128-587: The Jesuit Relations , also known as Relations des Jésuites de la Nouvelle-France (Relation de ce qui s'est passé [...]) , are chronicles of the Jesuit missions in New France . The works were written annually and printed beginning in 1632 and ending in 1673. Originally written in French , Latin , and Italian , The Jesuit Relations were reports from Jesuit missionaries in the field to their superiors to update them as to
256-853: A Jesuit mission in Sault Saint-Louis. A Relation detailing her story was published in 1744. These descriptions of martyrdom were likely used to continue to justify the Jesuits' attempts to convert Indigenous peoples, and could have been exaggerated for this reason. Even when very few people converted to Catholicism in a given year, the Jesuits would still use these examples as proof that some people were extremely dedicated to their missions, and that their efforts were worthy of continuation. The Jesuit Relations also provide evidence for early European settlers' attitudes toward nature and Eurocentric bias in terms of how they believed this land should be used. These missionaries by and large did not view nature as peaceful or
384-605: A birch box for the return to St. Ignace. Following a ceremony, the bones retrieved from the university were reburied with the rest of Marquette's bones on June 18, 2022. A Michigan Historical Marker in Ludington, MI reads: Father Jacques Marquette, the great Jesuit missionary and explorer, died and was buried by two French companions somewhere along the Lake Michigan shore on May 18, 1675. He had been returning to his mission at St. Ignace, which he had left in 1673, to go exploring in
512-685: A building was constructed that now houses the Museum of Ojibwa Culture. However, a Michigan Historical Marker in Frankfort, MI reads: Marquette's Death: On May 18, 1675, Father Jacques Marquette, the great Jesuit missionary and explorer, died and was buried by two French companions somewhere along the Lake Michigan shore of the Lower Peninsula. Marquette had been returning to his mission at St. Ignace, which he had left in 1673 to go on an exploring trip to
640-457: A centralised organization and stressed acceptance of any mission to which the pope might call them. His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam ("For the greater glory of God"). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things normally considered of little importance. The Society of Jesus
768-573: A duodecimo volume, neatly printed and bound in vellum, was issued annually until 1673 from the presses of Sebastien Cramoisy and his brother Gabriel Cramoisy in Paris, and of Jean Boullenger in Rouen. Several similar texts that were published prior to 1632 are sometimes considered part of the corpus, but they were not titled as the Relations . No single unified edition existed until Reuben Gold Thwaites , secretary of
896-536: A few key activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were trained in both classical studies and theology , and their schools reflected this. These schools taught with a balance of Aristotelian methods with mathematics. Second, they sent out missionaries across the globe to evangelize those peoples who had not yet heard the Gospel , founding missions in widely diverse regions such as modern-day Paraguay , Japan, Ontario , and Ethiopia . One of
1024-633: A great deal of belongings in the cold, with little food. Le Jeune largely blamed the Indigenous people for not having fully developed the land for his hardships. While the soil in New France was good for farming, it was "interpreted as unused and barren," because it hadn't yet been developed. The Jesuits' conceptualization of nature is important in understanding the making of race and racialization in North America, and to overall understand how Europeans invented
1152-613: A long and very detailed account of the country and its religion as well as treatises in Tibetan that attempted to refute key Buddhist ideas and establish the truth of Catholic Christianity. Jesuit missions in the Americas became controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often
1280-504: A partner or comrade. From this came "Society of Jesus" (SJ) by which they would be known more widely. Religious orders established in the medieval era were named after particular men: Francis of Assisi (Franciscans); Domingo de Guzmán , later canonized as Saint Dominic (Dominicans); and Augustine of Hippo (Augustinians). Ignatius of Loyola and his followers appropriated the name of Jesus for their new order, provoking resentment by other orders who considered it presumptuous. The resentment
1408-465: A perspective of horror, despite the consistent warring in Europe at the time. The Jesuit missionaries believed that, through developing an in-depth understanding of Indigenous cultures, they could convert more people. One prominent example, Jean de Brébeuf , was known for his attempts to immerse himself in the language, culture, and religious customs of the Huron peoples. Specifically, in an entry titled "What
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#17328481282991536-638: A place of study in Louvain (1614). This was the earliest foundation of what would later be called Heythrop College . Campion Hall , founded in 1896, has been a presence within Oxford University since then. 16th and 17th-century Jesuit institutions intended to train priests were hotbeds for the persecution of Catholics in Britain, where men suspected of being Catholic priests were routinely imprisoned, tortured, and executed. Jesuits were among those killed, including
1664-513: A place to cultivate spiritual practice. Rather, they believed that the woods needed to be turned into European-style settlements and agricultural fields. Throughout the Relations, there are many accounts of missionaries being afraid of or intimidated by the woods, for example, Le Jeune's description of a journey through the woods with a band of Montagnais people, Journal of a Winter Hunt, published in 1634. Le Jeune details physical hardships of carrying
1792-412: A racial theory for Europeanization.” Jesuit Relations were publicized as field letters from the missionary priests, reports of eyewitness, and testimony. The process of passage up the hierarchy meant that accounts would be summarized and shaped according to each man's view. The editing journey "began with detailed letters from priests in the field, the most important usually being the one brought down by
