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140-581: The Judaean Mountains formed the heartland of the Kingdom of Judah (930–586 BCE), where the earliest Jewish settlements emerged, and from which Jews are originally descended. The Judaean Mountains are part of a more extended range that runs in a north-south direction. The ridge consists of the Samarian Hills in its northern part, and of the Judaean Mountains in its southern part, the two segments meeting at

280-541: A destruction layer caused by Sennacherib at Tel Lachish . None of the original seals has been found, but some 2,000 impressions made by at least 21 seal types have been published. LMLK stands for the Hebrew letters lamedh mem lamedh kaph (Hebrew: לְמֶלֶךְ , romanized:  ləmeleḵ ), which can be translated as: According to a 2022 study, traces of vanilla found in wine jars in Jerusalem might indicate that

420-449: A laboratory to check the status of the wine. Common tests include Brix , pH , titratable acidity , residual sugar , free or available sulfur , total sulfur, volatile acidity (V.A.) and percent alcohol. Additional tests include those for the crystallization of cream of tartar ( potassium hydrogen tartrate ) and the precipitation of heat unstable protein ; this last test is limited to white wines. These tests may be performed throughout

560-650: A siege of Jerusalem , ultimately destroying the city and ending the kingdom. A large number of Judeans were exiled to Babylon , and the fallen kingdom was then annexed as a Babylonian province . After the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenid Empire , the Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great allowed the Jews who had been deported after the conquest of Judah to return. They were allowed to autonomous rule under Persian governance . It

700-581: A stalactite cave in Nahal Sorek National Park between Jerusalem and Beit Shemesh and the area surrounding Ofra , where fossils of prehistoric flora and fauna were found. According to the Hebrew Bible , the Judaean Mountains were the allotment of the Tribe of Judah and the heartland of the former Kingdom of Judah . The main freeway between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem , which further extends to

840-468: A 2.5–5% error, which is sufficient to control the level of sulphur dioxide in wine. Different batches of wine can be mixed before bottling in order to achieve the desired taste. The winemaker can correct perceived inadequacies by mixing wines from different grapes and batches that were produced under different conditions. These adjustments can be as simple as adjusting acid or tannin levels, to as complex as blending different varieties or vintages to achieve

980-587: A cheaper alternative. In the French Baumé (Be° or Bé° for short) one Be° corresponds approximately to one percent alcohol. One Be° is equal to 1.8 °Bx, that is 1.8 grams of sugar per one hundred grams. Therefore, to achieve one percent alcohol the winemaker adds sugar at a rate of 1.8 grams per 100 ml (18 grams per liter) – a practice known as chaptalization , which is illegal in some countries and in California. Volatile acidity test verifies if there

1120-413: A consistent taste. Fining agents are used during winemaking to remove tannins , reduce astringency and remove microscopic particles that could cloud the wines. The winemakers decide on which fining agents are used and these may vary from product to product and even batch to batch (usually depending on the grapes of that particular year). Gelatin [gelatine] has been used in winemaking for centuries and

1260-404: A cylinder of wooden slats on top of a fixed plate, with a moveable plate that can be forced downward (usually by a central ratcheting threaded screw). The press operator would load the grapes or pomace into the wooden cylinder, put the top plate in place and lower it until juice flowed from the wooden slats. As the juice flow decreased, the plate was ratcheted down again. This process continued until

1400-516: A dispute emerging between biblical minimalists and biblical maximalists on this particular topic. Due to geopolitical factors like security issues, isolation, and political changes, the core area of the Kingdom of Judah on the south-central highlands has seen limited archaeological exploration compared to regions west of the Jordan River . Few excavations and surveys have been conducted there, creating

1540-420: A general of the army. The Ethiopians were pursued to Gerar , in the coastal plain, where they stopped out of sheer exhaustion. The resulting peace kept Judah free from Egyptian incursions until the time of Josiah , some centuries later. In his 36th year, Asa was confronted by Baasha of Israel , who built a fortress at Ramah on the border, less than ten miles from Jerusalem. The capital came under pressure, and

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1680-507: A heavy loss of life on the Israel side. According to the Books of Chronicles , Abijah and his people defeated them with a great slaughter, so that 500,000 chosen men of Israel fell slain, and Jeroboam posed little threat to Judah for the rest of his reign. The border of the tribe of Benjamin was restored to the original tribal border. Abijah 's son and successor, Asa of Judah , maintained peace for

1820-435: A lot or tank of wine. Destemming is the process of separating stems from the grapes. Depending on the winemaking procedure, this process may be undertaken before crushing with the purpose of lowering the development of tannins and vegetal flavors in the resulting wine. Single berry harvesting, as is done with some German Trockenbeerenauslese , avoids this step altogether with the grapes being individually selected. Crushing

1960-410: A movable surface and slowly decrease the volume between the two surfaces. Modern presses dictate the duration and pressure at each press cycle, usually ramping from 0 Bar to 2.0 Bar. Sometimes winemakers choose pressures which separate the streams of pressed juice, called making "press cuts." As the pressure increases the amount of tannin extracted from the skins into the juice increases, often rendering

2100-410: A notable knowledge gap compared to the extensively-studied Shephelah to the west, which has undergone systematic surveys and numerous scientific excavations. While it is generally agreed that the narratives of David and Solomon in the 10th century BCE tell little about the origins of Judah, currently, there is no consensus as to whether Judah developed as a split from a unified kingdom Israel (as

2240-425: A number of additives are included, such as acids, amino acids, sugars, and organic compounds. The quality of the grapes determines the quality of the wine more than any other factor. Grape quality is affected by variety as well as weather during the growing season, soil minerals and acidity, time of harvest, and pruning method. The combination of these effects is often referred to as the grape's terroir . Given

2380-406: A rate of 0.1 units per 1 gram/litre of tartaric acid addition. The use of lactic acid bacteria is the reason why some chardonnays can taste "buttery" due to the production of diacetyl by the bacteria. Most red wines go through complete malolactic fermentation, both to lessen the acid of the wine and to remove the possibility that malolactic fermentation will occur in the bottle. White wines vary in

2520-478: A result, ten of the tribes rebelled against Rehoboam and proclaimed Jeroboam their king, forming the northern Kingdom of Israel . At first, only the tribe of Judah remained loyal to the House of David , but the tribe of Benjamin soon joined Judah. Both kingdoms, Judah in the south and Israel in the north, co-existed uneasily after the split until the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel by Assyria in 722/721. For

