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118-397: John Keats (31 October 1795 – 23 February 1821) was an English poet of the second generation of Romantic poets , along with Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley . His poems had been in publication for less than four years when he died of tuberculosis at the age of 25. They were indifferently received in his lifetime, but his fame grew rapidly after his death. By the end of the century, he

236-415: A Nightingale ", May 1819 " Ode on a Grecian Urn " and " Ode on Melancholy " were inspired by sonnet forms and probably written after "Ode to a Nightingale". Keats's new and progressive publishers Taylor and Hessey issued Endymion , which Keats dedicated to Thomas Chatterton , a work that he termed "a trial of my Powers of Imagination". It was damned by the critics, giving rise to Byron's quip that Keats

354-452: A Nightingale ", Keats wrote: ...................................................for many a time I have been half in love with easeful Death, Call'd him soft names in many a mused rhyme, To take into the air my quiet breath; Now more than ever seems it rich to die, To cease upon the midnight with no pain. Romantic poetry was attracted to nostalgia, and medievalism is another important characteristic of romantic poetry, especially in

472-449: A bottle of opium when they were setting off on their voyage. What Severn didn't realise was that Keats saw it as a possible resource if he wanted to commit suicide. He tried to get the bottle from Severn on the voyage but Severn wouldn't let him have it. Then in Rome he tried again.... Severn was in such a quandary he didn't know what to do, so in the end he went to the doctor, who took it away. As

590-583: A collection of more than 800 prescriptions. It lists over 700 different drugs. In ancient India, the Sushruta Samhita , a compendium on the practice of medicine and medical formulations, has been traced back to the 1st century BC. The Shen-nung pen ts'ao ching , a Chinese book on agriculture and medicinal plants (3rd century AD), is considered a foundational material for Chinese medicine and herbalism and became an important source for Chinese apothecaries. The book, which documented 365 treatments, had

708-537: A difficult period for the poet, marked the beginning of his annus mirabilis in which he wrote his most mature work. He had been inspired by a series of recent lectures by Hazlitt on English poets and poetic identity and had also met Wordsworth . Keats may have seemed to his friends to be living on comfortable means, but in reality he was borrowing regularly from Abbey and his friends. He composed five of his six great odes at Wentworth Place in April and May and, although it

826-491: A drowsy numbness pains  My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk, Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains  One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk: 'Tis not through envy of thy happy lot,  But being too happy in thine happiness, –  That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees,  In some melodious plot  Of beechen green, and shadows numberless,  Singest of summer in full-throated ease. First stanza of " Ode to

944-470: A focus on roots and grass. It had treatments which came from minerals, roots and grass, and animals. Many of the mentioned drugs and their uses are still followed today. Ginseng's use as a sexual stimulant and aid for erectile dysfunction stems from this book. Ma huang, an herb first mentioned in the book, led to the introduction of the drug ephedrine into modern medicine. According to Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, and S. Hadzovic, apothecary shops existed during

1062-589: A great deal on his medical training, and despite his state of financial hardship and indebtedness, made large loans to friends such as the painter Benjamin Haydon . Keats would go on to lend £700 to his brother George. By lending so much, Keats could no longer cover the interest of his own debts. Having left his training at the hospital, suffering from a succession of colds, and unhappy with living in damp rooms in London, Keats moved with his brothers into rooms at 1 Well Walk in

1180-639: A hack imitator of the English Romantics." More recently, an essay by Dana Gioia has spearheaded a revival of readership and scholarly interest in the life and poetry of Longfellow. There are elements of Romanticism in many later works of American poetry. The influence of Whitman is evident in the work of Langston Hughes and E. E. Cummings ; there are echoes of Transcendentalism in poems about nature by Robert Frost , Carl Sandburg , and Gary Snyder ; there are strains of Romantic individualism in writing by Frank O'Hara , Sylvia Plath , Adrienne Rich , and

1298-489: A lifelong career in medicine, assuring financial security, and it seems that, at this point, Keats had a genuine desire to become a doctor. He lodged near the hospital, at 28 St Thomas's Street in Southwark, with other medical students, including Henry Stephens who gained fame as an inventor and ink magnate. Keats's training took up increasing amounts of his writing time and he became increasingly ambivalent about it. He felt he

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1416-511: A medical student at Guy's Hospital , now part of King's College London , and began studying there. Within a month, he was accepted as a dresser at the hospital assisting surgeons during operations, the equivalent of a junior house surgeon today. It was a significant promotion, that marked a distinct aptitude for medicine; and it brought greater responsibility and a heavier workload. Keats's long and expensive medical training with Hammond and at Guy's Hospital led his family to assume he would pursue

1534-475: A month for the news of his death to reach London, after which Brawne stayed in mourning for six years. In 1833, more than 12 years after his death, she married and went on to have three children; she outlived Keats by more than 40 years. During 1820 Keats displayed increasingly serious symptoms of tuberculosis , suffering two lung haemorrhages in the first few days of February. On first coughing up blood, on 3 February 1820, he said to Charles Armitage Brown, "I know

1652-643: A new book of poems. They were unimpressed with the collection, finding the presented versions of "Lamia" confusing, and describing "St Agnes" as having a "sense of pettish disgust" and "a 'Don Juan' style of mingling up sentiment and sneering" concluding it was "a poem unfit for ladies". The final volume Keats lived to see published, Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems , was published in July 1820. It received greater acclaim than had Endymion or Poems , finding favourable notices in both The Examiner and Edinburgh Review . It came to be recognised as one of

1770-549: A plum-tree, where he sat for two or three hours. When he came into the house, I perceived he had some scraps of paper in his hand, and these he was quietly thrusting behind the books. On inquiry, I found those scraps, four or five in number, contained his poetic feelings on the song of our nightingale." Dilke, co-owner of the house, strenuously denied the story, printed in Richard Monckton Milnes ' 1848 biography of Keats, dismissing it as 'pure delusion'. My heart aches, and