1920-404: A second-hand relation by his superior, "drawn from Jogues' letters." Pollack notes further that the Relations "were edited by Jesuit missions in Paris before publication." What are generally known as the Relations proper, addressed to the superior and published in Paris under direction of the provincial, commence with Le Jeune's Briève relation du voyage de la Nouvelle-France (1632). Thereafter
2048-619: A sound footing, introducing the Tridentine Reforms and finding suitable men to fill vacant sees. He established a house of religious women in Limerick known as the Menabochta ("poor women" ) and in 1565 preparations began for establishing a school at Limerick. At his instigation, Richard Creagh , a priest of the Diocese of Limerick, was persuaded to accept the vacant Archdiocese of Armagh , and
2176-404: A special obedience to the sovereign pontiff in regard to the missions" to the effect that a Jesuit is expected to be directed by the pope " perinde ac cadaver " ("as if he was a lifeless body") and to accept orders to go anywhere in the world, even if required to live in extreme conditions. This was so because Ignatius, its leading founder, was a nobleman who had a military background. Accordingly,
2304-801: A thief or noted evildoer". After being court-martialled by the Lord President of Munster, Sir John Perrot , he was sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered for treason and refused pardon in return for swearing the Act of Supremacy . His execution was carried out on 25 October 1572 and a report of it was sent by Fitzmaurice to the Jesuit Superior General in 1576, where he said that Daniel was "cruelly killed because of me". Jacques Marquette Jacques Marquette , S.J. ( French pronunciation: [ʒak maʁkɛt] ; June 1, 1637 – May 18, 1675), sometimes known as Père Marquette or James Marquette ,
2432-559: A time been predominantly Protestant, notably Poland and Lithuania . Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world. Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in
2560-555: A village of Kaskaskia, who invited Marquette to return and establish a mission. When the explorers left the village, some of the Kaskaskia got in their own canoes and traveled with them to Saint Francis Xavier mission in Green Bay, Wisconsin . Jolliet returned to Quebec to relate the news of their discoveries. Marquette and his party returned to the Illinois territory in late 1674, becoming
2688-734: A wealthy merchant family. The Marquette family had been well-respected for many years, as numerous members had served in the military and taken civil posts. Jacques Marquette was sent to study at the Jesuit College in Reims at age 9. He remained there until he joined the Society of Jesus at age 17. Marquette taught for a year at Auxerre, then studied philosophy at Ponta Mousson until 1659. He taught at Ponta Mousson, Reims, Charleville, and Langres until 1665. Throughout this time, Marquette sent multiple requests to be sent on missionary work. The superior of
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#17328481282992816-634: Is a member of a Society founded chiefly for this purpose: to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine, by means of public preaching, lectures and any other ministration whatsoever of the Word of God, and further by means of retreats, the education of children and unlettered persons in Christianity, and the spiritual consolation of Christ's faithful through hearing confessions and administering
2944-477: Is believed that Louis de Buade de Frontenac , who disliked the Jesuit order, strongly influenced ending this publication. In France, the political and religious debates over the accommodation approach practised by the Jesuits in their overseas missions probably also resulted in the cessation of its publication. As the Jesuit order used The Jesuit Relations to help raise money for the missions, scholars have scrutinized
3072-418: Is classified among institutes as an order of clerks regular , that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, and following a religious rule. The term Jesuit (of 15th-century origin, meaning "one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus") was first applied to the society in reproach (1544–1552). The term was never used by Ignatius of Loyola, but over time, members and friends of
3200-759: Is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna della Strada , a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary , and it is led by a superior general . The headquarters of the society, its general curia , is in Rome. The historic curia of Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù , the Jesuit mother church . Members of the Society of Jesus make profession of "perpetual poverty, chastity, and obedience" and "promise
3328-477: Is considered to give the most detailed and exhaustive general overviews available. Some Indigenous peoples outwardly converted to Catholicism while still adhering to their traditional religion. When Jesuits attempted to force some Indigenous people into permanent settlements, believing that this would make large-scale conversion easiest, many people simply refused, or left these settlements. Furthermore, many Indigenous leaders deduced very quickly that Christianization
3456-549: Is controversial because some Indigenous people in North America believe that the Catholic Church needs to do more to account for the harms committed in its colonial past, and believe that this canonization could gloss over this history. Others believe that Tekakwitha's canonization was a long-overdue honor. These Relations were written during the Counter-Reformation in Europe, during which Catholicism gained popularity and
3584-447: Is that of martyrdom. The relations included descriptions of Jesuit missionaries being killed or maimed, for example, the death of Isaac Jogues , who died after being captured by the Mohawk in 1646. There is also a graphic description of Brébeuf's death in 1649. The text describes the self-mortification of Kateri Tekakwitha , an Algonquin-Mohawk woman who converted to Catholicism and lived in
3712-575: Is the founding document of the Society of Jesus as an official Catholic religious order. Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General . Paul III's bull had limited the number of its members to sixty. This limitation was removed through the bull Exposcit debitum of Julius III in 1550. In 1543, Peter Canisius entered the Company. Ignatius sent him to Messina, where he founded the first Jesuit college in Sicily . Ignatius laid out his original vision for
3840-461: Is where the party made their first encounter with indigenous people. They met the Menominee, who were known as the "wild rice" people. Marquette told them of his mission to spread religion to the people along the river. The Menominee tried to discourage Marquette and the others, warning them about the perils of the river and the people inhabiting the land along it. The group of explorers next went up