2660-497: A siege, which lasted either eighteen or thirty months, and Nebuchadnezzar again pillaged both Jerusalem and the Temple and then destroyed both. After killing all of Zedekiah's sons, Nebuchadnezzar took Zedekiah to Babylon and so put an end to the independent Kingdom of Judah. According to the Book of Jeremiah , in addition to those killed during the siege, some 4,600 people were deported after

2800-669: A sizable army up to the Euphrates to aid the Assyrians . Taking the coastal route into Syria at the head of a large army, Necho passed the low tracts of Philistia and Sharon . However, the passage over the ridge of hills, which shuts in on the south the great Jezreel Valley , was blocked by the Judean army, led by Josiah, who may have considered that the Assyrians and the Egyptians were weakened by

2940-412: A stand against Assyria by refusing to pay tribute. In response, Sennacherib of Assyria attacked the fortified cities of Judah. Hezekiah paid three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold to Assyria, which required him to empty the temple and royal treasury of silver and strip the gold from the doorposts of Solomon's Temple . However, Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in 701 BCE though

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3080-527: A talent of gold (about 34 kilograms (75 lb)). Necho then took Jehoahaz back to Egypt as his prisoner, never to return. Jehoiakim ruled originally as a vassal of the Egyptians by paying a heavy tribute. However, when the Egyptians were defeated by the Babylonians at Carchemish in 605 BCE, Jehoiakim changed allegiances to pay tribute to Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon . In 601 BCE, in the fourth year of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar attempted to invade Egypt but

3220-452: A vast army and took many cities. In the sack of Jerusalem (10th century BCE) , Rehoboam gave them all of the treasures out of the temple as a tribute and Judah became a vassal state of Egypt. Rehoboam's son and successor, Abijah of Judah , continued his father's efforts to bring Israel under his control. He fought the Battle of Mount Zemaraim against Jeroboam of Israel and was victorious with

3360-438: A wine is reverse osmosis. Blending may also help – a wine with high V.A. can be filtered (to remove the microbe responsible) and blended with a low V.A. wine, so that the acetic acid level is below the sensory threshold. Sulphur dioxide can be readily measured with relatively simple laboratory equipment. There are several methods available; a typical test involves acidification of a sample with phosphoric acid, distillation of

3500-433: Is Vitis vinifera , which includes nearly all varieties of European origin. Harvest is the picking of the grapes and in many ways the first step in wine production. Grapes are either harvested mechanically or by hand. The decision to harvest grapes is typically made by the winemaker and informed by the level of sugar (called °Brix ), acid (TA or Titratable Acidity as expressed by tartaric acid equivalents) and pH of

3640-578: Is viticulture and there are many varieties of grapes . Winemaking can be divided into two general categories: still wine production (without carbonation) and sparkling wine production (with carbonation – natural or injected). Red wine , white wine , and rosé are the other main categories. Although most wine is made from grapes , it may also be made from other plants. (See fruit wine .) Other similar light alcoholic drinks (as opposed to beer or spirits ) include mead , made by fermenting honey and water, cider ("apple cider"), made by fermenting

3780-410: Is a French term for the management of acidity and secondary pressing of grapes in fermentation tanks. To make certain types of wine, grapes are put through a crusher and then poured into open fermentation tanks. Once fermentation begins, the grape skins are floated to the surface by carbon dioxide gases released in the fermentation process. This layer of skins and other solids is known as the cap. As

3920-490: Is a by-product of microbial metabolism. Because acetic acid bacteria require oxygen to grow, eliminating any air in wine containers as well as addition of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) will limit their growth. Rejecting moldy grapes also prevents possible problems associated with acetic acid bacteria. Use of sulfur dioxide and inoculation with a low-V.A. producing strain of Saccharomyces may deter acetic acid producing yeast. A relatively new method for removal of volatile acidity from

4060-419: Is any steam distillable acids in the wine. Mainly present is acetic acid (the dominant component of vinegar ), but lactic , butyric , propionic , and formic acid can also be found. Usually the test checks for these acids in a cash still, but there are other methods available such as HPLC, gas chromatography and enzymatic methods. The amount of volatile acidity found in sound grapes is negligible, because it

4200-451: Is calculated from the measured density, the must weight , with the help of a specialized type of hydrometer called a saccharometer . If the sugar content of the grapes is too low to obtain the desired alcohol percentage, sugar can be added ( chaptalization ). In commercial winemaking, chaptalization is subject to local regulations. Similar to chaptalization is amelioration. While chaptalization aims to raise final alcohol percentage through

4340-442: Is carried out either as an intentional procedure in which specially cultivated strains of such bacteria are introduced into the maturing wine, or it can happen by chance if uncultivated lactic acid bacteria are present. Malolactic fermentation can improve the taste of wine that has high levels of malic acid, because malic acid, in higher concentration, generally causes an unpleasant harsh and bitter taste sensation, whereas lactic acid

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4480-595: Is clear from the position of Judaean strongholds that one of their primary purposes was to facilitate communications via fire signals across the Kingdom, a method well-documented in the Book of Jeremiah and the Lachish letters. Canaan State of Israel (1948–present) According to the biblical account, the United Kingdom of Israel was founded by Saul during the late-11th century BCE, and reached its peak during

4620-440: Is done by extracting their juice with minimal contact with the grapes' skins. Rosé wines are either made from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish color (maceration or saignée), or (less commonly) by blending red wine with white wine. White and rosé wines extract little of the grape tannins contained in the skins. Orange wine (a.k.a. skin-contact white wine)

4760-404: Is known as the bulk Charmat method . Other sparkling wines, such as prosecco , are fermented using force-carbonation — a faster process that involves using machinery to manually add CO 2 and create bubbles. Sweet wines or off-dry wines are made by arresting fermentation before all sugar has been converted into ethanol and allowing some residual sugar to remain. This can be done by chilling

4900-518: Is mainly used in cheaper wine. Amateur winemakers often use glass carboys in the production of their wine; these vessels (sometimes called demijohns ) have a capacity of 4.5–54 litres (0.99–11.88 imp gal; 1.2–14.3 US gal). The kind of vessel used depends on the amount of wine that is being made, the grapes being used, and the intentions of the winemaker. Malolactic fermentation occurs when lactic acid bacteria metabolize malic acid and produce lactic acid and carbon dioxide. This

