129-757: The Johnson Doctrine , enunciated by U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson after the United States ' intervention in the Dominican Republic in 1965, declared that domestic revolution in the Western Hemisphere would no longer be a local matter when the object is the establishment of a " Communist dictatorship ". During Johnson's presidency, the United States again began interfering in the internal affairs of sovereign nations, particularly Latin America (reversing
258-409: A New Deal platform and was effectively aided by his wife. He served as a U.S. Representative from April 10, 1937, to January 3, 1949. President Roosevelt found Johnson to be a political ally and conduit for information, particularly regarding the internal politics of Texas and the machinations of Vice President John Nance Garner and House Speaker Sam Rayburn . Johnson was immediately appointed to
387-562: A Bachelor of Science in history and his certificate of qualification as a high school teacher. He briefly taught at Pearsall High School in Pearsall, Texas before taking a position teaching public speaking at Sam Houston High School in Houston. When he returned to San Marcos in 1965, after signing the Higher Education Act of 1965 , Johnson reminisced: I shall never forget the faces of
516-854: A U.S. representative, he was called to active duty three days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. His first orders were to report to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations in Washington, D.C. , for instruction and training. Following his training, Johnson asked Undersecretary of the Navy James Forrestal for a job in Washington, D.C. He was instead sent to inspect shipyard facilities in Texas and on
645-642: A communist government to foster in the Western hemisphere. Although Johnson's actions were seemingly multilateral it was more unilateral, and its actions were justified through the Organization of American States (OAS) after military action was enacted. However, by acting unilaterally and through Johnson's "Johnson Doctrine" the United States had violated the OAS prohibition on any American state from intervention of any kind on any other state for any reason. This action also violated
774-609: A day laborer. In 1926, Johnson enrolled at SWTSTC. He worked his way through school, participated in debate and campus politics, and edited the school newspaper, The College Star . The college years refined his skills of persuasion and political organization. For nine months, from 1928 to 1929, Johnson paused his studies to teach Mexican–American children at the segregated Welhausen School in Cotulla, Texas , 90 miles (140 km) south of San Antonio . The job helped him to save money to complete his education, and he graduated in 1930 with
903-450: A deep restructuring of the country. On 29 April, he promulgated a new social democratic constitution. The new document changed the laws in various ways. Among other things, it declared specific labour regulations, and mentioned unions, pregnant women, homeless people, the family, rights for the child and the young, for the farmers, and for illegitimate children. However, Bosch faced powerful enemies. He moved to break up latifundia , drawing
1032-478: A hostile position towards civil rights legislation like almost all other Southern Democrat legislators; voting against anti- lynching legislation, anti- poll tax legislation and the Fair Employment Practice Committee . In April 1941, incumbent U.S. Senator Morris Sheppard from Texas died. Under Texas law, a special election for a vacant Senate seat must be held within a few months of
1161-423: A majority of one (29–28). The state Democratic convention upheld Johnson. Stevenson went to court, eventually taking his case before the U.S. Supreme Court , but with timely help from his friend and future U.S. Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas , Johnson prevailed on the basis that jurisdiction over naming a nominee rested with the party, not the federal government. Johnson soundly defeated Republican Jack Porter in
1290-571: A mission similar to that of the Truman Committee in the Senate. He probed the peacetime "business as usual" inefficiencies that permeated the naval war and demanded that admirals get the job done. Johnson went too far when he proposed a bill that would crack down on the draft exemptions of shipyard workers if they were absent from work too often; organized labor blocked the bill and denounced him. Johnson's biographer Robert Dallek concludes, "The mission
1419-510: A movie camera to record conditions, and reported to Roosevelt, Navy leaders, and Congress that conditions were deplorable and unacceptable. Some historians have suggested this was in exchange for MacArthur's recommendation to award the Silver Star. He argued that the southwest Pacific urgently needed a higher priority and a larger share of war supplies. Warplanes that were sent there were "far inferior" to Japanese planes, and U.S. Navy morale there
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#17328558105081548-535: A notorious part in the political life of Havana, being recognized as a promoter of social legislation and author of the speech pronounced by President Carlos Prío Socarrás when the body of José Martí was transferred to Santiago de Cuba . When Fulgencio Batista led a coup d'état against Prío Socarrás and took over the presidency in 1952, Bosch was jailed by Batista's forces. After being liberated, he left Cuba and headed to Costa Rica , where he dedicated his time to pedagogical tasks, and to his activities as leader of
1677-579: A serious concern. As a result the United States intervened in several countries, including the Dominican Republic, in an effort to prevent the spread of communism. The nature of these interventions was different from prior interventions. In 1948, the Organization of American States was created. This organization, along with the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance of 1947, meant that
1806-590: A small farmhouse on the Pedernales River . He was the eldest of five children born to Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr. and Rebekah Baines. Johnson wasn't given a name until he was three months old, as his parents couldn't agree on a name that both liked. Finally, he was named after "criminal lawyer—a county lawyer" W. C. Linden, who his father liked; his mother agreed on the condition of spelling it as Lyndon. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson , and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia. Through his mother, he
1935-492: A sweeping victory over Viriato Fiallo of the National Civic Union in what is acknowledged to be the first free election in the country's history. On 27 February 1963, Bosch was sworn in as president in a ceremony that was attended by important democratic leaders and personalities of the region, like Luis Muñoz governor of the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico and José Figueres of Costa Rica . Bosch immediately launched
2064-671: A termination of American interventionism, albeit temporary. However, the Good Neighbor Policy did require Latin American nations to accept the leadership of the United States. Following World War II and the onset of the Cold War , the United States began to view Latin America through a new lens; the potential for the Soviet Union to establish communism in Central and South America was seen as
