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61-459: Jezero ( ICAO : JZRO ) is a crater on Mars in the Syrtis Major quadrangle , about 45.0 km (28.0 mi) in diameter. Thought to have once been flooded with water, the crater contains a fan- delta deposit rich in clays . The lake in the crater was present when valley networks were forming on Mars. Besides having a delta, the crater shows point bars and inverted channels. From a study of

122-709: A CNSA proposal, Tianwen-3 ; a Roscosmos proposal, Mars-Grunt ; and a JAXA proposal, Martian Moons eXploration (MMX). Although NASA and ESA's plans to return the samples to Earth are still in the design stage as of 2024 , samples have been gathered on Mars by the Perseverance rover. Once returned to Earth, stored samples can be studied with the most sophisticated science instruments available. Thomas Zurbuchen, associate administrator for science at NASA Headquarters in Washington, expect such studies to allow several new discoveries at many fields. Samples may be reanalyzed in

183-430: A MSR mission in 2005. The same JPL author collaborated on a notional single-stage 200-kg MAV intended to be made small by using pump-fed propulsion to permit lightweight low-pressure liquid propellant tanks and compact high-pressure thrust chambers. This mass advantage of pump-fed operation was applied to a conceptual 100-kg MAV having a mass budget consistent with reaching Mars orbit using monopropellant, partly enabled by

244-486: A Mars sample-return mission. While ICAMSR acknowledges a low probability for biohazards, it considers the proposed containment measures to be unsafe. ICAMSR advocates more in situ studies on Mars, and preliminary biohazard testing at the International Space Station before the samples are brought to Earth. DiGregorio accepts the conspiracy theory of a NASA coverup regarding the discovery of microbial life by

305-500: A campaign to deposit 10 of its collected samples to the backup depot, Three Forks to ensure if Perseverance runs into problems, the MSR campaign could still succeed. The NASA-ESA plan is to return samples using three missions: a sample collection mission (Perseverance) launched in 2020 and currently operational, a sample retrieval mission (Sample Retrieval Lander + Mars ascent vehicle + Sample Transfer arm + 2 Ingenuity class helicopters), and

366-418: A concept that would launch a 9.5-metric-ton payload from Earth, including a Mars orbiter for Earth return, and a lander having a 400-kg rover and a "Mars return vehicle" that would mass over 2 metric tons. A 20-kg sample canister would arrive at Earth containing 5 kg of samples including scientific-quality cores drilled from every type of Mars terrain. In the late 1980s, multiple NASA centers contributed to

427-495: A detailed analysis of conventional small-scale rocket technology (both solid and liquid propellant) found that known propulsion components would be too heavy to build a MAV as lightweight as several hundred kilograms and "The application of launch vehicle design principles to the development of new hardware on a tiny scale" was suggested. In 1998, JPL presented a design for a two-stage pressure-fed liquid bipropellant MAV that would be 600 kilograms or less at Mars liftoff, intended for

488-462: A launch from Earth in 1998 with a MAV mass in the range 1400 to 1500 kg including a pump-fed first stage and a pressure-fed second stage. The United States' Mars Exploration Program , formed after Mars Observer 's failure in September 1993, supported a Mars sample return. One architecture was proposed by Glenn J. MacPherson in the early 2000s. In 1996, the possibility of life on Mars

549-537: A longer lifetime, better thermal protection and safe operation even if they are carried in Mars Global Dust Storm Season, but these changes are still to be clarified by NASA. In 2022, the Perseverance Rover detected organic molecules in the crater. Although it was believed that Jezero was a lake, Perseverance found igneous rocks. The rocks were once molten and then slowly cooled. They contained

610-505: A proposed Mars Rover Sample Return mission (MRSR). As described by JPL authors, one option for MRSR relied on a single launch of a 12-ton package including a Mars orbiter and Earth return vehicle, a 700-kg rover, and a 2.7-ton Mars ascent vehicle (MAV) which would use pump-fed liquid propulsion for a significant mass saving. A 20-kg sample package on the MAV was to contain 5 kg of Mars soil. A Johnson Space Center author subsequently referred to