5040-402: Is measured in grams per hundred grams of solution, so 20 °Bx means that 100 grams of juice contains 20 g of dissolved compounds. There are other common measures of sugar content of grapes, specific gravity , Oechsle (Germany) and Baumé (France). °Bx is usually measured with a refractometer while the other methods use a hydrometer which measures specific gravity. Generally, hydrometers are

5180-616: Is milk protein), egg whites , egg albumin , bone char , bull 's blood, isinglass (Sturgeon bladder), PVPP (a synthetic compound), lysozyme , and skim milk powder . Although not common, finely ground eggshell is also sometimes used. Some aromatized wines contain honey or egg-yolk extract. Non- animal-based filtering agents are also often used, such as bentonite (a volcanic clay-based filter), diatomaceous earth , cellulose pads, paper filters and membrane filters (thin films of plastic polymer material having uniformly sized holes). The most common preservative used in winemaking

5320-414: Is more acceptable if the stems have 'ripened' and started to turn brown. If increased skin extraction is desired, a winemaker might choose to crush the grapes after destemming. Removal of stems first means no stem tannin can be extracted. In these cases the grapes pass between two rollers which squeeze the grapes enough to separate the skin and pulp, but not so much as to cause excessive shearing or tearing of

5460-410: Is more gentle and less sour. Lactic acid is an acid found in dairy products. Malolactic fermentation usually results in a reduction in the amount of total acidity of the wine. This is because malic acid has two acid radicals (-COOH) while lactic acid has only one. However, the pH should be monitored and not allowed to rise above a pH of 3.55 for whites or a pH of 3.80 for reds. pH can be reduced roughly at

5600-527: Is mostly composed of terra rossa soils over hard limestones . The Judaean Mountains are the surface expression of a series of monoclinic folds which trend north-northwest through Israel. The folding is the central expression of the Syrian Arc belt of anticlinal folding that began in the Late Cretaceous Period in northeast Africa and southwest Asia. The Syrian Arc extends east-northeast across

5740-399: Is not always a necessary act in winemaking; if grapes are crushed there is a considerable amount of juice immediately liberated (called free-run juice) that can be used for vinification. Typically this free-run juice is of a higher quality than the press juice. Pressed juice is typically lesser in quality due to the release and increase of total phenolic compounds, as well as browning index and

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5880-452: Is recognized as a traditional method for wine fining, or clarifying . It is also the most commonly used agent to reduce the tannin content. Generally no gelatin remains in the wine because it reacts with the wine components, as it clarifies, and forms a sediment which is removed by filtration prior to bottling. Besides gelatin, other fining agents for wine are often derived from animal products, such as micronized potassium caseinate ( casein

6020-418: Is separated from the must before fermentation . With rose, the skins may be kept in contact for a shorter period to give color to the wine, in that case the must may be pressed as well. After a period in which the wine stands or ages, the wine is separated from the dead yeast and any solids that remained (called lees ), and transferred to a new container where any additional fermentation may take place. Pigeage

6160-566: Is the earliest known record of the name "Judah" (written in Assyrian cuneiform as Ya'uda or KUR.ia-ú-da-a-a), while an earlier reference to a Judahite envoy seems to appear in a wine list from Nimrud dated to the 780s BCE. The status of Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE is a major subject of debate. The oldest part of Jerusalem and its original urban core are the City of David , which does show evidence of significant Israelite residential activity around

6300-428: Is the failure for the fermentation to go to completion, that is some sugar remains unfermented. This can make the wine sweet when a dry wine is desired. Frequently wild ferments lead to the production of unpleasant acetic acid (vinegar) production as a by product. During the primary fermentation, the yeast cells feed on the sugars in the must and multiply, producing carbon dioxide gas and alcohol . The temperature during

6440-518: Is the hand-picking of grape clusters from the grapevines . In the United States, some grapes are picked into one- or two-ton bins for transport back to the winery. Manual harvesting has the advantage of using knowledgeable labor to not only pick the ripe clusters but also to leave behind the clusters that are not ripe or contain bunch rot or other defects. This can be an effective first line of defense to prevent inferior quality fruit from contaminating

6580-413: Is the process when gently squeezing the berries and breaking the skins to start to liberate the contents of the berries. Destemming is the process of removing the grapes from the rachis (the stem which holds the grapes). In traditional and smaller-scale wine making, the harvested grapes are sometimes crushed by trampling them barefoot or by the use of inexpensive small scale crushers. These can also destem at

6720-399: Is wine made with maceration in the manner of rosé or red wine production, but using white wine grape varieties instead of red. To start primary fermentation, yeast may be added to the must for red wine, or may occur naturally as ambient yeast on the grapes (or in the air). For white wine, yeast may be added to the juice. During this fermentation, which often takes between one and two weeks,

6860-653: The Jordan Valley as a regular road. Highway 1 , passes through the Judaean Mountains, between Beit Shemesh and Jerusalem . An Israel Railways line, Jaffa-Jerusalem railway , runs from Beit Shemesh along the Brook of Sorek and Valley of Rephaim to the Jerusalem Malha Train Station . The line has since been largely replaced by the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem railway , which utilizes tunnels and bridges through

7000-622: The Judaean Desert descending into the Jordan Valley to the east, formed the kingdom's core. The northern border of Judah extended east-west from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea , passing near Jericho to the area of Gezer . To the west, the border ran from Gezer across the Shephelah to Beersheba in the northern Negev. In the east, Judah's boundaries followed the Arabah to the western shore of

7140-821: The Sinai , turns north-northeast through Israel and continues the east-northeast trend into Syria. The Israeli segment parallels the Dead Sea Transform which lies just to the east. The uplift events that created the mountain occurred in two phases one in the Late Eocene - Early Oligocene and second in the Early Miocene . In prehistoric times, animals no longer found elsewhere in the Levant region were found here, including elephants , rhinoceroses , giraffes and wild Asian water buffalo . The range has karst topography including

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7280-411: The juice of apples , and perry ("pear cider"), made by fermenting the juice of pears , and kumis , made of fermented mare's milk. There are five basic stages to the wine making process which begins with harvesting or picking. After the harvest, the grapes are taken into a winery and prepared for primary ferment ; at this stage red wine making diverges from white wine making. Red wine is made from

7420-413: The must (pulp, including the juice) of red or black grapes and fermentation occurs together with the grape skins, which impart color, flavor and tannins to the wine through the process of maceration . White wine is made by fermenting juice which is made by pressing crushed grapes to extract a juice; the skins are removed and play no further role. Occasionally, white wine is made from red grapes. This