3968-954: The Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ . On 15 August 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard from the Basque city of Loyola , and six others mostly of Castilian origin, all students at the University of Paris , met in Montmartre outside Paris, in a crypt beneath the church of Saint Denis , now Saint Pierre de Montmartre , to pronounce promises of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Ignatius' six companions were: Francisco Xavier from Navarre ( modern Spain ), Alfonso Salmeron , Diego Laínez , Nicolás Bobadilla from Castile ( modern Spain ), Peter Faber from Savoy , and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal . The meeting has been commemorated in
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4096-605: The Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council . Jesuit missionaries established missions around the world from the 16th to the 18th century and had both successes and failures in Christianizing the native peoples. The Jesuits have always been controversial within the Catholic Church and have frequently clashed with secular governments and institutions. Beginning in 1759,
4224-700: The First Nations and Native American languages they had learned. For instance, before his death in 1708, Jacques Gravier , vicar general of the Illinois Mission in the Mississippi River valley, compiled a Miami–Illinois –French dictionary , considered the most extensive among works of the missionaries. Extensive documentation was left in the form of The Jesuit Relations , published annually from 1632 until 1673. Whereas Jesuits were active in Britain in
4352-575: The Fox River , nearly to its headwaters. They came upon a village inhabited by Miami , Mascouten , and Kickapoo. They allowed Marquette to teach them about Christianity, and listened attentively. He was especially impressed by the Miami. Marquette noted that they were pleasant in appearance and temperament, despite their reputation as warriors. When Marquette's party left the village, they were accompanied by two Miami that would assist them in finding their way to
4480-509: The Gulf of Mexico . Marquette and the other men began to consider whether the danger was worth the risk. By this point, they had encountered several natives carrying European trinkets, and they feared an encounter with explorers or colonists from Spain . The explorers had mapped the areas where they had been, including their flora, wildlife, and resources. After staying with the Akansea for two nights,
4608-848: The Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( / ˈ dʒ ɛ ʒ u ɪ t s , ˈ dʒ ɛ zj u -/ JEZH -oo-its, JEZ -ew- ; Latin: Iesuitae ), is a religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rome. It was founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola and six companions, with the approval of Pope Paul III . The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations. Jesuits work in education, research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also conduct retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, sponsor direct social and humanitarian ministries, and promote ecumenical dialogue . The Society of Jesus
4736-512: The Kangxi Emperor and many Jesuit converts that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius was a nonreligious token of respect, Pope Clement XI 's papal decree Cum Deus Optimus ruled that such behavior constituted impermissible forms of idolatry and superstition in 1704; his legate Tournon and Bishop Charles Maigrot of Fujian, tasked with presenting this finding to the Kangxi Emperor , displayed such extreme ignorance that
4864-596: The Liturgy of Hours in common) allowed them to be flexible and meet diverse needs arising at the time. After much training and experience in theology, Jesuits went across the globe in search of converts to Christianity. Despite their dedication, they had little success in Asia, except in the Philippines . For instance, early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits
4992-672: The Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre . They called themselves the Compañía de Jesús , and also Amigos en El Señor or "Friends in the Lord", because they felt "they were placed together by Christ." The name "company" had echoes of the military (reflecting perhaps Ignatius' background as Captain in the Spanish army) as well as of discipleship (the "companions" of Jesus). The Spanish "company" would be translated into Latin as societas like in socius ,
5120-603: The Petrine primacy and the priority of the Mass amongst the sacraments with his students and congregation, and that his sermons should emphasize obedience to secular princes if he wished to avoid arrest. The number of scholars in their care was very small. An early example of a school play in Ireland is sent in one of Good's reports, which was performed on the Feast of St. John in 1566. The school
5248-484: The Protestant Reformation throughout Catholic Europe. Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical church was in dire need of reform. Some of their greatest struggles were against corruption, venality , and spiritual lassitude within the Catholic Church. Ignatius insisted on a high level of academic preparation for the clergy in contrast to the relatively poor education of much of
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5376-763: The Relations for the general public, in order to attract new settlers to the colony and to raise enough capital and political support to continue the missions in New France. Overall, these texts serve as microcosms of Indigenous-European relations in North America. The Relations are integral to the historiography of the Jesuits of New France. Recent scholarship illuminates how these documents may have been re-circulated back to Jesuit colleges in New France, which changes how one can understand their ethnographic and knowledge-producing value. Jesuit missionaries had to write annual reports to their superior in Québec or Montréal as an account of their activities. Annually, between 1632 and 1673,
5504-604: The Scholastic structure of Catholic thought. This method of teaching was important in the context of the Scientific Revolution, as these universities were open to teaching new scientific and mathematical methodology. Further, many important thinkers of the Scientific Revolution were educated by Jesuit universities. In addition to the teachings of faith , the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum (1599) would standardize