1888-576: A posthumous existence". On arrival in Italy, he moved into a villa on the Spanish Steps in Rome, today the Keats–Shelley Memorial House museum. Despite care from Severn and Dr. James Clark , his health rapidly deteriorated. The medical attention Keats received may have hastened his death. In November 1820, Clark declared that the source of his illness was "mental exertion" and that the source

2006-473: A realistic perspective on nature. He believes that nature is not the source of joy and pleasure, but rather that people's reactions to it depend on their mood and disposition. Coleridge believed that joy does not come from external nature, but that it emanates from the human heart. Melancholy occupies a prominent place in romantic poetry, and is an important source of inspiration for the Romantic poets. In '" Ode to

2124-411: A result Keats went through dreadful agonies with nothing to ease the pain at all." Keats was angry with both Severn and Clark when they would not give him laudanum (opium). He repeatedly demanded, "How long is this posthumous existence of mine to go on?" The first months of 1821 marked a slow and steady decline into the final stage of tuberculosis. His autopsy showed his lung almost disintegrated. Keats

2242-523: A single infectious origin until 1820. There was considerable stigma attached to it, as it was often tied with weakness, repressed sexual passion or masturbation. Keats "refuses to give it a name" in his letters. Tom Keats died on 1 December 1818. John Keats moved to the newly built Wentworth Place, owned by his friend Charles Armitage Brown. It was on the edge of Hampstead Heath , ten minutes' walk south of his old home in Well Walk. The winter of 1818–19, though

2360-563: A starved apothecary than a starved poet; so back to the shop Mr John, back to plasters, pills, and ointment boxes." It was Lockhart at Blackwoods who coined the defamatory term "the Cockney School " for Hunt and his circle, which included both Hazlitt and Keats. The dismissal was as much political as literary, aimed at upstart young writers deemed uncouth for their lack of education, non-formal rhyming and "low diction". They had not attended Eton , Harrow or Oxbridge and they were not from

2478-413: A struggling poet in increasingly hard straits would preclude marriage to Brawne. Their love remained unconsummated; jealousy for his 'star' began to gnaw at him. Darkness, disease and depression surrounded him, reflected in poems such as "The Eve of St. Agnes" and "La Belle Dame sans Merci" where love and death both stalk. "I have two luxuries to brood over in my walks;" he wrote to her, "your loveliness, and

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2596-421: A vernal wood May teach you more of man, Of moral evil and of good, Than all the sages can. Shelley was another nature poet, who believed that nature is a living thing and there is a union between nature and man. Wordsworth approaches nature philosophically, while Shelley emphasizes the intellect. John Keats was another lover of nature, but Coleridge differs from other Romantic poets of his age, in that he has

2714-476: A volatile character, "always in extremes", given to indolence and fighting. At 13 he began focusing his energy on reading and study, winning his first academic prize in midsummer 1809. In April 1804, when Keats was eight, his father died from a skull fracture after falling from his horse while returning from a visit to Keats and his brother George at school. Thomas Keats died intestate . Frances remarried two months later, but left her new husband soon afterwards, and

2832-506: A whole. Poe, however, strongly disliked transcendentalism. Another American Romantic poet, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882), was the most popular poet of his day. He was one of the first American celebrities and was also popular in Europe, and it was reported that 10,000 copies of The Courtship of Miles Standish sold in London in a single day. However, Longfellow's popularity rapidly declined, beginning shortly after his death and into

2950-527: Is apoteker , which was borrowed from the Dutch apotheker . In Yiddish the word is אַפּטייק apteyk . Use of the term in the names of businesses varies with time and location. It is generally an Americanism, though some areas of the United States use it to invoke an experience of nostalgic revival and it has been used for a wide variety of businesses; while in other areas such as California its use

3068-465: Is another important feature of Romantic poetry, as a source of inspiration. This poetry involves a relationship with external nature and places, and a belief in pantheism . However, the Romantic poets differed in their views about nature. Wordsworth recognized nature as a living thing, teacher, god, and everything. These feelings are fully developed and expressed in his epic poem The Prelude . In his poem "The Tables Turned" he writes: One impulse from

3186-613: Is considered by many to be the central representative of Romanticism in Russian literature; however, he can't be labelled unequivocally as a Romantic. Russian critics have traditionally argued that,during the 36 years of his life, Pushkin's works took a path from neo-Classicism through Romanticism and ultimately to Realism . An alternative assessment suggests that "he had an ability to entertain contrarities [ sic ] which may seem Romantic in origin, but are ultimately subversive of all fixed points of view, all single outlooks, including

3304-413: Is considered one of the most important concepts in Romantic poetry. In literature, it refers to use of language and description that excites thoughts and emotions beyond ordinary experience. Although it is often associated with grandeur , the sublime may also refer to the grotesque or other extraordinary experiences that "take us beyond ourselves." The literary concept of the sublime became important in

3422-405: Is considered to be the ideologue of Sturm und Drang , with Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz , H. L. Wagner and Friedrich Maximilian Klinger also significant figures. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was also a notable proponent of the movement, though he and Friedrich Schiller ended their period of association with it by initiating what would become Weimar Classicism . Jena Romanticism  – also

3540-405: Is debated in which order they were written, " Ode to Psyche " opened the published series. According to Brown, " Ode to a Nightingale " was composed under a plum tree in the garden. Brown wrote, "In the spring of 1819 a nightingale had built her nest near my house. Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her song; and one morning he took his chair from the breakfast-table to the grass-plot under