671-453: A return mission (Earth Return Orbiter). Although NASA and ESA's proposal is still in the design stage, the first leg of gathering samples is currently being executed by the Perseverance rover on Mars and components of the sample retrieval lander (second leg) are in testing phase on earth. The later phases were facing significant cost overruns as of August 2023. In November 2023, NASA

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732-518: A small Mars orbiter for rendezvous and return to Earth. Robert Zubrin , a long-time advocate for human Mars missions, concluded in 1996 that the best approach to MSR would be launching directly to Earth using propellants made on Mars, because a rendezvous in Mars orbit would be too risky and he estimated that a direct-return MAV would mass 500 kg, too heavy to send to Mars affordably if fully fueled on Earth. International peer reviewers concurred. In 1997,

793-587: A three-launch architecture concept for a Mars sample return , which uses the Mars 2020 rover to cache small samples, a two-stage , solid-fueled Mars ascent stage to send it into orbit, and an orbiter to rendezvous with it above Mars and take it to Earth. Solar electric propulsion could allow a one launch sample return instead of three. So, after a launch in July 2026, a lander with a Mars ascent rocket (developed by NASA) with two sample recovery helicopters lands exactly near

854-484: Is Mars-Grunt . It adopted Fobos-Grunt design heritage. 2011 plans envisioned a two-stage architecture with an orbiter and a lander (but no roving capability), with samples gathered from around the lander by a robotic arm. Whether life forms exist on Mars is unresolved. Thus, MSR could potentially transfer viable organisms to Earth, resulting in back contamination — the introduction of extraterrestrial organisms into Earth's biosphere . The scientific consensus

915-450: Is a proposed mission to collect rock and dust samples on Mars and return them to Earth . Such a mission would allow more extensive analysis than that allowed by onboard sensors. Risks of cross-contamination of the Earth biosphere from returned Martian samples have been raised, though the risk of this occurring is considered to be low. The most recent concepts are a NASA-ESA proposal ;

976-474: Is a pseudo-code, used in flight plans for aerodromes with no ICAO code assigned. ICAO codes are sometimes updated. Johannesburg Airport in Johannesburg , South Africa, for instance, was formerly known as Jan Smuts International Airport, with code FAJS. When the airport was renamed O. R. Tambo International Airport, its ICAO code was updated to FAOR. Some airports have two ICAO codes, usually when an airport

1037-711: Is based in the United Kingdom . On the other hand, IATA codes do not provide geographic reference. For example, LHR, representing Heathrow, does not enable one to deduce the location of the airport LHV with any greater certainty; it is William T. Piper Memorial Airport in Lock Haven, Pennsylvania in the United States . There are a few exceptions to the regional structure of the ICAO code that have been historically for political or administrative reasons. RAF Mount Pleasant air base in

1098-412: Is believed that the lake was long-lived, life may have developed in the crater; the delta may have required a period of one to ten million years to form. Clay minerals have been detected in and around the crater. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter identified smectite clays. Clays form in the presence of water, so this area probably once held water and maybe life in ancient times. The surface in places

1159-496: Is cracked into polygonal patterns ; such shapes often form when clay dries out. The image below depicts examples of these patterns, and a channel that carried water and sediments into the crater. Jezero, once considered a site for the Mars Science Laboratory , was later proposed as a landing site for NASA's Mars 2020 mission, carrying the rover Perseverance and the helicopter Ingenuity . In early 2017 it

1220-445: Is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded. They would like to examine sediment layers . In November 2018, Jezero was selected as the target landing site for Mars 2020. On 18 February 2021, Perseverance landed successfully in the crater. On 19 April 2021, Ingenuity performed the first powered flight on Mars from Jezero, which received the commemorative ICAO airport code JZRO. An ESA – NASA team produced