2193-470: A three-man military junta . Bosch was deported to Guadeloupe on 28 September 1963, but would fly to Puerto Rico on 1 October 1963, where he spent the remainder of his exile. Less than two years later, growing dissatisfaction generated another military rebellion on 24 April 1965, that demanded Bosch's restoration. The insurgents, commanded by Colonel Francisco Caamaño , removed the junta from power on 28 April. The United States dispatched 42,000 troops to
2322-462: A week. Johnson was announced the winner by 87 votes out of 988,295, an extremely narrow margin. However, Johnson's victory was based on 200 "patently fraudulent" ballots reported six days after the election from Box 13 in Jim Wells County , in an area dominated by political boss George Parr . The added names were in alphabetical order and written with the same pen and handwriting, at the end of
2451-625: Is remembered as an honest politician and regarded as one of the most prominent writers in Dominican literature . He founded both the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD) in 1939 and the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) in 1973. Juan Bosch Gaviño was born in the city of La Vega on 30 June 1909. His father was a Spaniard from Catalan origin, and his mother was a Puerto Rican from Juana Diaz, Puerto Rico. He lived
2580-495: Is to date the only President in U.S. history to be sworn in by a woman. Johnson was convinced of the need to make an immediate show of transition of power after the assassination to provide stability to a grieving nation. He and the Secret Service , not knowing whether the assassin acted alone or as part of a broader conspiracy , felt compelled to return rapidly to Washington, D.C.; this was greeted by some with assertions that he
2709-430: The 1932 U.S. presidential election , Johnson became a lifelong supporter of Roosevelt's New Deal . Johnson was elected speaker of the "Little Congress", a group of Congressional aides, where he cultivated Congressmen, newspapermen, and lobbyists. Johnson's friends soon included aides to President Roosevelt as well as fellow Texans such as vice president John Nance Garner and congressman Sam Rayburn . In 1935, Johnson
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#17328558105082838-505: The 22nd Bomb Group base, which was assigned the high-risk mission of bombing the Japanese airbase at Lae in New Guinea . On June 9, 1942, Johnson volunteered as an observer for an airstrike on New Guinea. Reports vary on what happened to the aircraft carrying Johnson during that mission. MacArthur recommended Johnson for the Silver Star for gallantry in action; the citation indicated that
2967-639: The Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 to passage — the first civil rights bills to pass Congress since the Enforcement Acts and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 during Reconstruction . Johnson negotiated a middle course between Northern liberal senators and the Southern bloc of senators who had opposed such legislation by removing key enforcement provisions, such as Title III, which authorized
3096-513: The Cuban Revolution took place, led by Fidel Castro , causing a major political, economic and social upheaval in the Caribbean island. Cord Meyer , a CIA official, was chief of International Organizations Division , a CIA-sponsored group for promoting democracy in international groups. He used the contacts with Bosch, Volman, and Figueres for a new purpose – as the United States moved to rally
3225-589: The Korean War began in 1950, he called for more troops and for improved weapons. Johnson ensured that every report was endorsed unanimously by his committee. He used his political influence in the Senate to receive broadcast licenses from the Federal Communications Commission in his wife's name. In the 1952 elections , Republicans won a majority in both the House and Senate. In January 1953, Johnson
3354-646: The Naval Affairs Committee . He worked hard for rural electrification , getting approval to complete the hydroelectric Mansfield Dam on the Colorado River near Austin. Johnson also sponsored projects that gave his Texas district soil conservation , public housing , lower railroad freight rates , and expanded credit for loans to farmers. He steered the projects towards contractors he knew, such as Herman and George Brown , who financed much of Johnson's future career. During this time Johnson maintained
3483-717: The Socialist Party of America . These funds were used in Latin America by José Figueres Ferrer, Sacha Volman , and Juan Bosch. Via the Fund, the CIA gave Figueres money to publish a political journal, Combate, and to found a left-wing school for Latin American opposition leaders. Funds passed from a shell foundation to the Kaplan Fund, next to the IILR, and finally to Figueres and Bosch. In 1959
3612-592: The Southern Caucus within the Conservative coalition that dominated the Senate. With Russell's support, Johnson won election as Democratic whip in 1951, serving in this capacity until 1953. While serving as whip, Johnson increased his ability to persuade people to reach agreement. As a member of the Senate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce , he was chairman of the Senate subcommittee that refused
3741-502: The United States House of Representatives , he appointed Johnson as his legislative secretary. This marked Johnson's formal introduction to politics. Johnson secured the position on the recommendation of his father and that of state senator Welly Hopkins, for whom Johnson had campaigned in 1930. Kleberg had little interest in the day-to-day duties of a Congressman, instead delegating them to Johnson. After Franklin D. Roosevelt won
3870-654: The Vietnam War , Lyndon B. Johnson was also opposed to allowing democratic East Asian nations to fall to communist takeovers. Prior to the implementation of the Johnson Doctrine, the United States already had a history of intervening in Latin American affairs. However, the more recent interventions in Latin America prior to the implementation of the Johnson Doctrine were more covert such as the Bay of Pigs Invasion . The affairs of
3999-637: The West Coast . In the spring of 1942, President Roosevelt decided he needed better information on conditions in the Southwest Pacific , and wanted a trusted political ally to obtain it. Forrestal suggested Johnson. Roosevelt assigned Johnson to a three-man survey team covering the Southwest Pacific. Johnson reported to General Douglas MacArthur in Australia. Johnson and two U.S. Army officers went to
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4128-484: The 1970 elections. Bosch became studious of Marxist ideology . He described himself as a "Marxist- non Leninist ". The differences and contradictions between Bosch and an important sector of the PRD on ideology, as well as the corruption that had started to grow within the party, made him leave the organization in 1973, and thus he founded the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) on 15 December of that same year. The PLD originally