3658-646: Is emphasised during this period. Leading Romantic poets include Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (considered the most important), Manuel José Quintana , José Zorrilla , Rosalía de Castro (in Galician and Spanish), and José de Espronceda . In Catalonia , the Romantic movement was a major trigger for the Catalan Renaissance or ' Renaixença ', which would gradually bring back prestige to the Catalan language and literature (in decadence since its 15th-century Golden Age), with

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3776-404: Is full of allusions to the art, literature and culture of Greece, as for example in " Ode on a Grecian Urn ". Most of the romantic poets used supernatural elements in their poetry. Samuel Taylor Coleridge is the leading romantic poet in this regard, and " Kubla Khan " is full of supernatural elements. Romantic poetry is the poetry of sentiments, emotions and imagination. Romantic poetry opposed

3894-468: Is legally obligated to be run at all times by at least one Apotheker (male) or Apothekerin (female), who actually has an academic degree as a pharmacist – in German Pharmazeut (male) or Pharmazeutin (female) – and has obtained the professional title Apotheker by either working in the field for numerous years, usually by working in a pharmacy store, or taking additional exams. Thus a Pharmazeut

4012-472: Is little evidence of his exact birthplace. Although Keats and his family seem to have marked his birthday on 29 October, baptism records give the date as the 31st. He was the eldest of four surviving children; his younger siblings were George (1797–1841), Thomas (1799–1818), and Frances Mary "Fanny" (1803–1889), who later married the Spanish author Valentín de Llanos Gutiérrez  [ es ] . Another son

4130-489: Is noon apothecarie, I shal myself to herbes techen yow, That shul been for youre hele and for youre prow. In modern English, this can be translated as: ... and you should not linger, Though in this town there is no apothecary, I shall teach you about herbs myself, That will be for your health and for your pride. In Renaissance Italy , Italian Nuns became a prominent source for medicinal needs. At first they used their knowledge in non-curative uses in

4248-547: Is not always an Apotheker . Magdalena Neff became the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Germany when she studied pharmacy at the Technical University of Karlsruhe and later passed the apothecary's examination in 1906. Apothecaries used their own measurement system, the apothecaries' system , to provide precise weighing of small quantities. Apothecaries dispensed vials of poisons as well as medicines, and as

4366-492: Is not archaic and has become those languages' term for "pharmacy" or a pharmacist who owns one. Apothecaries' investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients was a precursor to the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology . In addition to dispensing herbs and medicine, apothecaries offered general medical advice and a range of services that are now performed by other specialist practitioners, such as surgeons and obstetricians . Apothecary shops sold ingredients and

4484-632: Is often called Heidelberg Romanticism (see also Berlin Romanticism ). There was a famous circle of poets, the Heidelberg Romantics, such as Joseph von Eichendorff , Johann Joseph von Görres , Ludwig Achim von Arnim , and Clemens Brentano . A relic of Romanticism is the Philosophers' Walk (German: Philosophenweg ), a scenic walking path on the nearby Heiligenberg, overlooking Heidelberg. The Romantik epoch of German philosophy and literature,

4602-401: Is restricted to licensed pharmacies. The profession of apothecary can be dated back at least to 2600 BC to ancient Babylon , which provides one of the earliest records of the practice of the apothecary. Clay tablets have been found with medical texts recording symptoms, prescriptions, and the directions for compounding. The Papyrus Ebers from ancient Egypt, written around 1500 BC, contain

4720-404: Is still the case, medicines could be either beneficial or harmful if inappropriately used. Protective methods to prevent accidental ingestion of poisons included the use of specially-shaped containers for potentially poisonous substances such as laudanum . Apothecary businesses were typically family-run, and wives or other women of the family worked alongside their husbands in the shops, learning

4838-413: Is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin in emotion recollected in tranquility: the emotion is contemplated till, by a species of reaction, the tranquility gradually disappears, and an emotion, kindred to that which was before the subject of contemplation, is gradually produced, and does itself actually exist in the mind. The poems of Lyrical Ballads intentionally re-imagined

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4956-792: Is traditionally referred to as the "Golden Era" of Russian literature . Romanticism permitted a flowering of especially poetic talent: the names of Vasily Zhukovsky and later that of his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore. Pushkin is credited with both crystallizing the literary Russian language and introducing a new level of artistry to Russian literature. His best-known work is a novel as sonnet sequence , Eugene Onegin . An entire new generation of poets including Mikhail Lermontov , Yevgeny Baratynsky , Konstantin Batyushkov , Nikolay Nekrasov , Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy , Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet followed in Pushkin's steps. Pushkin

5074-657: The Critique of Judgment and what was seen as the failure of the Analytic of the Sublime to accomplish the task set before it: bridging the gap between pure and practical reason. In a different vein, Friedrich Hölderlin and Heinrich von Kleist also grappled with similar philosophical issues in a manner different from the Jena circle. Heidelberg was the centre of the epoch of Romantik ( Romanticism ) in Germany. The phase after Jena Romanticism

5192-519: The Age of Revolutions . The idea of the creative imagination was stressed above the idea of reason, and minute elements of nature, including as insects and pebbles, were now considered divine. Nature was perceived in many different ways by the Spanish Romantics, and Instead of employing allegory , as earlier poets had done, these poets tended to use myth and symbol . The power of human emotion furthermore

5310-759: The Middle Ages in Baghdad , operated by pharmacists in 754 during the Abbasid Caliphate , or Islamic Golden Age . Apothecaries were also active in Al-Andalus by the 11th century. By the end of the 14th century, Geoffrey Chaucer ( c.  1342 –1400) was mentioning an English apothecary in the Canterbury Tales , specifically " The Nun's Priest's Tale " as Pertelote speaks to Chauntecleer (lines 181–184): ... and for ye shal nat tarie, Though in this toun