5632-481: The Society of Jesus , spanning a period from the founding of the order, or the colonization of Acadia in the 1610s to the mission in the Illinois Country in 1791. The indices are comprehensive in scope and include titles such as: Marriage and Marriage Customs, Courtship, Divorce, Social Status of Women, Songs and Singing, Dances, and Games and Recreation. Much can be learned through the examination and study of
5760-476: The Spiritual Exercises . During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the purpose of life and contemplations on the life of Christ. They meet regularly with a spiritual director who guides their choice of exercises and helps them to develop a more discerning love for Christ. The retreat follows a "Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive" pattern in the tradition of
5888-475: The Wisconsin Historical Society , led the project to translate into English, unify, and cross-reference the numerous original Relations . Between 1896 and 1901 Thwaites and his associates compiled 73 volumes, including two volumes of indices. The Relations effectively comprise a large body of ethnographic material. He included many other papers, rare manuscripts, and letters from the archives of
6016-518: The 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution , to China. The scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when scientific innovation had declined in China: [The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out
6144-576: The 16th century, due to the persecution of Catholics in the Elizabethan times, an English province was only established in 1623. The first pressing issue for early Jesuits in what today is the United Kingdom was to establish places for training priests. After an English College was opened in Rome (1579), a Jesuit seminary was opened at Valladolid (1589), then one in Seville (1592), which culminated in
6272-584: The Akansea Quapaw . They were greeted by a group of men in canoes who held up their own calumet. Marquette and the others were invited to the village. Many residents came out to see the Frenchmen. A chief led them to a room where elders and other chiefs had gathered. Marquette used an interpreter to ask about what was south of them. He was told that it was extremely dangerous. The people were hostile, well-armed, and would attack anyone who could interfere with their trading arrangements. The Jolliet-Marquette expedition had traveled to within 435 miles (700 km) of
6400-429: The Catholic Church expelled Jesuits from most countries in Europe and from European colonies. Pope Clement XIV officially suppressed the order in 1773. In 1814, the Church lifted the suppression. Ignatius of Loyola , a Basque nobleman from the Pyrenees area of northern Spain, founded the society after discerning his spiritual vocation while recovering from a wound sustained in the Battle of Pamplona . He composed
6528-434: The Chanouananons, but Marquette did notice iron in the Wabash area. Once the summer heat and mosquitoes began to cause great discomfort, the men stopped going ashore at night. They slept in the canoes, using the sails as protection from mosquitoes. This attracted the attention of some Native Americans, who pointed guns at the travelers. Marquette held the calumet over his head. He attempted to communicate by speaking Huron, but
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#17328481282996656-562: The Church reformed itself. The Jesuits grew in power during this period, even achieving influence within Louis XIV 's court. This garnered suspicion and rivalry from other religious sects. This rivalry could potentially be a factor that propelled the Jesuits to carefully select the information they included in the Relations . Le Jeune wrote in the Relations his ideas of how the land in New France should be used; natural resources New France could offer France, and possibility of increased employment of Frenchmen in New France. Le Jeune also wrote in
6784-554: The Hurons Think about Their Origin," Brébeuf explained to the audience a Huron creation story, seeking allusions to the Biblical creation story in this description. Paul Le Jeune also described some customs of the Huron, such as hunting and fishing practices. Le Jeune attempted to explain the spiritual context for certain hunting practices, such as explanations for how and why the Iroquois had specific rituals for hunting beaver. In his text, Le Jeune expresses skepticism for these traditions' validity. Another important theme in these texts
6912-482: The Illinois near Starved Rock . A bout of dysentery he had contracted during the Mississippi expedition sapped his health. On the return trip to Saint Ignace, he died at 37 years of age near the modern-day town of Ludington, Michigan . His companions, Pierre Porteret and Jacques Largillier, buried his body at a spot that Marquette had chosen. They marked his burial site with a large cross. Porteret and Lagrillier continued on to St. Ignace, so they could inform those at
7040-532: The Japanese Language", a Japanese–Portuguese dictionary written 1603); Vietnamese (Portuguese missionaries created the Vietnamese alphabet , which was later formalized by Avignon missionary Alexandre de Rhodes with his 1651 trilingual dictionary ); Tupi (the main language of Brazil); and the pioneering study of Sanskrit in the West by Jean François Pons in the 1740s. Jesuit missionaries were active among indigenous peoples in New France in North America, many of them compiling dictionaries or glossaries of
7168-417: The Jesuit mission in New France, Father Jerome Lalemant, needed missionaries to work with the Five Nations . Marquette was ordained on the Feast of Saint Thomas of Aquinas in Toul on March 7, 1666. Months later, on September 20, he arrived in Quebec. Marquette was first sent to the mission of Saint Michel at Sillery. Because this mission served peaceful and friendly indigenous people from different tribes, it
7296-428: The Jesuits tried to avoid disclosing any compromise in their principles, "it is possible to detect evidence of soul-searching and shifting points of view" relative to their success at converting Indigenous peoples. After extensive cultural immersion, some missionaries may have adopted certain Indigenous ways of life or cultural practices. Jesuit officials in France would be liable to omit any threat to their philosophies in
7424-461: The Mississippi and the Illinois country. The exact location of Marquette's death has long been a subject of controversy. Evidence presented in the 1960s indicates that this site, near the natural outlet of the Betsie River, at the northeast corner of a hill which was here until 1900, is the Marquette death site and that the Betsie is the Rivière du Père Marquette of early French accounts and maps. Marquette's bones were reburied at St. Ignace in 1677. In