4257-563: The 1994 election, Bosch retired from politics at the age of 83. Juan Bosch died on 1 November 2001, in Santo Domingo. As a former president, he received the corresponding honors at the National Palace, and was buried in his hometown of La Vega. A metro station in Santo Domingo was named in Bosch's honor in 2009. His wife, former First Lady Carmen Quidiello , died on 19 December 2020, at
4386-492: The American labor movement". At the same time as his vice presidential run, Johnson also sought a third term in the U.S. Senate. According to Robert Caro: Johnson won an election for both the vice presidency of the United States, on the Kennedy–Johnson ticket, and for a third term as senator (he had Texas law changed to allow him to run for both offices). When he won the vice presidency, he made arrangements to resign from
4515-460: The CIA people in the Dominican Republic to get this request at any cost. When Allen Dulles found this out the next morning, he withdrew the order. We later discovered it had already been carried out." In May 1961, the ruler of the Dominican Republic , Rafael Trujillo was assassinated. An internal CIA memorandum states that a 1973 Office of Inspector General investigation into the assassination disclosed "quite extensive Agency involvement with
4644-411: The Dominican Republic again when the possibility of a Communist takeover seemed possible. In that year, a leftist group supporting the overthrown, democratically elected Juan Bosch seemed poised to place Bosch back in power. A group of Dominican Communists were involved in the revolt, and the United States deemed the threat of a Communist takeover to be too serious to be left alone. Moreover, when Bosch
4773-537: The Dominican Republic. For over a year, the CIA had been in contact with dissidents inside the Dominican Republic who argued that assassination was the only certain way to remove Trujillo. According to Chester Bowles , the Undersecretary of State, internal Department of State discussions in 1961 on the topic were vigorous. Richard N. Goodwin , Assistant Special Counsel to the President, who had direct contacts with
4902-581: The House, which permitted him to maintain numerous allies, including George Berham Parr , who ran a political machine in the Lower Rio Grande Valley in South Texas. U.S. Senator W. Lee O'Daniel became unpopular during his time in the Senate, and decided to forgo a bid for re-election in 1948, so Johnson began preparing for a close Senate runoff by arranging for his supporters who controlled votes, including Parr, to withhold their final tallies until
5031-580: The Middle East Eisenhower applied his doctrine in 1957-1958 sending money to the Kingdom of Jordan, encouraging Syrians to hold military operations against it and deploy U.S. troops to Lebanon to halt any radical changes. The doctrine showed a major commitment and a new resolve for the United States in securing stability in the Middle East and their influence in international affairs, thus Eisenhower raised
5160-586: The Navy Reserve, where he was promoted to commander on October 19, 1949, effective June 2, 1948. He resigned from the Navy Reserve effective January 18, 1964. In 1948 , Johnson again ran for the U.S. Senate and won the general election after being declared winner in a highly controversial Democratic Party primary election against the well-known former governor Coke Stevenson . Johnson drew crowds to fairgrounds with his rented Sikorsky S-51 helicopter, dubbed "The Johnson City Windmill". He raised money to flood
5289-623: The Oval Office and to employ a full-time staff within the White House. In 1961, Kennedy appointed Johnson's friend Sarah T. Hughes to a federal judgeship. Johnson tried but failed to have Hughes nominated at the beginning of his vice presidency. House Speaker Sam Rayburn wrangled the appointment from Kennedy in exchange for support of an administration bill. Many members of the Kennedy White House were openly contemptuous of Johnson, including
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5418-504: The PRD. Molasses tycoon Jacob Merrill Kaplan earned his fortune primarily through operations in Cuba and the Dominican Republic . The J.M. Kaplan Fund was found in a 1964 congressional investigation to be a conduit for funneling CIA money to Latin America, including through the Institute of International Labor Research (IILR) headed by Norman Thomas , six-time presidential candidate for
5547-478: The Senate and, with Democrats winning the majority in the Senate, he became majority leader . President Dwight D. Eisenhower found Johnson more cooperative than the Senate Republican leader, William F. Knowland of California. Particularly on foreign policy, Johnson offered bipartisan support to the president. Historians Caro and Dallek consider Johnson the most effective Senate majority leader ever. He
5676-427: The Senate rendered him a potential Democratic presidential candidate. James H. Rowe repeatedly urged Johnson to launch a campaign in early 1959, but Johnson thought it was better to wait, thinking that Senator John F. Kennedy 's candidacy would create a division in the ranks that could then be exploited. Johnson's strategy was to sit out the primaries and to rely on his legislative record as Senate Majority Leader ,
5805-448: The Senate, as he was required to do under federal law, as soon as it convened on January 3, 1961. Johnson was re-elected senator with 1,306,605 votes (58 percent) to Republican John Tower 's 927,653 (41.1 percent). Fellow Democrat William A. Blakley was appointed to replace Johnson, but lost a special election in May 1961 to Tower. After the election, Johnson was concerned about
5934-408: The Senate. The lieutenant governor, Coke R. Stevenson , was not in favor of prohibition, making his possible promotion to Governor a key selling point for the state's business interests in manipulating the election results. In the final vote tally, Johnson fell short by just 0.23% of the vote. While Johnson's loss in the 1941 Senate race was a stinging defeat, he did not have to give up his seat in
6063-515: The South. President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, in Dallas , Texas. Later that day, Johnson took the presidential oath of office aboard Air Force One . Cecil Stoughton 's iconic photograph of Johnson taking the oath of office as Mrs. Kennedy looks on is the most famous photo ever taken aboard a presidential aircraft. Johnson was sworn in by District Court judge Sarah T. Hughes and
6192-674: The Soviet Union, the discovery and removal of Soviet missiles, and the Cuban infiltration of Latin America recently the Dominican prompted the debate over the controversy and status of the Monroe Doctrine. One thought that was maintained is the Premier Castro and the Soviet Union both defied and violated the Monroe Doctrine and that the doctrine should be invoked upon Cuba. It was also contended that
6321-575: The U.S. House of Representatives in 1937. In 1948, he was controversially declared the winner in the Democratic primary for the U.S. Senate election in Texas before winning the general election. He became Senate majority whip in 1951, Senate Democratic leader in 1953 and majority leader in 1954. Senator Kennedy bested Johnson and his other rivals for the 1960 Democratic presidential nomination before surprising many by offering to make Johnson his vice presidential running mate. The Kennedy–Johnson ticket won