5428-568: The Royal College of Surgeons . In October 1816 Clarke introduced Keats to the influential Leigh Hunt, a close friend of Byron and Shelley. Five months later came the publication of Poems , the first volume of Keats's verse, which included "I stood tiptoe" and "Sleep and Poetry", both strongly influenced by Hunt. The book was a critical failure, arousing little interest, although Reynolds reviewed it favourably in The Champion . Clarke commented that

5546-627: The egalitarian ethos behind the French Revolution . Whether Burns would have recognised the same principles at work in the Soviet State at its most repressive is moot. This didn't stop the Communists from claiming Burns as one of their own and incorporating his work into their state propaganda. The post-communist years of rampant capitalism in Russia have not tarnished Burns' reputation. Lord Byron

5664-413: The 19th-century in diverse literary developments, such as "realism", " symbolism ", and the so-called fin de siècle "decadent" movement . German Romanticism was the dominant intellectual movement in the philosophy , the arts , and the culture of German-speaking countries in the late-18th and early 19th centuries. Compared to English Romanticism, German Romanticism developed relatively late, and, in

5782-506: The 20th Century as academics began to appreciate poets like Walt Whitman, Edwin Arlington Robinson , and Robert Frost . In the twentieth century, literary scholar Kermit Vanderbilt noted, "Increasingly rare is the scholar who braves ridicule to justify the art of Longfellow's popular rhymings." 20th-century poet Lewis Putnam Turco concluded "Longfellow was minor and derivative in every way throughout his career [...] nothing more than

5900-780: The Italian peninsula. From the 15th century to the 16th century, the apothecary gained the status of a skilled practitioner. In London, the apothecaries merited their own livery company , the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries , founded in 1617. Its roots, however, go back much earlier to the Guild of Pepperers formed in London in 1180. Similarly in Ireland, Apothecaries were organized since before 1446. In Ireland and Great Britain they were allowed to diagnose in addition to compounding and dispensing, becoming regulated general medical practitioners and

6018-511: The Jena Romantics or Early Romanticism (Frühromantik) – is the first phase of Romanticism in German literature represented by the work of a group centered in Jena from about 1798 to 1804, notably Friedrich Schlegel , August Wilhelm Schlegel , Novalis , Ludwig Tieck , and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling . These thinkers were primarily concerned with the problems posed by Immanuel Kant in

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6136-417: The Romantic" and that "he is simultaneously Romantic and not Romantic". Scottish poet Robert Burns became a "people's poet" in Russia. In Imperial times the Russian aristocracy were so out of touch with the peasantry that Burns, translated into Russian , became a symbol for the ordinary Russian people. In Soviet Russia, Burns was elevated as the archetypical poet of the people – not least since

6254-503: The Soviet regime slaughtered and silenced its own poets. A new translation of Burns, begun in 1924 by Samuil Marshak , proved enormously popular selling over 600,000 copies. In 1956, the Soviet Union became the first country in the world to honour Burns with a commemorative stamp. The poetry of Burns is taught in Russian schools alongside their own national poets. Burns was a great admirer of

6372-401: The beginning of the nineteenth century was a reaction against the set standards, conventions of eighteenth-century poetry. According to William J. Long , "[T]he Romantic movement was marked, and is always marked, by a strong reaction and protest against the bondage of rule and custom which in science and theology as well as literature, generally tend to fetter the free human spirit." Belief in

6490-483: The better our chances for survival as citizens and inhabitants of the earth". [REDACTED] Category Apothecary Apothecary ( / ə ˈ p ɒ θ ə k ər i / ) is an archaic English term for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses materia medica (medicine) to physicians , surgeons and patients. The modern terms 'pharmacist' and 'chemist' (British English) have taken over this role. In some languages and regions, "apothecary"

6608-586: The book "might have emerged in Timbuctoo." Keats's publishers, Charles and James Ollier , felt ashamed of it. Keats immediately changed publishers to Taylor and Hessey in Fleet Street . Unlike the Olliers, Keats's new publishers were enthusiastic about his work. Within a month of the publication of Poems they were planning a new Keats volume and had paid him an advance. Hessey became a steady friend to Keats and made

6726-444: The colour of that blood! It is arterial blood. I cannot be deceived in that colour. That drop of blood is my death warrant. I must die." He lost large amounts of blood and was bled further by the attending physician. Hunt nursed him in London for much of the following summer. At the suggestion of his doctors, he agreed to move to Italy with his friend Joseph Severn . On 13 September, they left for Gravesend and four days later boarded

6844-431: The company's rooms available for young writers to meet. Their publishing lists came to include Coleridge , Hazlitt , Clare , Hogg , Carlyle and Charles Lamb . Through Taylor and Hessey, Keats met their Eton -educated lawyer, Richard Woodhouse, who advised them on literary as well as legal matters and was deeply impressed by Poems . Although he noted that Keats could be "wayward, trembling, easily daunted," Woodhouse

6962-410: The convents to solidify the sanctity of religion among their sisters. As they progressed in skill they started to expand their field to create profit. This profit they used towards their charitable goals. Because of their eventual spread to urban society, these religious women gained "roles of public significance beyond the spiritual realm (Strocchia 627). Later apothecaries led by nuns were spread across

7080-433: The district of West Hampstead , on 9 August 1800. Like Keats's grandfather, her grandfather kept a London inn, and both lost several family members to tuberculosis. She shared her first name with both Keats's sister and mother, and had a talent for dress-making and languages as well as a natural theatrical bent. During November 1818 she developed an intimacy with Keats, but it was shadowed by the illness of Tom Keats, whom John