1281-482: Is partly delegated to authorities in each country, while IATA codes, which have no geographic structure, must be decided centrally by IATA. The first one or two letters of the ICAO code indicate the country; the remaining letters identify the airport. ICAO codes are used partly for geographical context. For example, the ICAO code for Heathrow International Airport in London, is EGLL, with its first letters reflecting that it

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1342-679: Is shared by civilian and military users. Frankfurt Airport in Frankfurt , Germany, for instance, has been assigned ICAO code EDDF while Rhein-Main Air Base was assigned ICAO code EDAF until its closure. Sion Airport in Switzerland has code LSGS while its military facilities have the ICAO code LSMS. Brussels Airport in Brussels , Belgium, has the ICAO code EBBR for its civilian facilities, and Melsbroek Air Base has been assigned ICAO code EBMB, even though

1403-400: Is that the potential for large-scale effects, either through pathogenesis or ecological disruption, is small. Returned samples would be treated as potentially biohazardous until scientists decide the samples are safe. The goal is that the probability of release of a Mars particle is less than one in a million. The proposed NASA Mars sample-return mission will not be approved by NASA until

1464-673: The Falkland Islands , for instance, is assigned the ICAO code EGYP as though it were in the United Kingdom, but nearby civilian Port Stanley Airport is assigned SFAL, consistent with South America . Saint Pierre and Miquelon is controlled by France, and airports there are assigned LFxx as though they were in Europe. Kosovo is assigned the code BKxx grouping it with Greenland and Iceland rather than its geographical neighbors which have Lxxx (described below). Jerusalem International Airport

1525-610: The International Mars Exploration Working Group (IMEWG) to outline the scientific and engineering requirements of an internationally sponsored and executed Mars sample-return mission in the 2018–2023 time frame. In October 2009, NASA and ESA established the Mars Exploration Joint Initiative to proceed with the ExoMars program, whose ultimate aim is "the return of samples from Mars in

1586-599: The Jezero Crater on Mars is assigned the special ICAO code JZRO. Codes beginning with I (Ixx and Ixxx) are often used for navigational aids such as radio beacons, while the Q code is reserved for international radiocommunications and non-geographical special use. In Russia , Latin letter X, or its Morse / Baudot Cyrillic equivalent Ь , are used to designate government, military, and experimental aviation airfields in internal airfield codes similar in structure and purpose to ICAO codes but not used internationally. ZZZZ

1647-541: The Mars Society , argued in the Journal of Cosmology that contamination risk is functionally zero leaving little need to worry. They cite, among other things, lack of any known incident although trillions of kilograms of material have been exchanged between Mars and Earth via meteorite impacts. The International Committee Against Mars Sample Return (ICAMSR) is an advocacy group led by Barry DiGregorio, that campaigns against

1708-451: The N1 rocket that would have launched it. Another sample-return mission, Mars 5M (Mars-79), planned for 1979, was cancelled due to complexity and technical problems. In the mid-1980's, JPL mission planners noted that MSR had been "pushed by budgetary and other pressures into the '90s," and that the round trip would "impose large propulsion requirements." They presented a notional mass budget for

1769-586: The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) process has been completed. Furthermore, under the terms of Article VII of the Outer Space Treaty and other legal frameworks, were a release of organisms to occur, the releasing nation(s) would be liable for any resultant damages. The sample-return mission would be tasked with preventing contact between the Martian environment and the exterior of

1830-659: The Perseverance rover in the Jezero crater in February 2021. It has collected multiple samples and will continue to do so, packing them into cylinders for later return in the MSR Campaign. Jezero appears to be an ancient lakebed, suitable for ground sampling. It is also assigned the task to return the samples directly to the Sample Return lander, considering its potential mission longevity. From December 21, 2022, Perseverance started