7560-412: The yeast converts most of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide (which is lost to the atmosphere). After the primary fermentation of red grapes, the free run wine is pumped off into tanks and the skins are pressed to extract the remaining juice and wine. The press wine is blended with the free run wine at the winemaker's discretion. The wine is then kept warm and

7700-561: The 10th century. Some unique administrative structures such as the Stepped Stone Structure and the Large Stone Structure , which originally formed one structure, contain material culture dated to Iron I. On account of the alleged lack of settlement activity in the 10th century BCE, Israel Finkelstein argues that Jerusalem was then a small country village in the Judean hills, not a national capital, and Ussishkin argues that

7840-490: The 11th/10th-9th centuries BCE which feature "papyrus lines" on their backs. It has been argued that these seals provide evidence that papyrus texts were written and used in Jerusalem already from the 10th (perhaps 11th) century BCE onwards. LMLK seals are archaic Hebrew stamp seals on the handles of large storage jars dating from the reign of King Hezekiah (circa 700 BCE) discovered mostly in and around Jerusalem . Several complete jars were found in situ buried under

7980-472: The Bible tells) or independently. Some scholars suggested that Jerusalem, the kingdom's capital, did not emerge as a significant administrative center until the end of the 8th century BCE. Before then, the archaeological evidence suggests its population was too small to sustain a viable kingdom. Other scholars argue that recent discoveries and radiocarbon tests in the City of David seem to indicate that Jerusalem

8120-452: The C6-alcohol levels. These compounds are responsible for the herb-like taste perceived in wine with pressed grapes. However, most wineries do use presses in order to increase their production (gallons) per ton, as pressed juice can represent between 15%-30% of the total juice volume from the grape. Presses act by positioning the grape skins or whole grape clusters between a rigid surface and

8260-611: The Dead Sea. In prosperous periods, Judah's influence expanded, stretching southward to Beersheba and beyond, including Kadesh Barnea and likely Kuntillet Ajrud . Its influence possibly extended to the Gulf of Eilat in the south, as well as the Coastal Plain in the west in Mesad Hashavyahu fortress. The formation of the Kingdom of Judah is a subject of heavy debate among scholars, with

8400-636: The Great . Judean independence was reestablished after the Maccabean revolt , and the establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in the 2nd century BCE. Jews are named after Judah, and primarily descend from people who lived in the former Kingdom. The major theme of the Hebrew Bible's narrative is the loyalty of Judah, especially its kings, to Yahweh , which it states is the God of Israel . Accordingly, all of

8540-486: The Judaean Mountains, runs up to 160 km/h (99 mph) between Ben Gurion Airport and Jerusalem-Yitzhak Navon railway station . The Judaean Mountains have been associated with winemaking for thousands of years, as evidenced by the abundance of ancient winepresses , references to viticulture in ancient texts like the Hebrew Bible , and archaeological findings such as the Arad ostraca , written by Judahite soldiers in

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8680-554: The Negev, including Hurvat Uza , Tel Ira, Aroer, Tel Masos , and Tel Malhata. The main Judahite fortification in the Judaean Desert was found at Vered Yeriho ; it protected the road from Jericho to the Dead Sea . A few freestanding, elevated, isolated guard towers of the period were found around Jerusalem; towers of this type were discovered in the French Hill and south to Giloh . It

8820-498: The Shepehla, including the Judahite towns of Azekah, Socho, Goded, Lachish, and Maresha, could be seen from this fort. In the northern Negev, Tel Arad served as a key administrative and military stronghold. It protected the route from the Judaean Mountains to the Arabah and on to Moab and Edom . It underwent numerous renovations and extensions. There are several other Judahite forts in

8960-576: The addition of sugar, amelioration aims to raise the alcohol percentage and dilute the acidity levels through the addition of water and sugar into the grape must. This wine adjustment was commonly used in New York State's cooler wine regions, such as the Finger Lakes AVA . Amelioration is also subject to federal regulations. Alcohol of more than 12% can be achieved by using yeast that can withstand high alcohol. Some yeasts can produce 18% alcohol in

9100-536: The advantage of being able to cover a large area of vineyard land in a relatively short period of time, and with a minimum investment of manpower per harvested ton. A disadvantage of mechanical harvesting is the indiscriminate inclusion of foreign non-grape material in the product, especially leaf stems and leaves, but also, depending on the trellis system and grapevine canopy management, may include moldy grapes, canes, metal debris, rocks and even small animals and bird nests. Some winemakers remove leaves and loose debris from

9240-407: The appearance of (harmless) tartrate crystals after bottling. The result of these processes is that the originally cloudy wine becomes clear. The wine can be racked during this process to remove the lees . The secondary fermentation usually takes place in large stainless steel vessels with a volume of several cubic meters, oak barrels or glass demijohns (also referred to as carboys), depending on

9380-515: The area is renowned for its boutique wineries . This region's combination of Mediterranean microclimates , terra rossa clay soil , and high-altitude vineyards has also propelled it into the spotlight as a burgeoning center for quality wine production. In recent decades, wines originating from this area have garnered international recognition. in August 2020, the Judean Hills region in Israel received

9520-467: The border. Asa's successor, Jehoshaphat , changed the policy towards Israel and instead pursued alliances and cooperation with it. The alliance with Ahab was based on marriage. The alliance led to disaster for the kingdom with the Battle of Ramoth-Gilead according to 1 Kings 22 . He then allied with Ahaziah of Israel to carry on maritime commerce with Ophir . However, the fleet equipped at Ezion-Geber

9660-512: The city was entirely uninhabited. Amihai Mazar contends that if the Iron I / Iron II A dating of administrative structures in the City of David are correct, which he believes to be the case, "Jerusalem was a rather small town with a mighty citadel, which could have been a center of a substantial regional polity." William G. Dever argues that Jerusalem was a small and fortified city, probably inhabited only by

9800-451: The city was never taken. During the long reign of Manasseh (c. 687/686 – 643/642 BCE), Judah was a vassal of Assyrian rulers: Sennacherib and his successors, Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal after 669 BCE. Manasseh is listed as being required to provide materials for Esarhaddon 's building projects and as one of a number of vassals who assisted Ashurbanipal 's campaign against Egypt. When Josiah became king of Judah in c. 641/640 BCE,

9940-560: The country's first official wine appellation. Kingdom of Judah The Kingdom of Judah was an Israelite kingdom of the Southern Levant during the Iron Age . Centered in the highlands to the west of the Dead Sea , the kingdom's capital was Jerusalem . It was ruled by the Davidic line for four centuries. Jews are named after Judah, and primarily descend from people who lived in