7198-453: The early years, coincided with Weimar Classicism (1772–1805); in contrast to the seriousness of English Romanticism, the German variety of Romanticism notably valued wit, humour, and beauty . Sturm und Drang , literally "Storm and Drive", "Storm and Urge", though conventionally translated as "Storm and Stress") is a proto-Romantic movement in German literature and music that took place from

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7316-461: The eighteenth century. It is associated with the 1757 treatise by Edmund Burke , though it has earlier roots. The idea of the sublime was taken up by Immanuel Kant and the Romantic poets including especially William Wordsworth . Romantic poetry contrasts with Neoclassical poetry , which was the product of intellect and reason, while Romantic poetry is more the product of emotion. Romantic poetry at

7434-408: The end of the year he informed his guardian that he resolved to be a poet, not a surgeon. Although he continued his work and training at Guy's, Keats devoted more and more time to the study of literature, experimenting with verse forms, particularly the sonnet. In May 1816, Leigh Hunt agreed to publish the sonnet "O Solitude" in his magazine The Examiner , a leading liberal magazine of the day. This

7552-523: The first version of " Bright Star " may have originally been for her. In 1821, Jones was one of the first in England to be notified of Keats's death. Letters and drafts of poems suggest that Keats first met Frances (Fanny) Brawne between September and November 1818. It is likely that the 18-year-old Brawne visited the Dilke family at Wentworth Place before she lived there. She was born in the hamlet of West End, now in

7670-799: The first woman to be licensed to practice medicine in Britain by passing the examination of the Society of Apothecaries. By the end of the 19th century, the medical professions had taken on their current institutional form, with defined roles for physicians and surgeons, and the role of the apothecary was more narrowly conceived, as that of pharmacist (dispensing chemist in British English). In German-speaking countries, such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland, pharmacies or chemist stores are still called apothecaries or in German Apotheken . The Apotheke ("store")

7788-686: The forerunners of General Practitioners there. However, there were ongoing tensions between apothecaries and other medical professions, as is illustrated by the publication of 'A Short View of the Frauds and Abuses Committed by Apothecaries' by the Physician Christopher Merrett in 1669 and the experiences of Susan Reeve Lyon and other women apothecaries in 17th century London. Often women (who were prohibited from entering medical school) became apothecaries which took away business from male physicians. In 1865 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became

7906-403: The four children went to live with a grandmother, Alice Jennings, in the village of Edmonton . In March 1810, when Keats was 14, his mother died of tuberculosis , leaving the children in their grandmother's custody. She appointed two guardians, Richard Abbey and John Sandell, for them. That autumn, Keats left Clarke's school to be an apprentice with Thomas Hammond, a surgeon and apothecary who

8024-545: The holiness of the Heart's affections and the truth of the imagination. What imagination seizes as Beauty must be truth." This passage would eventually be transmuted into the concluding lines of " Ode on a Grecian Urn ": " 'Beauty is truth, truth beauty' – that is all / Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know". In early December 1816, under the heady influence of his artistic friends, Keats told Abbey he had decided to give up medicine in favour of poetry, to Abbey's fury. Keats had spent

8142-653: The hope of soon seeing you ... I have been astonished that Men could die Martyrs for religion – I have shudder'd at it – I shudder no more – I could be martyr'd for my Religion – Love is my religion – I could die for that – I could die for you." Tuberculosis took hold and he was advised by his doctors to move to a warmer climate. In September 1820 Keats left for Rome knowing he would probably never see Brawne again. After leaving he felt unable to write to her or read her letters, although he did correspond with her mother. He died there five months later. None of Brawne's letters to Keats survive. It took

8260-430: The hour of my death". In one of his many hundreds of notes and letters, Keats wrote to Brawne on 13 October 1819: "My love has made me selfish. I cannot exist without you – I am forgetful of every thing but seeing you again – my Life seems to stop there – I see no further. You have absorb'd me. I have a sensation at the present moment as though I was dissolving – I should be exquisitely miserable without

8378-437: The imagination is a spiritual force, is related to morality, and they believed that literature, especially poetry, could improve the world. The secret of great art, Blake claimed, is the capacity to imagine. To define imagination, in his poem " Auguries of Innocence ", Blake said: To see a world in a grain of sand, And heaven in a wild flower, Hold infinity in the palm of your hand, And eternity in an hour. Love for nature

8496-428: The importance of the imagination is a distinctive feature of romantic poets such as John Keats , Samuel Taylor Coleridge and P. B. Shelley , unlike the neoclassical poets. Keats said, "I am certain of nothing but of the holiness of the Heart's affections and the truth of Imagination- What the imagination seizes as beauty must be truth." For Wordsworth and William Blake , as well as Victor Hugo and Alessandro Manzoni ,

8614-459: The individual human's role in it. However, much like Emerson, Whitman does not diminish the role of the mind or the spirit; rather, he elevates the human form and the human mind, deeming both worthy of poetic praise. Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) is best known for his poetry and short stories, and is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and American literature as

8732-440: The larger, more prestigious schools. In the family atmosphere at Clarke's, Keats developed an interest in classics and history, which would stay with him throughout his short life. The headmaster's son, Charles Cowden Clarke, also became an important mentor and friend, introducing Keats to Renaissance literature, including Tasso , Spenser , and Chapman's translations . The young Keats was described by his friend Edward Holmes as

8850-464: The last months of his life, and the poem came to be associated with their relationship. "All his desires were concentrated on Fanny". From this point there is no further documented mention of Isabella Jones. Sometime before the end of June, he arrived at some sort of understanding with Brawne, far from a formal engagement as he still had too little to offer, with no prospects and financial stricture. Keats endured great conflict knowing his expectations as