6450-578: The U.S. and Soviets. Eisenhower Doctrine: Example in the Middle East The Eisenhower Doctrine is a build off for what the Johnson Doctrine is and has its own way of dealing with communism. An example of the Eisenhower Doctrine in effect would be in the Middle East in 1957 when the United States declared that they would distribute economical and military aid, and if necessary use military force to drive out communism. In securing
6579-451: The United States and the Dominican Republic have been closely entangled for much of American history; in 1849, the president of the Dominican Republic requested that the country be annexed by the United States, and during the presidency of Millard Fillmore , the United States president noted the country’s special interest in the affairs of the Dominican Republic as a result of its proximity to the United States. Beginning in 1901 through 1933,
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#17328558105086708-428: The United States could still intervene but needed clear justification to do so. Prior to the intervention in the Dominican Republic that led to the proclamation of the Johnson Doctrine, the United States had engaged with the Dominican Republic in several ways; these included implementing sanctions, threatening military force, and ensuring free elections to promote democracy. In 1965, the United States intervened in
6837-428: The United States has lent support to Ukraine following the Russian invasion of Ukraine . Furthermore, the United States maintains a military presence in countries around the world in addition to providing foreign aid to support American interests. Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon Baines Johnson ( / ˈ l ɪ n d ə n ˈ b eɪ n z / ; August 27, 1908 – January 22, 1973), also known as LBJ ,
6966-401: The United States intervened to prevent perceived threats from leftist forces; some confirmed interventions included Operation Condor in the 1970s, support of the Contras in Nicaragua and the invasion of Grenada in 1983. United States interventions have also included involvement in regime changes, military support, and invasions of countries outside of the Western Hemisphere; for example,
7095-409: The United States used the Roosevelt Corollary and the Platt Amendment as justification for military intervention in Latin American affairs. For example, in the Spanish–American War , the United States defeated Spain and secured Cuban independence; however, the United States exerted pressure on Cuba and forced the new government to include the Platt Amendment in their new constitution, guaranteeing
7224-506: The Western Hemisphere. It also parallels the Monroe Doctrine, with an emphasis on denouncing non-US (in this case socialist) interference in the Americas. Moscow Strategic Doctrine The Johnson Doctrine having been built off of the Kennedy and Eisenhower doctrines in that it opposes communism in the Western Hemisphere that doctrine being the Moscow Strategic Doctrine. The Moscow Strategic Doctrine has been studied by Dr. Thomas B. Larson and Alexander J. Dallin and from their findings found that
7353-440: The assassination. Juan Bosch (politician) Juan Emilio Bosch y Gaviño (30 June 1909 – 1 November 2001) was a Dominican politician, historian, writer, essayist, educator, and the first democratically elected president of the Dominican Republic for a brief time in 1963. Previously, he had been the leader of the Dominican opposition in exile to the dictatorial regime of Rafael Trujillo for over 25 years. To this day, he
7482-432: The attorney general to initiate civil action for preventive relief in a wide range of civil rights matters. Being a Southerner was seen as an impossible barrier for a presidential candidate and towards the end of his Senate career as well as not signing the Southern Manifesto, he distanced himself further from the Southern Caucus in 1959 by joining the Democrat's Western regional conference. In 1960 , Johnson's success in
7611-442: The boys and the girls in that little Welhausen Mexican School, and I remember even yet the pain of realizing and knowing then that college was closed to practically every one of those children because they were too poor. And I think it was then that I made up my mind that this nation could never rest while the door to knowledge remained closed to any American. After Richard M. Kleberg won a 1931 special election to represent Texas in
7740-462: The building of the Berlin Wall . He also attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings. Kennedy gave Johnson control over all presidential appointments involving Texas, and appointed him chairman of the President's Ad Hoc Committee for Science. Kennedy also appointed Johnson Chairman of the National Aeronautics and Space Council . The Soviets beat the United States with the first crewed spaceflight in April 1961, and Kennedy gave Johnson
7869-424: The creation of Medicare and Medicaid . Johnson made the Apollo program a national priority; enacted the Higher Education Act of 1965 , which established federally insured student loans; and signed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 , which laid the groundwork for U.S. immigration policy today. Johnson's stance on civil rights put him at odds with other white, Southern Democrats . His civil rights legacy
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#17328558105087998-511: The doctrine faces more upon Soviet Arms control policies during the Khrushchev era. During the time of 1964 to 1965 when Dr. Larson and Mr. Dallin published their findings they came upon the key assumption in this doctrine is that due to an imbalance in strategic weapons favoring the United States. The Soviet Union has sense redressed the balance in this category for strategic weapons namely in ICBMs during this time as well as showing negative views on arms limitations and arms control agreements between
8127-432: The doctrine needed to be revived and restored before this. An example of this would be during the 1962 Cuban missile crisis which formulate a committee for the doctrine of conservatives dissatisfied with the President's policy. This committee's major objective was to get Congress to pass a joint resolution to reaffirm the doctrine, in 1963 the House of Representatives presented a resolution that Soviet troops in Cuba violated
8256-487: The doctrine. Two years later Congressman Daniel J. Flood would request for House support "to extend" the doctrine fearing things might erupt in the Caribbean, Congressman Armistead I. Selden proposed a resolution that gave the United States unilateral force in Latin America against communism which violated "the principles" of the doctrine. Following the implementation of the Johnson Doctrine, the United States has continued to intervene in international affairs. In Latin America,
8385-455: The establishment of another "communist government" in the Western Hemisphere. Johnson contextualized the proclamation through the lens of the revolution in the Dominican Republic, citing the various factions of the revolution. Johnson continued to praise the government of the Dominican Republic and explain that his intention was domestic defense. The Johnson Doctrine builds off of the Kennedy and Eisenhower doctrines in that it opposes communism in