1891-564: The 2020s". ExoMars's first mission was planned to launch in 2018 with unspecified missions to return samples in the 2020–2022 time frame. The cancellation of the caching rover MAX-C in 2011, and later NASA withdrawal from ExoMars, due to budget limitations, ended the mission. The pull-out was described as "traumatic" for the science community. In early 2011, the US National Research Council 's Planetary Science Decadal Survey , which laid out mission planning priorities for

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1952-525: The Earth return orbiter. The orbiter would capture the sample containers delivered by both MAVs and place them in separate Earth entry vehicles. This mission concept, considered by NASA's Mars Exploration Program to return samples by 2008, was cancelled following a program review. In mid-2006, the International Mars Architecture for the Return of Samples (iMARS) Working Group was chartered by

2013-563: The IATA code for London 's Heathrow Airport is LHR and its ICAO code is EGLL. IATA codes are commonly seen by passengers and the general public on flight-tracking services such as FlightAware . In general IATA codes are usually derived from the name of the airport or the city it serves, while ICAO codes are distributed by region and country. Far more aerodromes (in the broad sense) have ICAO codes than IATA codes, which are sometimes assigned to railway stations as well. The selection of ICAO codes

2074-538: The Mars 2020 rover at Three Forks in Jezero Crater in August 2028. The collected samples by Mars 2020 are delivers them to the ascent rocket. Once loaded with the samples, the Mars ascent rocket will launch with the sample return canister in spring 2029 and reach a low Mars orbit. This design would ease the schedule of the whole project, giving controllers time and flexibility to carry out the required operations. Furthermore,

2135-544: The agency to search for a better solution. China has announced plans for a Mars sample-return mission to be called Tianwen-3 . The mission would launch in late-2028, with a lander and ascent vehicle on a Long March 5 and an orbiter and return module launched separately on a Long March 3B . Samples would be returned to Earth in July 2031. A previous plan would have used a large spacecraft that could carry out all mission phases, including sample collection, ascent, orbital rendezvous, and return flight. This would have required

2196-588: The crater on 18 February 2021. On 5 March 2021, NASA named the landing site of the rover Octavia E. Butler Landing . In December 2021, NASA announced that some of the rocks in Jezero in Séítah were igneous . When examined closely, rocks revealed the mineral olivine surrounded by the mineral pyroxene . That arrangement happens in thick magma bodies and geologists call this type of texture " Cumulate ." Carbonate and sulfate minerals were also detected which means that

2257-453: The crater that probably supplied it with water; each of these channels has a delta-like deposit where sediment was carried by water and deposited in the lake. Craters of a given diameter are expected to have a certain depth; a depth less than expected means sediment entered the crater. Calculations suggest that the crater may hold about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) of sediments. Most of the sediments may have been brought in by channels. Since it

2318-400: The delta and channels, it was concluded that the lake inside the crater probably formed during a period in which there was continual surface runoff . In 2007, following the discovery of its ancient lake, the crater was named after Jezero , Bosnia and Herzegovina , one of several eponymous towns in the country. In some Slavic languages , the word jezero means 'lake'. In November 2018, it

2379-493: The future by instruments that do not yet exist. In 2006, the Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group identified 55 important investigations related to Mars exploration. In 2008, they concluded that about half of the investigations "could be addressed to one degree or another by MSR", making MSR "the single mission that would make the most progress towards the entire list" of investigations. Moreover, it

2440-450: The mineral olivine surrounded by the mineral pyroxene which happens in thick magma bodies. Such a texture is called "Cumulate." The rocks had also been changed by water since carbonate and sulfate minerals were also found. The rocks studied were in location nicknamed "South Séítah" ("Séítah" means "amidst the sand" in the Navajo language). The Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry (PIXL)

2501-625: The period 2013–2022, declared an MSR campaign its highest priority Flagship Mission for that period. In particular, it endorsed the proposed Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher (MAX-C) mission in a "descoped" (less ambitious) form. This mission plan was officially cancelled in April 2011. A key mission requirement for the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover mission was that it help prepare for MSR. The rover landed on 18 February 2021 in Jezero Crater to collect samples and store them in 43 cylindrical tubes for later retrieval. The Mars 2020 mission landed