8968-473: The late 1760s to the early 1780s, in which individual subjectivity and, in particular, extremes of emotion were given free expression in reaction to the perceived constraints of rationalism imposed by the Enlightenment and associated aesthetic movements. The period is named for Friedrich Maximilian Klinger 's play Sturm und Drang , which was first performed in 1777. The philosopher Johann Georg Hamann

9086-527: The leading figure in poetry of Jacint Verdaguer . In Swedish literature the Romantic period is between 1809 and 1830, while in Europe, the period is usually seen as running between 1800 and 1850. The Swedish version was very much influenced by German literature . During this relatively short period, there were so many great Swedish poets, that the era is called the Golden Age . The period started around when several periodicals were published that criticised

9204-618: The literature of the 18th century. The important periodical Iduna , published by the Gothic Society (1811), presented a romanticised version of Gothicismus , a 17th-century cultural movement in Sweden that had centered on the belief in the glory of the Swedish Geats or Goths. The early 19th-century Romantic nationalist version emphasised the Vikings as heroic figures. Transcendentalism

9322-611: The medicines they prepared wholesale to other medical practitioners, as well as dispensing them to patients. In 17th-century England, they also controlled the trade in tobacco which was imported as a medicine. The term "apothecary" derives from the Ancient Greek ἀποθήκη ( apothḗkē , "a repository, storehouse") via Latin apotheca ("repository, storehouse, warehouse", cf. bodega and boutique ), Medieval Latin apothecarius ("storekeeper"), and eventually Old French apotecaire . In some European and other languages,

9440-702: The most important poetic works ever published. Wentworth Place now houses the Keats House museum. Keats befriended Isabella Jones in May 1817, while on holiday in the village of Bo Peep , near Hastings . She is described as beautiful, talented and widely read, not of the top flight of society yet financially secure, an enigmatic figure who would become a part of Keats's circle. Throughout their friendship Keats never hesitated to own his sexual attraction to her, although they seemed to enjoy circling each other rather than offering commitment. He writes that he "frequented her rooms" in

9558-504: The most popular and analysed in English literature – in particular " Ode to a Nightingale ", " Ode on a Grecian Urn ", " Sleep and Poetry " and the sonnet " On First Looking into Chapman's Homer ". Jorge Luis Borges named his first time reading Keats an experience he felt all his life. John Keats was born in Moorgate , London, on 31 October 1795, to Thomas and Frances Keats (née Jennings). There

9676-442: The movement was still greatly concerned with the difficulty of composition and of translating these emotions into poetic form. Indeed, Coleridge, in his essay On Poesy or Art , sees art as "the mediatress between, and reconciler of nature and man". Such an attitude reflects what might be called the dominant theme of English Romantic poetry: the filtering of natural emotion through the human mind in order to create meaning. The Sublime

9794-538: The objectivity of neoclassical poetry. Neoclassical poets avoided describing their personal emotions in their poetry, unlike the Romantics. . French literature from the first half of the century was dominated by Romanticism, which is associated with such authors as Victor Hugo , Alexandre Dumas, père , François-René de Chateaubriand , Alphonse de Lamartine , Gérard de Nerval , Charles Nodier , Alfred de Musset , Théophile Gautier and Alfred de Vigny . Their influence

9912-415: The past such as urine, fecal matter, earwax, human fat, and saliva, are no longer used and are generally considered ineffective or unsanitary. Trial and error were the main source for finding successful remedies, as little was known about the chemistry of why certain treatments worked. For instance, it was known that drinking coffee could help cure headaches, but the existence and properties of caffeine itself

10030-582: The poet's expectations. Money was always a great concern and difficulty, as he struggled to stay out of debt and make his way in the world independently. On First Looking into Chapman's Homer Much have I travell'd in the realms of gold, And many goodly states and kingdoms seen; Round many western islands have I been Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold. Oft of one wide expanse had I been told That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne; Yet did I never breathe its pure serene Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold: Then felt I like some watcher of

10148-549: The sailing brig Maria Crowther . On 1 October the ship landed at Lulworth Bay or Holworth Bay, where the two went ashore; back on board ship he made the final revisions of "Bright Star". The journey was a minor catastrophe: storms broke out, followed by a dead calm that slowed the ship's progress. When they finally docked in Naples, the ship was held in quarantine for ten days due to a suspected outbreak of cholera in Britain. Keats reached Rome on 14 November, by which time any hope of

10266-521: The skies When a new planet swims into his ken; Or like stout Cortez when with eagle eyes He star'd at the Pacific  – and all his men Look'd at each other with a wild surmise  – Silent, upon a peak in Darien. The sonnet " On First Looking into Chapman's Homer " October 1816 In October 1815, having finished his five-year apprenticeship with Hammond, Keats registered as

10384-1060: The term is current and used to designate a pharmacist/chemist, such as Dutch and German Apotheker , Hungarian patikus , Irish poitigéir , Latvian aptiekārs and Luxembourgish Apdikter . Likewise, "pharmacy" translates as apotek in Danish , Norwegian and Swedish , apteekki in Finnish , apoteka in Bosnian , patika in Hungarian, aptieka in Latvian , апотека ( apoteka ) in Serbian , аптека ( apteka ) in Russian , Bulgarian , Macedonian and Ukrainian , Apotheke in German and apteka in Polish . The word in Indonesian

10502-920: The trade themselves. Women were still not allowed to train and be educated in universities so this allowed them a chance to be trained in medical knowledge and healing. Previously, women had some influence in other women's healthcare, such as serving as midwives and other feminine care in a setting that was not considered appropriate for males. Though physicians gave medical advice, they did not make medicine, so they typically sent their patients to particular independent apothecaries, who did also provide some medical advice, in particular remedies and healing. Many recipes for medicines included herbs, minerals, and pieces of animals (meats, fats, skins) that were ingested, made into paste for external use, or used as aromatherapy. Some of these are similar to natural remedies used today, including catnip , chamomile , fennel , mint , garlic , and witch hazel . Many other ingredients used in