8514-487: The executive branch. He drafted an executive order for Kennedy's signature, granting Johnson "general supervision" over matters of national security, and requiring all government agencies to "cooperate fully with the vice president in the carrying out of these assignments". Kennedy's response was to sign a non-binding letter requesting Johnson to "review" national security policies instead. Kennedy similarly turned down early requests from Johnson to be given an office adjacent to
8643-503: The first years of his childhood in a rural community called Río Verde, where he began his primary studies. He did his secondary studies at the San Sebastián de La Vega school, only reaching the third level of high school. In 1924 he moved to Santo Domingo , where he worked in several commercial stores. Later in 1929 he traveled to Spain, Venezuela and some Caribbean islands. In 1934, he married Isabel García and had two children with her: Leon and Carolina. During Trujillo's dictatorship, Bosch
8772-402: The general election . Vice President Johnson assumed the presidency in 1963, after President Kennedy was assassinated. The following year, Johnson was elected to the presidency in a landslide , winning the largest share of the popular vote for the Democratic Party in history, and the highest for any candidate since the advent of widespread popular elections in the 1820s. Johnson's Great Society
8901-496: The general election in November and went to Washington, permanently dubbed "Landslide Lyndon". Johnson, dismissive of his critics, happily adopted the nickname. During his two terms in the Senate, Johnson drifted rightward. He felt he had to tread carefully lest he offend politically powerful conservative oil and gas interests in Texas , and in part to curry favor with the chamber's powerful southern chairmen, most notably Senator Richard Russell , Democrat from Georgia and leader of
9030-410: The genius of analogy made The Treatment an almost hypnotic experience and rendered the target stunned and helpless. In 1956, during the Suez Crisis , Johnson tried to prevent the U.S. government from criticizing Israel for its invasion of the Sinai Peninsula . Along with much of the rest of the nation, Johnson was appalled by the threat of possible Soviet domination of space exploration implied by
9159-638: The head of the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunities , where Johnson worked with African Americans and other minorities. Kennedy may have intended this to remain a nominal position, but Taylor Branch contends in his book Pillar of Fire that Johnson pushed the Kennedy administration's actions further and faster for civil rights than Kennedy originally intended. Johnson went on multiple minor diplomatic missions, which gave him some insights into global issues and opportunities for self-promotion. During his visit to West Berlin on August 19–20, 1961, Johnson sought to calm Berliners who were outraged by
9288-475: The hemisphere against Cuba 's Fidel Castro , Rafael Trujillo , the strongman caudillo that ran the Dominican Republic for 30 years had become a liability. The United States needed to demonstrate that it opposed all dictators, not just those on the left. Bosch accurately perceived the process that had begun from those events and wrote a letter to Trujillo, dated 27 February 1961. He told Trujillo that his political role, in historical terms, had concluded in
9417-447: The hint of threat. It was all of these together. It ran the gamut of human emotions. Its velocity was breathtaking and it was all in one direction. Interjections from the target were rare. Johnson anticipated them before they could be spoken. He moved in close, his face a scant millimeter from his target, his eyes widening and narrowing, his eyebrows rising and falling. From his pockets poured clippings, memos, statistics. Mimicry, humor, and
9546-419: The intention of reorganizing the PRD and turning its members into active, studious militants of the historical and social reality of the country. His project was not accepted by most of the PRD, most of whose members were turning in a more mainstream social democratic direction. Also, given the military repression, and lack of political equality between the PRD and the official Reformist Party, Bosch abstained from
9675-479: The ire of landowners. The Church thought Bosch was trying to oversecularize the country. Industrialists did not like the new Constitution's guarantees for the working class. The military, who previously enjoyed free rein, felt Bosch put them on too short a leash. On 25 September 1963, after only seven months in office, Bosch was overthrown in a coup led by General Elias Wessin y Wessin , General Antonio Imbert Barreras , and other military leaders which established
9804-470: The island in Operation Power Pack during the ensuing civil war in support of the anti-Bosch forces. An interim government was formed, and elections were fixed for 1 July 1966. Bosch returned to the country and ran as his party's presidential candidate. However, he ran a somewhat muted campaign, fearing for his safety and believing he would be thrown out of office by the military again if he won. He
9933-531: The launch of Sputnik 1 , the first artificial Earth satellite , and used his influence to ensure passage of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 , which established NASA . Johnson helped establish the Senate Aeronautical and Space Committee , and made himself its first chairman. During his tenure as Majority Leader, Johnson did not sign the 1956 Southern Manifesto , and shepherded
10062-594: The lead... They kept changing the results, and our lead got smaller and smaller and smaller. Finally, on Wednesday afternoon, we wound up on the short side of the stick and lost the election by 1,311 votes. I'm basically responsible for losing that 1941 campaign. We let them know exactly how many votes they had to have. In addition to O'Daniel's allies, state business interests aligned with former impeached and convicted Texas Governor "Pa" Ferguson had been concerned with O'Daniel's support of prohibition as Governor; they believed that he could do much less damage to their cause in
10191-614: The list of voters. Some on this part of the list insisted that they had not voted that day. Election judge Luis Salas said in 1977 that he had certified 202 fraudulent ballots for Johnson. Robert Caro made the case in his 1990 book that Johnson had stolen the election in Jim Wells County, and that there were thousands of fraudulent votes in other counties as well, including 10,000 votes switched in San Antonio . The Democratic State Central Committee voted to certify Johnson's nomination by
10320-540: The main organizers of the abortive Cayo Confites expedition of 1947, in which a military force backed by the Caribbean Legion unsuccessfully attempted to invade the Dominican Republic from Cuba. Bosch fled to Venezuela after the expedition's failure, where he continued his anti-Trujillo campaign. In Cuba, where he returned by requirement of his friends in the Authentic Revolutionary Party , he played
10449-401: The mission came under attack and Johnson's aircraft experienced mechanical problems, forcing it to turn back before reaching its objective. Others claim that the aircraft turned back because of generator trouble before encountering enemy aircraft and never came under fire, an account that is supported by the aircraft's official flight records. Other airplanes that continued came under fire near