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2562-506: The program could rely on the successful landing system developed for the Mars Science Laboratory, avoiding the costs and risks associated with developing and testing yet another landing system from scratch. In addition, NASA may change the solar panels on lander with Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator , a nuclear power source, to ensure sufficient power and to keep the rocket's propulsion system from getting too cold, thus ensuring

2623-473: The return of geological samples from Mars. One early concept was the Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars (SCIM) proposal, which involved sending a spacecraft in a grazing pass through Mars's upper atmosphere to collect dust and air samples without landing or orbiting. The Soviet Union considered a Mars sample-return mission, Mars 5NM , in 1975 but it was cancelled due to the repeated failures of

2684-476: The rocks had been altered by water. The instrument used for this analysis was the Planetary Instrument for X-Ray Lithochemistry ( PIXL ). In a March 2015 paper, researchers from Brown University described how an ancient Martian lake system existed in Jezero. The study advanced the idea that water filled the crater at least two separate times. There are two channels on the northern and western sides of

2745-553: The sample containers. In order to eliminate the risk of parachute failure, the current plan is to use the thermal protection system to cushion the capsule upon impact (at terminal velocity ). The sample container would be designed to withstand the force of impact. To receive the returned samples, NASA proposed a custom Biosafety Level 4 containment facility, the Mars Sample-Return Receiving facility (MSRRF). Other scientists and engineers, notably Robert Zubrin of

2806-639: The samples as part of a joint mission with other countries. On 9 June 2015, the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) unveiled a plan named Martian Moons Exploration (MMX) to retrieve samples from Phobos or Deimos . Phobos's orbit is closer to Mars and its surface may have captured particles blasted from Mars. The launch from Earth is planned for September 2024, with a return to Earth in 2029. Japan has also shown interest in participating in an international Mars sample-return mission. A Russian Mars sample-return mission concept

2867-439: The simplicity of a single tank, also applicable to Mars landing typically done with monopropellant. The high-pressure thrusters and pump had previously been demonstrated in the 1994 flight of an experimental 21-kg rocket. As of late 1999, the MSR mission was anticipated to be launched from Earth in 2003 and 2005. Each was to deliver a rover and a Mars ascent vehicle, and a French supplied Mars orbiter with Earth return capability

2928-567: The style LFddnn , where dd indicates the department while nn is a sequential counter. The French Federation of Ultralight Motorized Gliders was formally named the keeper of these codes. Aerodrome de Torreilles in France, for instance, has code LF6651. In Antarctica many aerodromes have pseudo ICAO-codes with AT and two digits, while others have proper codes from countries performing air control such as NZ for New Zealand . Mars sample return mission A Mars sample-return ( MSR ) mission

2989-405: The super-heavy-lift Long March 9 launch vehicle. Another plan involved using Tianwen-1 to cache the samples for retrieval. France has worked towards a sample return for many years. This included concepts of an extraterrestrial sample curation facility for returned samples, and numerous proposals. They worked on the development of a Mars sample-return orbiter, which would capture and return

3050-515: The two airports share runways and ground and air control facilities. In small countries like Belgium or the Netherlands, almost all aerodromes have an ICAO code. For larger countries like the UK or Germany this is not feasible, given the limited number of letter codes. Some countries have addressed this issue by introducing a scheme of sub-ICAO aerodrome codes; France, for example, assigns pseudo ICAO codes in

3111-507: Was announced in July 2024. An arrowhead-shaped rock contains organic chemicals. And nearby are rings in the rocks that could have been produced by past life. ICAO airport code The recommendations for ICAO airport codes were adopted on 24 March 1959, and came into force on 1 October the same year. ICAO codes are separate and different from IATA codes , the latter of which have three letters and are generally used for airline timetables , reservations, and baggage tags. For example,