10620-495: The upper classes. In 1819 Keats wrote " The Eve of St. Agnes ", " La Belle Dame sans Merci ", " Hyperion ", " Lamia " and a play, Otho the Great , critically damned and not performed until 1950. The poems "Fancy" and "Bards of passion and of mirth" were inspired by the garden of Wentworth Place. In September, very short of money and in despair considering taking up journalism or a post as a ship's surgeon, he approached his publishers with

10738-641: The village of Hampstead in April 1817. There John and George nursed their tubercular brother Tom. The house was close to Hunt and others of his circle in Hampstead, and to Coleridge , respected elder of the first wave of Romantic poets, then living in Highgate . On 11 April 1818, Keats reported that he and Coleridge had taken a long walk on Hampstead Heath . In a letter to his brother George, he wrote that they had talked about "a thousand things, ... nightingales, poetry, poetical sensation, metaphysics." Around this time he

10856-536: The warmer climate he sought had disappeared. Keats wrote his last letter on 30 November 1820 to Charles Armitage Brown; "Tis the most difficult thing in the world to me to write a letter. My stomach continues so bad, that I feel it worse on opening any book – yet I am much better than I was in Quarantine. Then I am afraid to encounter the proing and conning of any thing interesting to me in England. I have an habitual feeling of my real life having past, and that I am leading

10974-433: The way poetry should sound: "By fitting to metrical arrangement a selection of the real language of men," Wordsworth and his English contemporaries, such as Coleridge, John Keats , Percy Shelley , Lord Byron and William Blake , wrote poetry that was meant to boil up from serious, contemplative reflection over the interaction of humans with their environment. Although many stress the notion of spontaneity in Romantic poetry,

11092-418: The winter of 1818–19, and in his letters to George says that he "warmed with her" and "kissed her". The trysts may have been a sexual initiation for Keats according to Bate and Robert Gittings . Jones inspired and was a steward of Keats's writing. The themes of "The Eve of St. Agnes" and "The Eve of St Mark" may well have been suggested by her, the lyric Hush, Hush! ["o sweet Isabel"] was about her, and that

11210-501: The work of the Beat Generation . However, all of these poets are generally identified with more recent movements -- as feminists, Harlem Renaissance writers, modernists, et cetera -- and only indirectly linked with Romanticism by their critics. Some writers consider romantic poetry a way for a better life. Moreover, as Heidi Thomson mentioned in her article, Why Romantic Poetry Still Matters , "The more literate and articulate we are,

11328-416: The works of John Keats, for example, La Belle Dame Sans Merci , and Coleridge. They were attracted to exotic, remote and obscure places, and so they were more attracted to Middle Ages than to their own age. Medieval Englishman Richard Rolle has been viewed as an early romantic writer with poems such as The Fire of Love . The world of classical Greece was important to the Romantics. John Keats' poetry

11446-423: The writer Charles Lamb; the conductor Vincent Novello ; and the poet John Hamilton Reynolds , who would become a close friend. Keats also met regularly with William Hazlitt , a powerful literary figure of the day. It was a turning point for Keats, establishing him in the public eye as a figure in what Hunt termed "a new school of poetry". At this time Keats wrote to his friend Bailey, "I am certain of nothing but

11564-787: Was a literary, artistic and intellectual period in the evolution of Polish culture , which began around 1820, coinciding with the publication of Adam Mickiewicz 's first poems, Ballads and Romances , in 1822. It ended with the suppression of the Polish-Lithuanian January 1863 Uprising against the Russian Empire in 1864. The latter event ushered in a new era in Polish culture known as Positivism . Some other notable Polish romantic poets include Juliusz Słowacki , Cyprian Kamil Norwid , Zygmunt Krasiński , Tymon Zaborowski , Antoni Malczewski and Józef Bohdan Zaleski . The 19th century

11682-502: Was a major influence on almost all Russian poets of the Golden Era, including Pushkin, Vyazemsky, Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Baratynsky, Delvig and, especially, Lermontov. Germany and England were major influences on Romantic Spanish poetry . During the late 18th century to the late 19th century, Romanticism spread in the form of philosophy and art throughout Western societies , and the earlier period of this movement overlapped with

11800-569: Was a neighbour and the doctor of the Jennings family. Keats lodged in the attic above the surgery, at 7 Church Street, until 1813. Cowden Clarke, who remained close to Keats, called this period "the most placid time in Keats' life." From 1814 Keats had two bequests, held in trust for him until his 21st birthday. £800 was willed by his grandfather John Jennings. Also Keats's mother left a legacy of £8000 to be equally divided among her living children. It seems he

11918-516: Was a philosophical movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the eastern region of the United States, rooted in English and German Romanticism , the Biblical criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher , the skepticism of Hume , and the transcendental philosophy of Immanuel Kant and of German Idealism . It was also influenced by Indian religions , especially the Upanishads . The movement

12036-595: Was a reaction to or protest against the general state of intellectualism and spirituality . The doctrine of the Unitarian church as taught at Harvard Divinity School was of particular interest. Poet Walt Whitman (1819–1892), whose major work Leaves of Grass was first published in 1855, was influenced by transcendentalism. Influenced by Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Transcendentalist movement, itself an offshoot of Romanticism, Whitman's poetry praises nature and

12154-465: Was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate , and sent to a local dame school as a child. His parents wished to send their sons to Eton or Harrow , but the family decided they could not afford the fees. In the summer of 1803, John was sent to board at John Clarke's school in Enfield , close to his grandparents' house. The small school had a liberal outlook and a progressive curriculum more modern than