10578-584: The most active front against Trujillo outside the Dominican Republic. Bosch heavily sympathised with leftist ideas, but he always denied any communist affiliation. He collaborated with the Cuban Revolutionary Party and had an important role in the making of Cuba's 1940 Constitution . Bosch met his second wife, Carmen Quidiello , a Cuban poet and playwright, in Matanzas in 1941. The couple married in 1943 and had two children, Patricio and Barbara. At
10707-467: The nonintervention pledge that had been a key part in President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy. The Monroe Doctrine: Cuba and The Dominican Republic The Johnson Doctrine follows the same precepts of the Monroe Doctrine in protecting Latin American owned territories, which was set up in 1823, in how it revived it as well as bring controversy with. The Cuban Economic Independence with
10836-531: The only ballot at the Democratic convention to Kennedy's 806, and so the convention nominated Kennedy. Tip O'Neill was a representative from Kennedy's home state of Massachusetts at that time, and he recalled that Johnson approached him at the convention and said, "Tip, I know you have to support Kennedy at the start, but I'd like to have you with me on the second ballot." O'Neill replied, "Senator, there's not going to be any second ballot." After much discussion with party leaders and others, Kennedy offered Johnson
10965-444: The plotters." The CIA described its role in "changing" the government of the Dominican Republic "as a 'success' in that it assisted in moving the Dominican Republic from a totalitarian dictatorship to a Western-style democracy." After 23 years in exile, Juan Bosch returned to his homeland months after Trujillo was assassinated. His presence in the national political life, as the Dominican Revolutionary Party presidential candidate,
11094-502: The potential influence of communism. Such anti-communist sentiments were made evident through statements such as the Truman Doctrine , which declared that the United States would provide assistance to nations threatened by authoritarianism. The government of the United States sought to take action against communism prior to declaration of the Johnson Doctrine; although initially opposed to the idea of sending American troops to assist in
11223-624: The president's brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy , and they ridiculed his comparatively brusque and crude manner. Then Congressman Tip O'Neill recalled that the Kennedy brothers "had a disdain for Johnson that they didn't even try to hide.... They actually took pride in snubbing him." Kennedy made efforts to keep Johnson busy and informed, telling aides, "I can't afford to have my vice president, who knows every reporter in Washington, going around saying we're all screwed up, so we're going to keep him happy." Kennedy appointed him to jobs such as
11352-471: The previous Good Neighbor policy of the decades prior). The Johnson Doctrine is the formal declaration of the intention of the United States to intervene in such affairs. It is an extension of the Eisenhower and Kennedy Doctrines . The U.S. government opposed the spread of communism during the Cold War . This opposition to communism led to what is known as a Red Scare ; Americans were told they should fear
11481-487: The prospects of the U.S. fighting in the Middle East and taking responsibility over it for decades to come. The Johnson Doctrine: Latin America In Latin America the Johnson Doctrine takes after the Eisenhower Doctrine in a way of how it was to deal with communism. In 1965 President Lyndon B. Johnson had sent over 20,000 troops to the Dominican Republic under the idea that America and its nations will not allow
11610-575: The public became frustrated with both the Vietnam War and domestic unrest, including race riots in major cities and increasing crime. Johnson initially sought to run for re-election; however, following disappointing results in the New Hampshire primary he withdrew his candidacy . Johnson retired to his Texas ranch and died in 1973. Public opinion and academic assessments of Johnson's legacy have fluctuated greatly. Historians and scholars rank Johnson in
11739-468: The race resulted from his fear of losing. Johnson attempted in vain to capitalize on Kennedy's youth, poor health, and failure to take a position regarding McCarthyism . He had formed a "Stop Kennedy" coalition with Adlai Stevenson , Stuart Symington , and Hubert Humphrey, but it proved a failure. Despite Johnson having the support of established Democrats and the party leadership, this did not translate into popular approval. Johnson received 409 votes on
11868-702: The re-nomination of Leland Olds as Chairman of the Federal Power Commission on the grounds that he had been sympathetic towards Communism. Johnson was appointed to the Senate Armed Services Committee , and became increasingly concerned with the country's military preparedness in the Cold War with the Soviet Union . He became chairman of the Senate Preparedness Investigating Subcommittee , and conducted investigations of defense costs and efficiency. After
11997-458: The rebel alliance, argued for intervention against Trujillo. Quoting Bowles directly: "The next morning I learned that in spite of the clear decision against having the dissident group request our assistance Dick Goodwin following the meeting sent a cable to CIA people in the Dominican Republic without checking with State or CIA; indeed, with the protest of the Department of State. The cable directed
12126-555: The religious beliefs that his family , especially his grandfather, had shared with him. Johnson grew up poor, with his father losing a great deal of money. Biographer Robert Caro described him as being raised "in a land without electricity, where the soil was so rocky that it was hard to earn a living from it." In school, Johnson was a talkative youth who was elected president of his 11th-grade class. He graduated in 1924 from Johnson City High School , where he participated in public speaking , debate , and baseball . At 15, Johnson
12255-499: The right for the United States to intervene in Cuban affairs. This period, marked by Theodore Roosevelt 's declaration that the United States would act as the international police power of the west, reduced the influence of European powers in the Caribbean, Central and South America and in turn, increased the influence of the United States in the regions. These interventions were temporarily ended by Franklin D. Roosevelt 's Good Neighbor policy . The Good Neighbor Policy served as
12384-519: The same time, his literary career was ascending, gaining important acknowledgments like the Hernandez Catá Prize in Havana for short stories written by a Latin American author. His works had a deep social content, among them "La Noche Buena de Encarnación Mendoza", "Luis Pié", "The Masters" and "The Indian Manuel Sicuri", all of them described by critics as masterpieces of their sort. Bosch was one of