7552-452: The Mississippi country. The exact location of his death has long been a subject of controversy. A spot close to the southeast slope of this hill, near the ancient outlet of the Pere Marquette River , corresponds with the death site as located by early French accounts and maps and a constant tradition of the past. Marquette's remains were reburied at St. Ignace in 1677. Adjacent to gravesite of Marquette on State Street in downtown Saint Ignace,
7680-414: The Petun Huron. Excited to have a Black Robe again, they quickly assembled a banquet. In addition to the Petun Huron, Marquette was tasked with missionary work for three bands of Ottawa: the Keinouche, Sinagaux, and Kiskakon. Marquette visited and attended to all four settlements. Since he felt the Kiskakon were the most ready to accept Christianity, he spent more time working with them and even lived with
7808-412: The Pope, and the Ottoman Empire , had rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible. Again in 1540, they presented the project to Paul III. After months of dispute, a congregation of cardinals reported favourably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae ("To the Government of the Church Militant"), on 27 September 1540. This
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#17328481282997936-436: The Portuguese Province to agree a surety for the ransom of Wolfe, who was quickly banished on release. Daniel returned to Ireland the following year, but was immediately captured and incriminating documents were found on his person, which were taken as proof of his involvement with the rebellious cousin of the Earl of Desmond , James Fitzmaurice and a Spanish plot. He was removed from Limerick, taken to Cork "just as if he were
8064-533: The Relations about the poverty of Indigenous people, comparing them to France's poor. This was largely to further convince French government of the urgency of colonizing and to justify colonization as bringing wealth to Indigenous people, rather than an inherently violent process. In fact, it is made clear that a main goal of these Relations was to further not only Jesuit religious interests, but French economic interests. Jesuit The Society of Jesus ( Latin : Societas Iesu ; abbreviation: SJ ), also known as
8192-460: The Wisconsin River. From the Fox River, the Miami directed, and likely assisted, the men in portaging their canoes for almost two miles through marsh and oak plains to the Wisconsin River , Many years later, the town of Portage , Wisconsin was built and named for the ancient path between the two rivers. They ventured forth from the portage and entered the Mississippi near present-day Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin on June 17. Eight days later,
8320-431: The account in a series of duodecimo volumes, known collectively as The Jesuit Relations . In France, the published texts were also shaped by the editors, who often remained anonymous. Missionary Charles Lallemont wrote a letter to his brother, dated 1 August 1626, which marks the beginning of the fathers' accounts and the series Relations des Jésuites de la Nouvelle-France about the missionary work in New France . It
8448-400: The call for the society's suppression. Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro , and were very influential in the pacification, religious conversion , and education of indigenous nations. They also built schools, organized people into villages, and created a writing system for
8576-446: The calumet over his head. The elders standing on shore saw this, and called off the attack. The men were invited to the village of the Michigamea. One of the Michigamea was able to speak to Marquette in the Miami Illinois language, but most of the communication was done through gestures. The men were fed fish and corn stew, then given a place to sleep for the night. In the morning, Michigamea warriors in dugout canoes escorted them to
8704-430: The city for eight months, before moving to Kilmallock in December 1565 under the protection of the Earl of Desmond, where they lived in more comfort than the primitive conditions they experienced in the city. However they were unable to support themselves at Kilmallock and three months later they returned to the city in Easter 1566, and strangely set up their house in accommodation owned by the Lord Deputy of Ireland, which
8832-436: The city in very bad health, but had recovered due to the kindness of the people. They established contact with Wolfe, but were only able to meet with him at night, as the English authorities were attempting to arrest the legate. Wolfe charged them initially with teaching to the boys of Limerick, with an emphasis on religious instruction, and Good translated the catechism from Latin into English for this purpose. They remained in
8960-410: The clergy of his time. The Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies" can be seen as an effort to counteract another problem evidenced in the preceding century. Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the church had to begin with the conversion of an individual's heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion is the Ignatian retreat, called
9088-423: The difficulty of their chore produced a more balanced record of their successes and failures than might be expected.” Because these texts were used to raise revenue for the Jesuit cause, they may demonstrate exaggerations of the progress in converting Indigenous peoples as well as dramatized accounts of encounters. Additionally, the Jesuits often wrote about the fighting that took place between Indigenous tribes from
9216-537: The emperor mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism. Tournon's summary and automatic excommunication for any violators of Clement's decree – upheld by the 1715 bull Ex Illa Die – led to the swift collapse of all the missions in China; the last Jesuits were finally expelled after 1721. The first Jesuit school in Ireland
9344-617: The end of 1568 the Anglican Bishop of Meath, Hugh Brady , was sent to Limerick charged with a Royal Commission to seek out and expel the Jesuits. Daniel was immediately ordered to quit the city and went to Lisbon, where he resumed his studies with the Portuguese Jesuits. Good moved on to Clonmel , before establishing himself at Youghal until 1577. In 1571, after Wolfe had been captured and imprisoned at Dublin Castle , Daniel persuaded
