's religions and cultures were found. Adi Shankaracharya was an early 8th century philosopher and theologian who consolidated

14190-689: The restoration and the rebuilding of the Holy Temple (the Third Temple ) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the only capital for the five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE (the United Kingdom of Israel , the Kingdom of Judah , Yehud Medinata ,

14319-401: The return of the Messiah ( Second Coming of Jesus as " New Jerusalem , coming down out of heaven from God" Revelation 21:1–4). While Christians have cited the following as prophecies referencing the life, status, and legacy of Jesus, Jewish scholars maintain that these passages are not messianic prophecies and are based on mistranslations or misunderstanding of the Hebrew texts. When Israel

14448-448: The same time personal and involved, listening to prayer and reacting to the actions of his creatures. Jewish theology is unitarian. God is an absolute one, indivisible and incomparable being who is the ultimate cause of all existence. Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable and that it is only God's revealed aspect that brought the universe into existence, and interacts with mankind and

14577-496: The same way in which Christianity sees itself as a religion. Examples that demonstrate this point are Buddhism and Chinese Folk Religions. These belief systems have not historically been seen as mutually exclusive and have blended over time into different beliefs such as Pure Land Buddhism . This shows a marked difference from Western conceptions of religions which see adherence to one religion as precluding membership of another faith. Hinduism and Buddhism provide another insight in

14706-569: The supernatural origins of Jesus. In the time of Jesus, however, the Jews of Judea no longer spoke Hebrew, and Isaiah had to be translated into Greek and Aramaic, the two commonly used languages. In the Masoretic Text , the word almah means a young woman of childbearing age or who is a mother, but the Greek translation of Isaiah 7:14 rendered almah as parthenos , the Greek word for "virgin". Scholars agree that almah has nothing to do with virginity, but many conservative American Christians still judge

14835-493: The term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is a commonality among the religions, their shared ancestry is mainly peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences. Alan L. Berger , professor of Judaic Studies at Florida Atlantic University , wrote that "while Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam,

14964-632: The three main Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), the individual, God, and the universe are highly separate from each other. The Abrahamic religions believe in a judging, paternal, fully external god to which the individual and nature are both subordinate. One seeks salvation or transcendence not by contemplating the natural world or via philosophical speculation, but by seeking to please God (such as obedience with God's wishes or his law) and see divine revelation as outside of self, nature, and custom. All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, although one who

15093-602: The three monotheistic faiths went their separate ways" and "each tradition views the patriarchal figure differently as seen in the theological claims they make about him." Aaron W. Hughes , meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theological neologism ." The common Christian doctrines of Jesus's Incarnation , the Trinity , and the resurrection of Jesus , for example, are accepted in neither Judaism nor Islam. There are fundamental beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are likewise denied by most of Christianity (e.g.,

15222-599: The tradition from Noah . Christians view Abraham as an important exemplar of faith , and a spiritual, as well as physical, ancestor of Jesus. For Christians, Abraham is a spiritual forebear as well as/rather than a direct ancestor depending on the individual's interpretation of Paul the Apostle , with the Abrahamic covenant "reinterpreted so as to be defined by faith in Christ rather than biological descent" or both by faith as well as

15351-417: The transgression, to put an end to sin, and to atone for iniquity, to bring in everlasting righteousness, to seal both vision and prophet, and to anoint a most holy place. Know therefore and understand: from the time that the word went out to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until the time of an anointed prince, there shall be seven weeks; and for sixty-two weeks it shall be built again with streets and moat, but in

15480-415: The two led to the collapse of Nestorian Christianity in China alongside the persecution of Buddhism. Religious ideologies can be systematically understood to have formed many major groups with tens of thousands of subbranches. It is a form of cultural evolution that can be intuitively illustrated with trees showing historical relationships and the diversification over time of the various traditions. Some of

15609-425: The verses make no stated claim of being predictions, or are seen as having no correlation as they do not explicitly refer to the Messiah. Historical criticism has been agreed to be a field that is unable to argue for the evidential fulfillment of prophecy, or that Jesus was indeed the Messiah because he fulfilled messianic prophecies, as it cannot "construct such an argument" within that academic method, since it

15738-479: The wilderness tabernacle. The Sanctuary (Hebrew miqdash מִקְדָּשׁ Exodus 15:17) points rather to the Temple, in particular the renewed Temple, which will occupy Ezekiel's attention in the last chapters of 40 –48 . Christianity believes that Ezekiel's Temple is more glorious than the Tabernacle of Moses (Exodus 25–40) and the Temple of Solomon ( 1 Kings 5–8 ), pointing forward to several beliefs: Judaism holds that

15867-458: The world. Christians believe God to be both transcendent and immanent (involved in the world). Early Christian views of God were expressed in the Pauline Epistles and the early creeds , which proclaimed one God and the divinity of Jesus . Around the year 200, Tertullian formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to

15996-568: The world. In Judaism, the one God of Israel is the God of Abraham, Isaac , and Jacob , who is the guide of the world, delivered Israel from slavery in Egypt , and gave them the 613 Mitzvot at Mount Sinai as described in the Torah . The national god of the Israelites has a proper name , written Y-H-W-H ( Hebrew : יהוה ) in the Hebrew Bible . The etymology of the name is unknown. An explanation of

16125-468: Was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called my son. In its original context, this text from Hosea referred to the deliverance of the people of Israel from bondage in Egypt. The Gospel of Matthew chapter 2 applies it to the return from Egypt of Jesus and his family as a messianic prophecy: An angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream and said, "Rise, take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt, and remain there till I tell you; for Herod

16254-562: Was adopted by the Roman Empire as a state religion in the 4th century AD. Paul the Apostle interpreted the role of Abraham differently than the Jews of his time. While for the Jews, Abraham was considered a loyal monotheist in a polytheistic environment, Paul celebrates Abraham as a man who found faith in God before adhering to religious law. In contrast to Judaism, adherence to religious law becomes associated with idolatry. While Christians fashioned their religion around Jesus of Nazareth ,

16383-460: Was further developed in the period following the Babylonian captivity , eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism. With the Fall of Babylon , Judaism emphasised concepts such as messianism, belief in free will and judgement after death, conception of heaven and hell, angels and demons, among others, into their belief-system. Christianity traces back their origin to the 1st century as

16512-461: Was noted by Jesuit missionaries who became known as figurists . Figurists promoted the idea that the ancient Chinese knew the truth of Christian revelation and that many of the figures described in Chinese texts are actually figures and concepts from Christianity. Noted parallels include shared flood myths , similarities between Fuxi and Enoch , as well as parallels between Christ and the sages. There

16641-460: Was speaking about the temple of his body."). Through him the messianic community becomes a temple in 1 Corinthians 3:16 ("Do you not know that you all are God's temple and that God's Spirit dwells in you?") and Ephesians 2:20–22 ("...built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, the Messiah Jesus himself being the cornerstone, in whom the whole structure, being joined together, grows into

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