10080-471: The dark Malvidin 3,5-diglucoside anthocyanin ) and therefore contact between the juice and skins is essential for color extraction. Red wines are produced by destemming and crushing the grapes into a tank and leaving the skins in contact with the juice throughout the fermentation ( maceration ). It is possible to produce white (colorless) wines from red grapes by the fastidious pressing of uncrushed fruit. This minimizes contact between grape juice and skins (as in

10220-465: The daughter of Ahab. Despite the alliance with the stronger northern kingdom, Jehoram's rule of Judah was shaky. Edom revolted, and he was forced to acknowledge its independence. A raid by Philistines and Arabs or perhaps South Arabians looted the king's house and carried off all of his family except for his youngest son, Ahaziah of Judah . After Hezekiah became the sole ruler in c. 715 BCE, he formed alliances with Ashkelon and Egypt and made

10360-610: The death of Pharaoh Psamtik I only a year earlier (610 BCE). Presumably in an attempt to help the Babylonians, Josiah attempted to block the advance at Megiddo , where a fierce battle was fought and Josiah was killed. Necho then joined forces with the Assyrian Ashur-uballit II , and they crossed the Euphrates and lay siege to Harran . The combined forces failed to hold the city after capturing it temporarily, and Necho retreated back to northern Syria . The event also marked

10500-401: The discovery of several Judahite fortresses and towers. The fortifications had a large central courtyard surrounded by casemate walls with chambers on the outside wall, and they were square or rectangular in shape. Khirbet Abu et-Twein , which is situated on the Judaean Mountains between modern day Bat Ayin and Jab'a , is one of the most noteworthy fortresses from the period. Great views of

10640-464: The disintegration of the Assyrian Empire. On his return march to Egypt in 608 BCE, Necho found that Jehoahaz had been selected to succeed his father, Josiah. Necho deposed Jehoahaz, who had been king for only three months, and replaced him with his older brother, Jehoiakim . Necho imposed on Judah a levy of a hundred talents of silver (about 3 3 ⁄ 4 tons or about 3.4 metric tons) and

10780-498: The existence of the United Monarchy, but the datings and identifications are not universally accepted. The Tel Dan stele shows a historical " House of David " ruled a kingdom south of the lands of Samaria in the 9th century BCE, and attestations of several Judean kings from the 8th century BCE have been discovered, but they do little to indicate how developed the state actually was. The Nimrud Tablet K.3751 , dated c. 733 BCE,

10920-467: The extent of its power. Recent excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa , however, support the existence of a centrally organized and urbanized kingdom by the 10th century BCE, according to the excavators. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under Neo-Assyrian vassalage , despite Hezekiah's revolt against the Assyrian king Sennacherib . Josiah took advantage of

11060-434: The fall of Judah. By 586 BCE, much of Judah had been devastated, and the former kingdom had suffered a steep decline of both its economy and its population. Jerusalem apparently remained uninhabited for much of the 6th century BCE, and the centre of gravity shifted to Benjamin, the relatively unscathed northern section of the kingdom, where the town of Mizpah became the capital of the new Babylonian province of Yehud for

11200-404: The fermentation affects both the taste of the end product, as well as the speed of the fermentation. For red wines, the temperature is typically 22 to 25 °C, and for white wines 15 to 18 °C. For every gram of sugar that is converted, about half a gram of alcohol is produced, so to achieve a 12% alcohol concentration, the must should contain about 24% sugars. The sugar percentage of the must

11340-609: The first 35 years of his reign, and he revamped and reinforced the fortresses initially built by his grandfather, Rehoboam. II Chronicles states that at the Battle of Zephath , the Egyptian-backed chieftain Zerah the Ethiopian and his million men and 300 chariots were defeated by Asa's 580,000 men in the Valley of Zephath near Maresha . The Bible does not state whether Zerah was a pharaoh or

11480-414: The first 60 years, the kings of Judah tried to re-establish their authority over Israel, and there was perpetual war between them. Israel and Judah warred throughout Rehoboam 's 17-year reign. Rehoboam built elaborate defenses and strongholds, along with fortified cities. In the fifth year of Rehoboam's reign, Shishak , who is identified as the pharaoh Shoshenq I of the 22nd Dynasty of Egypt , brought

11620-468: The fortified cities of the Kingdom of Judah during the 10th century BCE were located at Khirbet Qeiyafa , Tell en-Nasbeh , Khirbet el-Dawwara (by Halhul ), Tel Beit Shemesh , and Tell Lachish. Tel Be'er Sheva , believed to be the site of the ancient biblical town of Be'er-sheba , was the main Judahite center in the Negev in the 9th and 8th centuries BCE. The Judaean Mountains and Shephelah have seen

11760-430: The goals of the winemakers. Unoaked wine is fermented in a barrel made of stainless steel or other material having no influence on the final taste of the wine. Depending on the desired taste, it could be fermented mainly in stainless steel to be briefly put in oak, or have the complete fermentation done in stainless steel. Oak could be added as chips used with a non-wooden barrel instead of a fully wooden barrel. This process

11900-451: The grapes to raisin either on the vine or on racks or straw mats. Often in these high sugar wines, the fermentation stops naturally as the high concentration of sugar and rising concentration of ethanol retard the yeast activity. Similarly in fortified wines, such as port wine , high proof neutral grape spirit ( brandy ) is added to arrest the ferment and adjust the alcohol content when the desired sugar level has been reached. In other cases,

12040-433: The grapes. Other considerations include phenological ripeness, berry flavor, tannin development (seed color and taste). Overall disposition of the grapevine and weather forecasts are taken into account. Mechanical harvesters are large tractors that straddle grapevine trellises and, using firm plastic or rubber rods, strike the fruiting zone of the grapevine to dislodge the grapes from the rachis . Mechanical harvesters have

12180-440: The grapevine before mechanical harvesting to avoid such material being included in the harvested fruit. In the United States mechanical harvesting is seldom used for premium winemaking because of the indiscriminate picking and increased oxidation of the grape juice. In other countries (such as Australia and New Zealand), mechanical harvesting of premium winegrapes is more common because of general labor shortages. Manual harvesting

12320-526: The international situation was in flux. To the east, the Neo-Assyrian Empire was beginning to disintegrate, the Neo-Babylonian Empire had not yet risen to replace it and Egypt to the west was still recovering from Assyrian rule. In the power vacuum, Judah could govern itself for the time being without foreign intervention. However, in the spring of 609 BCE, Pharaoh Necho II personally led