12272-510: Was convinced of Keats's genius, a poet to support as he became one of England's greatest writers. Soon after they met, the two became close friends, and Woodhouse started to collect Keatsiana, documenting as much as he could about the poetry. This archive survives as one of the main sources of information on Keats's work. Andrew Motion represents him as Boswell to Keats's Johnson , ceaselessly promoting his work, fighting his corner and spurring his poetry to greater heights. In later years, Woodhouse

12390-436: Was coughing up blood and covered in sweat. Severn nursed him devotedly and observed in a letter how Keats would sometimes cry upon waking to find himself still alive. Severn writes, Romantic poet In early-19th-century England, the poet William Wordsworth defined his and Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's innovative poetry in his new Preface to the second edition (1800) of Lyrical Ballads : I have said before that poetry

12508-486: Was described as a movement against classical and realistic theories of literature, a contrast to the rationality of the Age of Enlightenment . It elevated medievalism and elements of art and narrative perceived to be from the medieval period. It also emphasized folk art, nature and an epistemology based on nature, which included human activity conditioned by nature in the form of language, custom and usage. Romanticism in Poland

12626-554: Was facing a stark choice. He had written his first extant poem, "An Imitation of Spenser", in 1814, when he was 19. Now, strongly drawn by ambition, inspired by fellow poets such as Leigh Hunt and Lord Byron , and beleaguered by family financial crises, he suffered periods of depression. His brother George wrote that John "feared that he should never be a poet, & if he was not he would destroy himself." In 1816, Keats received his apothecary's licence , which made him eligible to practise as an apothecary, physician and surgeon, but before

12744-508: Was felt in theatre, poetry, prose fiction. In a 1983 book about the 16th century Catholic poet Jean de La Ceppède , English poet Keith Bosley wrote that Agrippa d'Aubigné , "the epic poet of the Protestant cause", during the French Wars of Religion , "was forgotten until the Romantics rediscovered him." The effect of the romantic movement would continue to be felt in the latter half of

12862-617: Was introduced to Charles Wentworth Dilke and James Rice. In June 1818, Keats began a walking tour of Scotland, Ireland and the Lake District with Charles Armitage Brown . Keats's brother George and his wife Georgiana accompanied them to Lancaster and then continued to Liverpool , from where they migrated to America, living in Ohio and Louisville, Kentucky , until 1841, when George's investments failed. Like Keats's other brother, they both died penniless and racked by tuberculosis, for which there

12980-457: Was largely situated in his stomach. Clark eventually diagnosed consumption (tuberculosis) and placed Keats on a starvation diet of an anchovy and a piece of bread a day intended to reduce the blood flow to his stomach. He also bled the poet: a standard treatment of the day, but also likely a significant contributor to Keats's weakness. Severn's biographer Sue Brown writes: "They could have used opium in small doses, and Keats had asked Severn to buy

13098-485: Was lost in infancy. His father first worked as an ostler at the stables attached to the Swan and Hoop Inn owned by his father-in-law, John Jennings, an establishment he later managed, and where the growing family lived for some years. Keats believed he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, but there is no evidence to support this. The Globe pub now occupies the site, a few yards from modern Moorgate station . Keats

13216-499: Was no effective treatment until the next century. In July, while on the Isle of Mull , Keats caught a bad cold and "was too thin and fevered to proceed on the journey." After returning south in August, Keats continued to nurse Tom, so exposing himself to infection. Some have suggested this was when tuberculosis, his "family disease", took hold. " Consumption " was not identified as a disease with

13334-403: Was not told of the £800 and probably knew nothing of it as he never applied for it. Historically, blame has often been laid on Abbey as legal guardian, but he may also have been unaware of it. William Walton, solicitor for Keats's mother and grandmother, definitely knew and had a duty of care to relay the information to Keats. It seems he did not, though it would have made a critical difference to

13452-427: Was nursing through this period. On 3 April 1819, Brawne and her widowed mother moved into the other half of Dilke's Wentworth Place, and Keats and Brawne were able to see each other every day. Keats began to lend Brawne books, such as Dante 's Inferno , and they would read together. He gave her the love sonnet "Bright Star" (perhaps revised for her) as a declaration. It was a work in progress which he continued until

13570-420: Was one of the few to accompany Keats to Gravesend , Kent , to embark on his final trip to Rome. Despite the bad reviews of Poems , Hunt published the essay "Three Young Poets" ( Shelley , Keats, and Reynolds ) and the sonnet " On First Looking into Chapman's Homer ", foreseeing great things to come. He introduced Keats to many prominent men in his circle, including the editor of The Times , Thomas Barnes ;

13688-607: Was placed in the canon of English literature , strongly influencing many writers of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood ; the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1888 called one ode "one of the final masterpieces". Keats had a style "heavily loaded with sensualities", notably in the series of odes . Typically of the Romantics , he accentuated extreme emotion through natural imagery. Today his poems and letters remain among

13806-482: Was the first appearance of Keats's poetry in print; Charles Cowden Clarke called it his friend's red letter day, first proof that Keats' ambitions were valid. Among his poems of 1816 was To My Brothers . That summer, Keats went with Clarke to the seaside town of Margate to write. There he began "Calidore" and initiated an era of great letter writing. On returning to London, he took lodgings at 8 Dean Street, Southwark, and braced himself to study further for membership of

13924-511: Was ultimately "snuffed out by an article", suggesting that he never truly got over it. A particularly harsh review by John Wilson Croker appeared in the April 1818 edition of the Quarterly Review . John Gibson Lockhart writing in Blackwood's Magazine , described Endymion as "imperturbable drivelling idiocy". With biting sarcasm, Lockhart advised, "It is a better and a wiser thing to be

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