9472-442: The ethnographic and linguistic material compiled by the Jesuit missionaries in New France. The depth of the cross-referencing allows for several hundred years of Native American/European interaction to be easily accessed. While Thwaites is the first and arguably the best known of modern editions, others followed. Lucien Campeau SJ (1967–2003) discussed the texts which he included as well as the historical events they refer to; his work
9600-434: The false concept of biological race. Initially, the Jesuits did not attribute differences between themselves and the Indigenous peoples they met to biology. Instead, they believed that the environments different groups of people lived in explained why different peoples had different customs, culture, social norms, etc. Overall, Jesuits' conceptualizations of nature, “Provided Jesuits with both a justification for mission work and
9728-630: The families in their village. During his time at La Pointe, Marquette encountered members of the Illinois tribes, who told him about the important trading route of the Mississippi River. They invited him to come to their village and teach their people, whose settlements were mostly farther south. Marquette was eager to explore this river and asked for permission to take a leave from missionary work, but he first had to attend to an urgent matter. The Hurons and Ottawa at La Pointe had begun fighting with
9856-629: The feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. This was removed in 1587 due to fears over their growing influence. Jesuits did, however, have much success in Latin America. Their ascendancy in societies in the Americas accelerated during the seventeenth century, wherein Jesuits created new missions in Peru , Colombia , and Bolivia ; as early as 1603, there were 345 Jesuit priests in Mexico alone. Francis Xavier , one of
9984-595: The final document. The issue concerns less the basic accuracy of the Jesuit Relations than the "manipulative literary devices" employed by the editors. Prominent Jesuit Relations scholar Allan Greer notes that European writings were popularly documented in one of two forms, as travel narratives or as encyclopedic catalogs. He notes that the Jesuits obscured the boundaries between these two genres in an attempt to raise funds to continue Jesuit missions in New France: "One of
10112-532: The first Europeans to winter in what would become the city of Chicago. As welcomed guests of the Illinois Confederation , the explorers were feasted en route and fed ceremonial foods such as sagamite . As Marquette had promised, he established The Immaculate Conception mission for the Kaskaskia. In the spring of 1675, Marquette traveled westward and celebrated a public Mass at the Grand Village of
10240-580: The first Roman-style academic institution in the East, St. Paul Jesuit College in Macau , China. Founded by Alessandro Valignano , it had a great influence on the learning of Eastern languages (Chinese and Japanese) and culture by missionary Jesuits, becoming home to the first western sinologists such as Matteo Ricci . Jesuit efforts in Goa were interrupted by the expulsion of the Jesuits from Portuguese territories in 1759 by
10368-603: The first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence, European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. For over a century, Jesuits such as Michele Ruggieri , Matteo Ricci , Diego de Pantoja , Philippe Couplet , Michal Boym , and François Noël refined translations and disseminated Chinese knowledge , culture , history , and philosophy to Europe. Their Latin works popularized
10496-494: The late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal education , the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into
10624-415: The local languages of Brazil. José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega were the first Jesuits that Ignacio de Loyola sent to the Americas. Jesuit scholars working in foreign missions were very dedicated in studying the local languages and strove to produce Latinized grammars and dictionaries . This included: Japanese (see Nippo jisho , also known as Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam , "Vocabulary of
10752-511: The mission at Sault Ste. Marie in present-day Michigan. The missionaries planted crops, then built a chapel and barns. They established friendly relationships with the Ottawa and Chippewa that were inhabiting that area, and were allowed to baptize most of the infants and people who were dying. Marquette noted that the Chippewa were great businessmen and exceptionally skilled at catching whitefish from
10880-495: The mission, became aware that an ounce of Marquette's bones was located at Marquette University . Talks between the residents and the university began. The Museum of Ojibwe Culture sent a formal request for the return of the bones. This request was accepted by Marquette University. Two Native American men, one an Anishinaabe elder, arrived at the university in March of 2022. They were presented with Marquette's bones, which they placed in
11008-567: The mission. Two years later, Kiskakon Ottawa from the Saint Ignace mission found Marquette's gravesite. They cleaned his bones in preparation for their journey. Ottawa and Huron, in about thirty canoes, accompanied them back to the mission. Marquette's remains were presented to Fathers Nouvel and Piercon. They led funeral services before burying his bones in the chapel at Mission Saint-Ignace on June 9, 1677. In 2018, residents of St. Ignace, some of them descendants of those led by Marquette to
11136-537: The missionaries' progress in the conversion of various Indigenous North American tribes, including the Huron , Montagnais , Miꞌkmaq , Mohawk , and Algonquins . Constructed as narratives, the original reports of the Jesuit missionaries were subsequently transcribed and altered several times before their publication, first by the Jesuit overseer in New France and then by the Jesuit governing body in France. The Jesuits began to shape
11264-520: The name " Confucius " and had considerable influence on the Deists and other Enlightenment thinkers, some of whom were intrigued by the Jesuits' attempts to reconcile Confucian morality with Catholicism . Upon the arrival of the Franciscans and other monastic orders, Jesuit accommodation of Chinese culture and rituals led to the long-running Chinese Rites controversy . Despite the personal testimony of
11392-759: The namesake of Campion Hall, as well as Brian Cansfield, Ralph Corbington , and many others. A number of them were canonized among the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales . Four Jesuit churches remain today in London alone, with three other places of worship remaining extant in England and two in Scotland . The Jesuits first entered China through the Portuguese settlement on Macau , where they settled on Green Island and founded St. Paul's College . The Jesuit China missions of