12460-407: The juice to travel before leaving the press. It is believed by advocates of basket presses that this relatively long pathway through the grape or pomace cake serves as a filter to solids that would otherwise affect the quality of the press juice. With red wines, the must is pressed after primary fermentation, which separates the skins and other solid matter from the liquid. With white wine, the liquid

12600-416: The juice, this method is sometimes referred to as pre-fermentation maceration as it extracts tannins and pigment from the skins. As a result this is applicable to red grape varieties that would otherwise undergo traditional maceration. Most white wines are processed without destemming or crushing and are transferred from picking bins directly to the press. This is to avoid any extraction of tannin from either

12740-527: The kingdom the anger of Yahweh. King Josiah (640–609 BCE) returned to the worship of Yahweh alone, but his efforts were too late, and Israel's unfaithfulness caused God to permit the kingdom's destruction by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in the Siege of Jerusalem (587/586 BCE) . It is now widely agreed among academic scholars that the Books of Kings are not an accurate portrayal of religious attitudes in Judah or Israel of

12880-478: The kings of Israel (except to some extent Jehu ) and many of the kings of Judah were "bad" in terms of the biblical narrative by failing to enforce monotheism . Of the "good" kings, Hezekiah (727–698 BCE) is noted for his efforts at stamping out idolatry (in his case, the worship of Baal and Asherah , among other traditional Near Eastern divinities), but his successors, Manasseh of Judah (698–642 BCE) and Amon (642–640 BCE), revived idolatry, which drew down on

13020-649: The land and dispersed throughout the Babylonian Empire . Among them was Ezekiel . Nebuchadnezzar appointed Zedekiah , Jehoiakim's brother, the king of the reduced kingdom, who was made a tributary of Babylon. Despite the strong remonstrances of Jeremiah and others, Zedekiah revolted against Nebuchadnezzar by ceasing to pay tribute to him and entered an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra . In 589 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II returned to Judah and again besieged Jerusalem . Many Jews fled to surrounding Moab , Ammon , Edom and other countries to seek refuge. The city fell after

13160-562: The late 7th century BCE. Nevertheless, with the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 7th century, and particularly during the later Mamluk rule in the Middle Ages, a significant decline in winemaking activities occurred, ultimately leading to a complete prohibition of winemaking . In the 1980s, the Judaean Mountains witnessed a notable resurgence in winemaking, driven by Israeli entrepreneurs . Today,

13300-437: The late 8th century BCE is too weak, and that the methodology used to obtain the evidence is flawed. In the 10th and early 9th centuries BCE, the territory of Judah appears to have been sparsely populated, limited to small rural settlements, most of them unfortified. The Tel Dan Stele , discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom existed in some form by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate

13440-565: The latitude of Ramallah . The westward descent from the hard limestone country of the Judaean mountains towards the coastal plain is by way of a longitudinal trough of fosse cut through chalk, followed by the low, rolling soft limestone hills of the Shephelah , while eastwards the landscape falls steeply towards the Jordan Rift Valley . The southern end of the mountain range is at Beersheba in

13580-605: The leadership of Yohanan ben Kareah . They ignored the urging of the prophet Jeremiah against the move. In Egypt, the refugees settled in Migdol , Tahpanhes , Noph and Pathros , and possibly Elephantine , and Jeremiah went with them as a moral guardian. The numbers that were deported to Babylon and that made their way to Egypt and the remnant that remained in the land and in surrounding countries are subject to academic debate. The Book of Jeremiah reports that 4,600 were exiled to Babylonia . The two Books of Kings suggest that it

13720-483: The liberated SO 2 , and capture by hydrogen peroxide solution. The SO 2 and peroxide react to form sulphuric acid, which is then titrated with NaOH to an end point with an indicator, and the volume of NaOH required is used to calculate the SO 2 level. This method has inaccuracies associated with red wine, inefficient condensers, and excessive aspiration rate, although the results are reproducible, having an accuracy with just

13860-469: The local elite enjoyed wine flavored with vanilla during the 7–6th centuries BCE. Until very recently, vanilla was not at all known to be available to the Old World. Archeologists suggested that this discovery might be related to an international trade route that crossed the Negev during that period, probably under Assyrian and later, Third Intermediate Period Egyptian rule. According to Yosef Garfinkel ,

14000-419: The making of Blanc de noirs sparkling wine, which is derived from Pinot noir, a red vinifera grape). An alternative method to maceration is hot press or thermovinification. In this practice, winemakers heat up the grapes to extract the juice rather than pressing using a pressure method. The temperature and time ranges depending on the grape variety and preferences of the winemaker. In addition to extracting

14140-402: The making of the wine as well as prior to bottling. In response to the results of these tests, a winemaker can decide on appropriate remedial action, for example the addition of more sulfur dioxide. Sensory tests will also be performed and again in response to these a winemaker may take remedial action such as the addition of a protein to soften the taste of the wine. Brix (°Bx) is one measure of

14280-572: The military situation was precarious. Asa took gold and silver from the Temple and sent them to Ben-Hadad I , the king of Aram-Damascus , in exchange for the Damascene king cancelling his peace treaty with Baasha. Ben-Hadad attacked Ijon, Dan and many important cities of the tribe of Naphtali , and Baasha was forced to withdraw from Ramah. Asa tore down the unfinished fortress and used its raw materials to fortify Geba and Mizpah in Benjamin on his side of

14420-507: The northern part of the Negev , where the mountains slope down into the Beersheba- Arad valley. The average height of the Judaean Mountains is of 900 metres (2,953 ft), and they encompass the cities of Ramallah, Jerusalem , Bethlehem and Hebron . The northern section of the Judaean mountains is referred to as Jerusalem Hills, and the southern one as Hebron Hills . The Judaean Mountains were heavily forested in antiquity. The range

14560-441: The pH of the juice which may be desirable for overly acidic grapes. This was a practice more common in the 1970s than today, though still practiced by some Sauvignon blanc and Chardonnay producers in California. In the case of rosé wines, the fruit is crushed and the dark skins are left in contact with the juice just long enough to extract the color that the winemaker desires. The must is then pressed, and fermentation continues as if

14700-424: The political vacuum that resulted from Assyria's decline and the emergence of Saite Egyptian rule over the area to enact his religious reforms. The Deuteronomistic history , which recounts the history of the people of Israel from Joshua to Josiah and expresses a worldview based on the legal principles found in the Book of Deuteronomy , is assumed to have been written during this same time period and emphasizes