12513-549: The state with campaign circulars and won over conservatives by casting doubts on Stevenson's support for the Taft–Hartley Act (curbing union power). Stevenson came in first in the primary but lacked a majority, so a runoff election was held; Johnson campaigned harder, while Stevenson's efforts slumped due to a lack of funds. The runoff vote count, handled by the Democratic State Central Committee, took
12642-416: The statewide results were announced. By waiting until the statewide result was reported, Johnson was able to know the figure he had to surpass and so could add as many votes as necessary to his total. It would prove consequential, as Johnson would win the Democratic primary in 1948 by just 87 votes. Johnson was appointed a lieutenant commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 21, 1940. While serving as
12771-680: The support of Southern Democrats , and the favors owed by Democratic senators to him and by Democratic representatives to his close ally Sam Rayburn, the Speaker of the House. In July 1960, Johnson finally entered the campaign. Johnson's late entry, coupled with his reluctance to leave Washington, D.C., allowed rival John F. Kennedy to secure a substantial early lead in securing support from Democratic state party officials. Johnson underestimated Kennedy's endearing charm and intelligence in comparison to his perceived crude and wheeling-dealing "Landslide Lyndon" style. Caro suggests that Johnson's hesitancy to enter
12900-414: The target about the same time Johnson's plane was recorded as having landed back at the original airbase. Johnson's biographer Robert Caro was quoted as saying "I think that the weight of the evidence at this moment is that the plane was attacked by Zeroes and that he was cool under fire", but also "The fact is, LBJ never got within sight of Japanese forces. His combat experience was a myth." Johnson used
13029-511: The task of evaluating the U.S. space program and recommending a project that would allow the United States to catch up or beat the Soviets. Johnson recommended that the United States gain the leadership role by committing to landing an American on the Moon in the 1960s . Kennedy assigned priority to the space program, but Johnson's appointment provided cover in case of a failure. In August 1963, Johnson
13158-490: The traditionally ineffective nature of his new office and sought authority not allotted to him as vice president. He initially sought a transfer of the authority of Senate majority leader to the vice presidency, since that office made him president of the Senate, but faced vehement opposition from the Democratic Caucus, including members whom he had counted as his supporters. Johnson sought to increase his influence within
13287-400: The upper tier for his accomplishments regarding domestic policy. His administration passed many major laws that made substantial changes in civil rights, health care, welfare, and education. Conversely, Johnson is heavily criticized for his foreign policy, namely escalating American involvement in the Vietnam War. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27, 1908, near Stonewall, Texas , in
13416-482: The vacancy, meaning that the election would not be held during a normal November election, giving Johnson the chance to run without forfeiting his seat in the House. The election would be held without party primaries, and with no runoff, meaning that Johnson would have to compete against every Democrat — without the chance of facing the frontrunner, Governor W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel, in a 1-on-1 runoff election. The first pre-election polls showed Johnson receiving only 5% of
13545-476: The vice presidential nomination at the Los Angeles Biltmore Hotel on July 14, the morning after Kennedy was nominated, and Johnson accepted. From that point to the actual nomination that evening, several facts are in dispute, including whether convention chairman LeRoy Collins ' had the two-thirds majority required to begin the convention's proceedings. Kennedy's choice of Johnson as his running mate
13674-446: The vote tallies. Connally told them to report the votes, which allegedly allowed O'Daniel's political allies among the South and East Texas party bosses to know the exact number of fraudulent votes needed for O'Daniel to catch up to Johnson. According to Connally, The opposition then — Governor O'Daniel and his people — knew exactly how many votes they had to have to take
13803-481: The vote, but Johnson ran a fierce campaign, barnstorming the state and emphasizing his close relationship with President Roosevelt. On Election Day, Johnson held a strong lead in the returns throughout the whole night, and with 96 percent of the ballots counted, Johnson held a 5,000-vote lead. According to John Connally, future Governor and Johnson's campaign manager, local election officials began calling Connally's office and asking him about whether they should report
13932-484: The years prior) as a violation of the principles of the Monroe Doctrine; legislators also resolved to extend the Monroe doctrine specifically to allow intervention if tensions in the Dominican Republic escalated. The Johnson Doctrine reinforced the United States government's existing doctrines against socialist and communist expansion. In his May 2 address, Johnson specifically states that the American countries, will not permit
14061-492: Was "The Treatment", described by two journalists: The Treatment could last ten minutes or four hours. It came, enveloping its target, at the Johnson Ranch swimming pool, in one of Johnson's offices, in the Senate cloakroom, on the floor of the Senate itself – wherever Johnson might find a fellow Senator within his reach. Its tone could be supplication, accusation, cajolery, exuberance, scorn, tears, complaint, and
14190-585: Was a fresh change for the Dominicans. His manner of speaking, direct and simple, especially when addressing the lowest classes, appealed to farmers as much as people from the cities . Immediately he was accused by the Church but he threatened to pull out of the election which caused the Church to retract the accusation; Conservatives also accused him of being a communist. However, in the elections of 20 December 1962, Bosch and his running mate, Armando González Tamayo, won
14319-553: Was a great-grandson of Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines . Johnson's paternal grandfather, Samuel Ealy Johnson Sr. , was raised Baptist and for a time was a member of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) . In his later years, Samuel Sr. became a Christadelphian ; Samuel Jr. also joined the Christadelphian Church toward the end of his life. Johnson was influenced in his positive attitude toward Jews by
14448-574: Was a temporary exposure to danger calculated to satisfy Johnson's personal and political wishes, but it also represented a genuine effort on his part, however misplaced, to improve the lot of America's fighting men." In addition to the Silver Star, Johnson received the American Campaign Medal , Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal , and the World War II Victory Medal . He was discharged from active duty on July 17, 1942, but remained in
14577-477: Was aimed at expanding civil rights, public broadcasting, access to health care, aid to education and the arts, urban and rural development, consumer protection, environmentalism, and public services. He sought to create better living conditions for low-income Americans by spearheading the war on poverty . As part of these efforts, Johnson signed the Social Security Amendments of 1965 , which resulted in