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3172-437: Was announced that Jezero had been chosen as the landing site for the rover Perseverance as part of NASA 's Mars 2020 mission. In November 2020, evidence of boulder falls was found on the slopes of the delta deposits that the rover is planned to explore, on the wall of Jezero itself as well as on the wall of Dacono, a small crater 2 km (1.2 mi) in diameter on the floor of Jezero. Perseverance successfully landed in

3233-691: Was assigned both LLJR (its Israeli persona) as well as OJJR (its Jordanian persona), but the airport itself fell into disuse. In the contiguous United States and Canada, many airports have ICAO codes that are simply copies of their three-letter IATA codes, with the geographical prefix added on (e.g., YEG and CYEG both refer to Edmonton International Airport , while IAD and KIAD both refer to Washington Dulles International Airport ). This similarity does not extend to Alaska (PAxx), Hawaii (PHxx), or U.S. territories. Kahului Airport on Maui , for instance, has an IATA code of OGG and an ICAO code of PHOG. ICAO airport codes do not begin with I or J or X or Q, though

3294-402: Was raised when apparent microfossils were thought to have been found in Mars meteorite, ALH84001 . This hypothesis was eventually rejected, but led to a renewed interest in a Mars sample return. In the mid-1990s, NASA funded JPL and Lockheed Martin to study affordable small-scale MSR mission architectures including a concept to return 500 grams of Mars samples using a 100-kg MAV that would meet

3355-601: Was reported that a significant fraction of the investigations could not be meaningfully advanced without returned samples. One source of Mars samples is what are thought to be Martian meteorites , which are rocks ejected from Mars that made their way to Earth. As of August 2023 , 356 meteorites had been identified as Martian, out of over 79,000 known meteorites. These meteorites are believed to be from Mars because their elemental and isotopic compositions are similar to rocks and atmospheric gases analyzed on Mars. Returning from Mars appeared in technical literature when Apollo

3416-419: Was reported to have cut back the program due to a possible shortage of funds. As of January 2024, the plan was facing ongoing scrutiny due to budget and scheduling considerations, and a new overhaul plan was being pursued. In April 2024, NASA reported that the originally projected cost of $ 7 billion and expected sample return of 2033 was updated to an unacceptable $ 11 billion and return of 2040 instead, prompting

3477-434: Was selected as one of the top three candidate landing sites, along with northeast Syrtis , 30 km (19 mi) to the southwest. A primary aim of the Mars 2020 mission is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return Martian samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12-mile (19 km) wide, smooth, flat circular area

3538-494: Was still in development and the first spacecraft to fly past Mars had not yet launched, with an expectation that people would be on board for Mars ascent. The density of the Mars atmosphere remained unknown at that time, so the Lockheed engineering author reported the analysis of trajectory options over a range of aerodynamic drag conditions for a 15-ton launch vehicle to reach a rendezvous orbit. At NASA, returning samples from Mars

3599-708: Was studied jointly by the Langley Research Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in the early 1970s during the time that the Viking Mars lander mission was in development, and a Langley author noted that the "Mars surface-to-orbit launch vehicle" would need high performance because its mass would "have a substantial impact on the mass and systems requirements" for earlier mission phases, delivery of that vehicle to Mars and launch preparations on Mars. For at least three decades, scientists have advocated

3660-436: Was to be included in 2005. The 140-kg MAV, "in the process of being contracted to industry" at that time, was to include telemetry on its first stage and thrusters that would spin the vehicle to 300 RPM before separation of the simplified lightweight upper stage. Atop each MAV, a 3.6-kg, 16-cm diameter spherical payload would contain 500 grams of samples and have solar cells to power a long-life beacon to facilitate rendezvous with

3721-526: Was used for this analysis. Perseverance detected many dust devils. On a typical Martian day at least four dust devils pass Perseverance. At a peak hour long period just after noon, more than one per hour passes. Perseverance made these observations mostly with its cameras and a group of sensors in the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA). MEDA includes wind sensors and light sensors. A possible detection of evidence of past life

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