14840-417: The press operator determined that the quality of the pressed juice or wine was below standard, or all liquids had been pressed. Since the early 1990s, modern mechanical basket presses have been revived through higher-end producers seeking to replicate the gentle pressing of the historical basket presses. Because basket presses have a relatively compact design, the press cake offers a relatively longer pathway for

14980-440: The press. For red winemaking, stems of the grapes are usually removed before fermentation since the stems have a relatively high tannin content; in addition to tannin they can also give the wine a vegetal aroma (due to extraction of 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine which has an aroma reminiscent of green bell peppers ). On occasion, the winemaker may decide to leave them in if the grapes themselves contain less tannin than desired. This

15120-490: The pressed juice excessively tannic or harsh. Because of the location of grape juice constituents in the berry (water and acid are found primarily in the mesocarp or pulp, whereas tannins are found primarily in the exocarp , or skin , and seeds ), pressed juice or wine tends to be lower in acidity with a higher pH than the free-run juice. Before the advent of modern winemaking, most presses were basket presses made of wood and operated manually. Basket presses are composed of

15260-514: The province was Mizpah in Benjamin , not Jerusalem. On hearing of the appointment, many of the Judeans who had taken refuge in surrounding countries were persuaded to return to Judah. However, Gedaliah was soon assassinated by a member of the royal house, and the Chaldean soldiers killed. The population that was left in the land and those who had returned fled to Egypt for fear a Babylonian reprisal, under

15400-410: The quality of grape and the target wine style, some of these steps may be combined or omitted to achieve the particular goals of the winemaker. Many wines of comparable quality are produced using similar but distinctly different approaches to their production. Variations on the above procedure exist. With sparkling wines such as Champagne and Methodé Champenoise (sparkling wine that is fermented in

15540-404: The region. The Hebrew Bible depicts the Kingdom of Judah as one of the two successor states of the United Kingdom of Israel , a term denoting the united monarchy under biblical kings Saul , David , and Solomon and covering the territory of Judah and Israel . However, during the 1980s, some biblical scholars began to argue that the archaeological evidence for an extensive kingdom before

15680-447: The remaining sugars are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The next process in the making of red wine is malolactic conversion , a bacterial process which converts "crisp, green apple" malic acid to "soft, creamy" lactic acid , softening the taste of the wine. Red wine is characteristically transferred to white oak barrels to mature for a period of weeks or months; this practice imparts oak aromas and some oak tannins to

15820-599: The remnant of the Jewish population in a part of the former kingdom. That was standard Babylonian practice. When the Philistine city of Ashkelon was conquered in 604 BCE, the political, religious and economic elite (but not the bulk of the population) was banished and the administrative centre shifted to a new location. Gedaliah was appointed governor of the Yehud province, supported by a Babylonian guard. The administrative centre of

15960-413: The royal court, priests and clerks. A collection of military orders found in the ruins of a military fortress in the Negev dating to the period of the Kingdom of Judah indicates widespread literacy, based on the inscriptions, the ability to read and write extended throughout the chain of command from commanders to petty officers. According to Professor Eliezer Piasetsky, who participated in analyzing

16100-616: The rule of David and Solomon . After the death of Solomon circa 930 BCE, the Israelites gathered in Shechem for the coronation of Solomon's son and successor, Rehoboam . Before the coronation took place, the northern tribes, led by Jeroboam , asked the new king to reduce the heavy taxes and labor requirements that his father Solomon had imposed. Rehoboam rejected their petition: “I will add to your yoke: my father hath chastised you with whips, I will chastise you with scorpions" ( 1 Kings 12:11 ). As

16240-408: The same time. However, in larger wineries, a mechanical crusher/destemmer is used. The decision about destemming is different for red and white wine making. Generally when making white wine the fruit is only crushed, the stems are then placed in the press with the berries. The presence of stems in the mix facilitates pressing by allowing juice to flow past flattened skins. These accumulate at the edge of

16380-441: The secondary fermentation and aging process , which takes three to six months, the fermentation continues very slowly. The wine is kept under an airlock to protect the wine from oxidation. Proteins from the grape are broken down and the remaining yeast cells and other fine particles from the grapes are allowed to settle. Potassium bitartrate will also precipitate, a process which can be enhanced by cold stabilization to prevent

16520-458: The selection of the fruit , its fermentation into alcohol , and the bottling of the finished liquid. The history of wine -making stretches over millennia. There is evidence that suggests that the earliest wine production took place in Georgia and Iran around 6000 to 5000 B.C. The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology . A winemaker may also be called a vintner . The growing of grapes

16660-466: The sensitivity of grapes to weather patterns, winemaking is affected by climate change . Grapes are usually harvested from the vineyard from early September until early November in the northern hemisphere, and mid February until early March in the southern hemisphere. In some cool areas in the southern hemisphere (such as in Tasmania), harvesting extends into May. The most common species of wine grape

16800-484: The siege and was succeeded by his son Jeconiah at an age of either eight or eighteen. The city fell about three months later, on 2 Adar (March 16) 597 BCE. Nebuchadnezzar pillaged both Jerusalem and the Temple and carted all of his spoils to Babylon. Jeconiah and his court and other prominent citizens and craftsmen, along with a sizable portion of the Jewish population of Judah, numbering about 10,000 were deported from

16940-478: The significance of upholding them. With the final fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, competition emerged between Saite Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire over control of the Levant , ultimately resulting in Judah's rapid decline. The early 6th century BCE saw a wave of Egyptian-backed Judahite rebellions against Babylonian rule being crushed. In 587 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II engaged in

17080-411: The skin tissues. In some cases, notably with "delicate" red varietals such as Pinot noir or Syrah , all or part of the grapes might be left uncrushed (called "whole berry") to encourage the retention of fruity aromas through partial carbonic maceration . Most red wines derive their color from grape skins (the exception being varieties or hybrids of non-vinifera vines which contain juice pigmented with

17220-430: The skins are the source of the tannins , the cap needs to be mixed through the liquid each day, or "punched", which traditionally is done by stomping through the vat. Cold stabilization is a process used in winemaking to reduce tartrate crystals (generally potassium bitartrate ) in wine. These tartrate crystals look like grains of clear sand, and are also known as "wine crystals" or "wine diamonds". They are formed by