14706-519: Was appointed head of the Texas National Youth Administration , which enabled him to create government-funded education and job opportunities for young people. He resigned two years later to run for Congress. A notoriously tough boss, Johnson often demanded long workdays and work on weekends. He was described by friends, fellow politicians, and historians as motivated by lust for power and control. As Caro observes, "Johnson's ambition
14835-404: Was chosen by his fellow Democrats as Senate Minority Leader ; he became the most junior senator ever elected to this position. He reformed the seniority system so that Democratic senators, including freshmen, were more likely to receive a committee assignment that closely aligned with their expertise rather than an assignment based solely on their seniority. In 1954 , Johnson was re-elected to
14964-596: Was considerably to the left of Bosch's original party, the Dominican Revolutionary Party which continued to advocate for social democracy within the Socialist International organization. Later he ran unsuccessfully for president as the PLD candidate in 1978, 1982, 1986, 1990, and 1994. He came closest to winning in 1990, but there were serious allegations of fraud against Balaguer. After placing third in
15093-466: Was first elected, the United States government was concerned that despite being democratically elected, he may lead the nation into a Communist government. In an attempt to prevent this, the United States sent in military forces, a departure from the previous decades of Good Neighbor philosophy. The United States justified their actions in the Dominican Republic (as they had justified the interventions in Cuba in
15222-462: Was in too much haste to assume power. In response to the public demand for answers and the growing number of conspiracy theories , Johnson established a commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren , known as the Warren Commission , to investigate Kennedy's assassination. The commission conducted extensive research and hearings and unanimously concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in
15351-494: Was intended to attract Southern votes. Kennedy was a liberal Bostonian and a Roman Catholic . Johnson was more conservative, a Southerner , and a member of the Disciples of Christ . Nevertheless, labor leaders were unanimous in their opposition to Johnson. AFL-CIO President George Meany called Johnson "the arch-foe of labor", and Illinois AFL-CIO President Reuben Soderstrom asserted Kennedy had "made chumps out of leaders of
15480-568: Was jailed for his political ideas, being released after several months. In 1938, Bosch managed to leave the country, settling in Puerto Rico . By 1939 Bosch had gone to Cuba , where he directed an edition of the completed works of Eugenio María de Hostos , something that defined his patriotic and humanist ideals. In July, with other Dominican expatriates, he founded the Partido Revolucionario Dominicano (PRD), which stood out as
15609-479: Was planning on dropping Johnson from the Democratic ticket in the 1964 presidential election . However, on October 31, 1963, a reporter asked if he intended and expected to retain Johnson on the ticket. Kennedy replied, "Yes to both those questions." There is little doubt that Robert Kennedy and Johnson hated each other, yet John and Robert Kennedy agreed that dropping Johnson from the ticket could produce heavy losses in
15738-546: Was poor. Johnson told Forrestal that the Pacific Fleet had a "critical" need for 6,800 additional experienced men. Johnson prepared a twelve-point program to upgrade the effort in the region, stressing "greater cooperation and coordination within the various commands and between the different war theaters". Congress responded by making Johnson chairman of a high-powered subcommittee of the Naval Affairs Committee, with
15867-513: Was shaped by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , and the Civil Rights Act of 1968 . Due to his domestic agenda, Johnson's presidency marked the peak of modern American liberalism in the 20th century. Johnson's foreign policy prioritized containment of communism, including in the ongoing Vietnam War . Johnson began his presidency with near-universal support, but his approval declined throughout his presidency as
15996-595: Was soundly defeated by Joaquín Balaguer , who garnered 57% of the vote. The last US battalion left in September 1966. During the last half of the 1960s, Bosch remained a very prolific writer of essays, both political and historical. He published some of his most important works during this time: "Dominican Social Composition", "Brief History of the Oligarchy in Santo Domingo", "From Christopher Columbus to Fidel Castro", and numerous articles of different sorts. By 1970, Bosch had
16125-475: Was the 36th president of the United States , serving from 1963 to 1969. He became president after the assassination of John F. Kennedy , under whom he had served as the 37th vice president from 1961 to 1963. A Democrat from Texas , Johnson previously served as a U.S. representative and U.S. senator . Born in Stonewall, Texas , Johnson worked as a teacher and a congressional aide before winning election to
16254-480: Was the youngest in his class. Pressured by his parents to attend college, he enrolled at a "sub college" of Southwest Texas State Teachers College (SWTSTC) in the summer of 1924, where students from unaccredited high schools could take the 12th-grade courses needed for admission to college. He left the school just weeks after his arrival and decided to move to California. He worked at his cousin's legal practice and in odd jobs before returning to Texas, where he worked as
16383-768: Was touched by a Senate scandal when Bobby Baker , the Secretary to the Majority Leader of the Senate and a protégé of Johnson's, came under investigation by the Senate Rules Committee for alleged bribery and financial malfeasance. One witness alleged that Baker arranged for the witness to give kickbacks for the Vice President. Baker resigned in October, and the investigation did not expand to Johnson. The negative publicity, however, fed rumors in Washington circles that Kennedy
16512-409: Was uncommon – in the degree to which it was unencumbered by even the slightest excess weight of ideology, of philosophy, of principles, of beliefs." In 1937, after the death of 13-term congressman James P. Buchanan , Johnson successfully campaigned in a special election for Texas's 10th congressional district , which included Austin and the surrounding Texas Hill Country . He ran on
16641-470: Was unusually proficient at gathering information. One biographer suggests he was "the greatest intelligence gatherer Washington has ever known", discovering exactly where every senator stood on issues, his philosophy and prejudices, his strengths and weaknesses, and what it took to get his vote. Bobby Baker claimed that Johnson would occasionally send senators on NATO trips so they were absent and unable to cast dissenting votes. Central to Johnson's control
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