11520-453: The neighboring Lakota people . Because he feared an attack by the Lakota, Marquette felt it was necessary to find a new place for the mission. Dablon agreed that a new mission was necessary and offered to find a location. Some of the men wanted to stay and fight. Marquette attempted to discourage the imminent war, but most of the men maintained their position. He promised those who wanted to avoid
11648-480: The new order in the "Formula of the Institute of the Society of Jesus", which is "the fundamental charter of the order, of which all subsequent official documents were elaborations and to which they had to conform". He ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life, and apostolate of
11776-703: The new religious order. Its famous opening statement echoed Ignatius' military background: Whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God beneath the banner of the Cross in our Society, which we desire to be designated by the Name of Jesus, and to serve the Lord alone and the Church, his spouse, under the Roman Pontiff, the Vicar of Christ on earth, should, after a solemn vow of perpetual chastity, poverty and obedience, keep what follows in mind. He
11904-498: The only force standing between the Indigenous and slavery . Together throughout South America but especially in present-day Brazil and Paraguay , they formed Indigenous Christian city-states, called " reductions ". These were societies set up according to an idealized theocratic model. The efforts of Jesuits like Antonio Ruiz de Montoya to protect the natives from enslavement by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers would contribute to
12032-402: The opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God, to strive especially for the defense and propagation of the faith, and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine". Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as "God's soldiers", "God's marines", or "the Company". The society participated in
12160-692: The opposition; there were already congregations named after the Trinity and as "God's daughters". In 1537, the seven travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order . Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests. These initial steps led to the official founding in 1540. They were ordained in Venice by the bishop of Arbe (24 June). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy . The Italian War of 1536–1538 renewed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , Venice,
12288-539: The original companions of Loyola , arrived in Goa ( Portuguese India ) in 1541 to carry out evangelical service in the Indies. In a 1545 letter to John III of Portugal, he requested an Inquisition to be installed in Goa to combat heresies like crypto-Judaism and crypto-Islam. Under Portuguese royal patronage , Jesuits thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded their activities to education and healthcare. In 1594 they founded
12416-601: The original seven arrived in India already in 1541. Finally, though not initially formed for the purpose, they aimed to stop Protestantism from spreading and to preserve communion with Rome and the pope . The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the movement toward Protestantism in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and southern Germany . Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions , adopted in 1553, which created
12544-403: The other sacraments. Moreover, he should show himself ready to reconcile the estranged, compassionately assist and serve those who are in prisons or hospitals, and indeed, to perform any other works of charity, according to what will seem expedient for the glory of God and the common good. In fulfilling the mission of the "Formula of the Institute of the Society", the first Jesuits concentrated on
12672-677: The party decided to end the exploration. On July 17, they turned back at the mouth of the Arkansas River . They followed the Mississippi back to the mouth of the Illinois River , which they had learned from local natives provided a shorter route back to the Great Lakes. They reached Lake Michigan near the site of modern-day Chicago , by way of the Chicago Portage . The party encountered
12800-452: The peculiarities of the Jesuit Relations is that they combine both types of writing: Jacques Marquette 's personal narrative of his trip down the Mississippi, for example, shares space with Jean de Brébeuf 's systematic description of Huron society." Given the Jesuits' objectives, "A few graphic accounts of persecution could be more effective fund-raisers than uninterrupted tales of triumph. Ironically, therefore, Jesuit preconceptions about
12928-689: The powerful Marquis of Pombal , Secretary of State in Portugal. The Portuguese Jesuit António de Andrade founded a mission in Western Tibet in 1624 (see also " Catholic Church in Tibet "). Two Jesuit missionaries, Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville , reached Lhasa , in Tibet, in 1661. The Italian Jesuit Ippolito Desideri established a new Jesuit mission in Lhasa and Central Tibet (1716–21) and gained an exceptional mastery of Tibetan language and culture, writing
13056-466: The rapids in the St. Marys River. People from many tribes would travel to purchase the whitefish. Marquette and the other missionaries would explain their faith to the visiting Sioux , Cree , Miami, Potawatomi , Illinois, and Menominee . They hoped that these visitors would be interested in getting their own Jesuit missionary, or "Black Robe," as they were called by the indigenous people. In 1669, Marquette
13184-496: The reports for the possibility of textual incongruity or fictionalized accounts. Certainly, the Jesuits may have worked to convey optimism about their progress in converting the Indigenous peoples, as it was very slow. There are also numerous examples of Jesuits' bias against Indigenous peoples within these texts, as well as deliberate attempts to interpret Indigenous customs through a European lens. When examined critically, The Jesuit Relations can function as an important resource in
13312-551: The sacraments to the public. In late 1568 the Castle Lane School, in the presence of Daniel and Good, was attacked and looted by government agents sent by Sir Thomas Cusack during the pacification of Munster. The political and religious climate had become more uncertain in the lead up to Pope Pius V 's formal excommunication of Queen Elizabeth I , which resulted in a new wave of repression of Catholicism in England and Ireland. At