17360-545: The skins or grapeseeds, as well as maintaining proper juice flow through a matrix of grape clusters rather than loose berries. In some circumstances winemakers choose to crush white grapes for a short period of skin contact, usually for three to 24 hours. This serves to extract flavor and tannin from the skins (the tannin being extracted to encourage protein precipitation without excessive Bentonite addition) as well as potassium ions, which participate in bitartrate precipitation ( cream of tartar ). It also results in an increase in

17500-443: The soluble solids in the grape juice and represents not only the sugars but also includes many other soluble substances such as salts, acids and tannins, sometimes called total dissolved solids (TDS). Because sugar is the dominant compound in grape juice, these units are effectively a measure of sugar level. The level of sugar in the grapes determines the final alcohol content of the wine as well as indirect index of grape maturity. °Bx

17640-462: The style of champagne but is not from the Champagne region of France), an additional, "secondary" fermentation takes place inside the bottle, dissolving trapped carbon dioxide in the wine and creating the characteristic bubbles. Bottles then spend 6 months on a riddling rack before being disgorged to remove any sediment that has accrued. An expedited technique using sealed tanks to contain carbon dioxide

17780-491: The texts, "Literacy existed at all levels of the administrative, military and priestly systems of Judah. Reading and writing were not limited to a tiny elite." That indicates the presence of a substantial educational infrastructure in Judah at the time. Archaeological research near the Gihon Spring in the City of David has revealed many anepigraphical bullae (that is, bullae bearing only iconography, no inscriptions) dated to

17920-474: The time. Nevertheless, epigraphic evidence attests to Yahweh's prominence within Judahite religion. Evidence of cannabis residues has been found on two altars in Tel Arad dating to the 8th century BC. Researchers believe that cannabis may have been used for ritualistic psychoactive purposes in Judah. Winemaking Winemaking , wine-making , or vinification is the production of wine , starting with

18060-507: The union of tartaric acid and potassium, and may appear to be [sediment] in the wine, though they are not. During the cold stabilizing process after fermentation, the temperature of the wine is dropped to close to freezing for 1–2 weeks. This will cause the crystals to separate from the wine and stick to the sides of the holding vessel. When the wine is drained from the vessels, the tartrates are left behind. They may also form in wine bottles that have been stored under very cold conditions. During

18200-434: The use of malolactic fermentation during their making. Lighter aromatic wines such as Riesling, generally do not go through malolactic fermentation. The fuller white wines, such as barrel-fermented chardonnay, are more commonly put through malolactic fermentation. Sometimes a partial fermentation, for example, somewhere less than 50% might be employed. Whether the wine is aging in tanks or barrels, tests are run periodically in

18340-408: The wine and adding sulphur and other allowable additives to inhibit yeast activity, or sterile filtering the wine to remove all yeast and bacteria. In the case of sweet wines, initial sugar concentrations are increased by harvesting late ( late harvest wine ), freezing the grapes to concentrate the sugar ( ice wine ), allowing or encouraging Botrytis cinerea fungus to dehydrate the grapes or allowing

18480-502: The wine however extra sugar is added to produce a high alcohol content. During or after the alcoholic fermentation, a secondary, or malolactic fermentation can also take place, during which specific strains of bacteria (lactobacter) convert malic acid into the milder lactic acid . This fermentation is often initiated by inoculation with desired bacteria. Pressing is the act of applying pressure to grapes or pomace in order to separate juice or wine from grapes and grape skins. Pressing

18620-443: The wine. The wine must be settled or clarified and adjustments made prior to bottling. The time from harvest to drinking can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines (made by carbonic maceration ) to over twenty years for wine of good structure with high levels of acid, tannin or sugar. However, only about 10% of all red and 5% of white wine will taste better after five years than it will after just one year. Depending on

18760-490: The winemaker may choose to hold back some of the sweet grape juice and add it to the wine after the fermentation is done, a technique known in Germany as süssreserve . The process produces wastewater , pomace , and lees that require collection, treatment, and disposal or beneficial use. Synthetic wines (also known as engineered wines or fake wines ) are a product that do not use grapes at all. Starting with water and ethanol,

18900-420: The winemaker was making a white wine. Yeast is normally already present on the grapes, often visible as a powdery appearance of the grapes. The primary, or alcoholic fermentation can be done with this natural yeast, but since this can give unpredictable results depending on the exact types of yeast that are present, cultured yeast is often added to the must. One of the main problems with the use of wild ferments

19040-469: Was 10,000 and later 8,000. In 539 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire conquered Babylonia and allowed the exiles to return to Yehud Medinata and to rebuild the Temple, which was completed in the sixth year of Darius (515 BCE) under Zerubbabel , the grandson of the second to last king of Judah, Jeconiah . Yehud Medinata was a peaceful part of the Achaemenid Empire until its fall in c. 333 BCE to Alexander

19180-456: Was already a significant city by the 10th century BCE. Much of the debate revolves around whether the archaeological discoveries conventionally dated to the 10th century should instead be dated to the 9th century, as proposed by Israel Finkelstein . Recent archaeological discoveries by Eilat Mazar in Jerusalem and Yosef Garfinkel in Khirbet Qeiyafa have been interpreted as supporting

19320-710: Was immediately wrecked. A new fleet was fitted out without the cooperation of the king of Israel. Although it was successful, the trade was not prosecuted. He joined Jehoram of Israel in a war against the Moabites , who were under tribute to Israel. This war was successful, and the Moabites were subdued. However, on seeing Mesha 's act of offering his son in a human sacrifice on the walls of Kir of Moab (now al-Karak ) filled Jehoshaphat with horror, he withdrew and returned to his land. Jehoshaphat 's successor, Jehoram of Judah , formed an alliance with Israel by marrying Athaliah ,

19460-579: Was not until 400 years later, following the Maccabean Revolt , that Judeans fully regained independence. The Kingdom of Judah was located in the Judean Mountains , stretching from Jerusalem to Hebron and into the Negev Desert . The central ridge, ranging from forested and shrubland-covered mountains gently sloping towards the hills of the Shephelah in the west, to the dry and arid landscapes of

19600-510: Was repulsed with heavy losses. The failure led to numerous rebellions among the states of the Levant that owed allegiance to Babylon. Jehoiakim also stopped paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar and took a pro-Egyptian position. Nebuchadnezzar soon dealt with the rebellions. According to the Babylonian Chronicles , after invading "the land of Hatti (Syria/Palestine)" in 599 BCE, he laid siege to Jerusalem . Jehoiakim died in 598 BCE during

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