13440-463: The society adopted the name with a positive meaning. While the order is limited to men, Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal , favored the order and she is reputed to have been admitted surreptitiously under a male pseudonym. The Jesuits were founded just before the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ensuing Counter-Reformation that would introduce reforms within the Catholic Church, and so counter
13568-521: The spirituality of John Cassian and the Desert Fathers . Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life. Further, he used it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the church. The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as "retreats". The Jesuits' contributions to
13696-435: The study of Latin , Greek , classical literature, poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences, and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric , and thereby became important centres for the training of lawyers and public officials. The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for
13824-470: The study of cultural exchange that occurred between the settlers of New France and Native Americans, because many of these missionaries attempted to immerse themselves within Indigenous societies and understand their cultures and practices to a greater extent than other European settlers. Because of the wide distribution of the letters after publication, scholars ask the question: who decided the relevance of information contained in these field letters? Although
13952-510: The summer canoe brigade from the Huron Country. The superior at Quebec would compile and edit these letters, paraphrasing some parts, copying others verbatim, and forwarding the whole package to France." The Jesuit Society in France approved any documents that they published and they likely altered some material before printing. Likewise, John Pollack notes the account of Father Isaac Jogues in 1641 "is not an eyewitness testimony" but, rather,
14080-512: The superior compiled a narrative or "Relation" of the most important events which had occurred in the several missionary districts under his charge, sometimes using the exact words of the missionaries and sometimes summarizing the individual journals in a general account, based in part also upon the oral reports of visiting fathers. This annual "Relation" was forwarded to the provincial of the Order in France. After he reviewed and edited it, he published
14208-467: The third class learned Donatus by heart, though translated into English rather than through Latin. Young boys in the fourth class were taught to read. Progress was slow because there were too few teachers to conduct classes simultaneously. In the spirit of Ignatius' Roman College founded 14 years before, no fee was requested from pupils, though as a result the two Jesuits lived in very poor conditions and were very overworked with teaching and administering
14336-565: The town, as there were frequent attacks from the Five Nations. During his two years at this mission, Marquette devoted himself to the study of the local languages and became fluent in six different dialects. In 1668, Marquette was moved by his superiors to missions farther up the Saint Lawrence River, then into the western Great Lakes region. That year, he helped Druillettes, Brother Louis Broeme, and Father Claude-Jean Allouez found
14464-519: The travelers found footprints near the Des Moines River and went to investigate. They were enthusiastically greeted by the Peoria who lived nearby in three small villages. Marquette and the others were welcomed by the elders, who offered accommodations and had a banquet prepared. The men were offered many gifts by the Peoria. Since Marquette and the men were traveling, they had to decline the most of what
14592-409: The visual and performing arts as well as in music. The theater was a form of expression especially prominent in Jesuit schools. Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to kings during the early modern period . They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living and celebration of
14720-448: The war that he would take them to a new mission and told them to prepare to move east. In the spring of 1671, Marquette and his party began their journey to the new St. Ignace Mission . The canoes were loaded with men, women, children, animals, and personal belongings. They travelled through Lake Superior and down to the Straits of Mackinac The mission that Dablon had established for them
14848-597: Was a French Jesuit missionary who founded Michigan 's first European settlement, Sault Sainte Marie , and later founded Saint Ignace . In 1673, Marquette, with Louis Jolliet , an explorer born near Quebec City , was the first European to explore and map the northern portion of the Mississippi River Valley. Jacques Marquette was born in Laon , France , on June 1, 1637. He was the third of six children for Rose de la Salle and Nicolas Marquette. The de la Salles were
14976-605: Was assigned to replace Allouez at the La Pointe du Saint Esprit mission. Father Claude Dablon arrived to continue and expand the missionary work at Sault Ste. Marie. Marquette began the 500-mile journey to his new assignment in August, travelling by canoe along the south shore of Lake Superior . The party soon encountered wintry conditions on the lake and were often unable to light a fire when they went ashore at night. The party reached their destination on September 13, and were greeted by
15104-512: Was conducted in one large aula, but the students were divided into distinct classes. Good gives a highly detailed report of the curriculum taught and the top class studied the first and second parts of Johannes Despauterius 's Commentarli grammatici, and read a few letters of Cicero or the dialogues of Frusius (André des Freux, SJ). The second class committed Donatus' texts in Latin to memory and read dialogues as well as works by Ēvaldus Gallus. Students in
15232-407: Was consecrated at Rome in 1564. This early Limerick school, Crescent College , operated in difficult circumstances. In April 1566, William Good sent a detailed report to Rome of his activities via the Portuguese Jesuits. He informed the Jesuit superior general that he and Edmund Daniel had arrived at Limerick city two years beforehand and their situation there had been perilous. Both had arrived in
15360-558: Was considered an ideal place for training new missionaries. Marquette studied the languages and customs of the Algonquin, Abenaki, and Iroquois people that he often tended to at Sillery. From there, he was assigned to Trois-Rivières on the Saint Lawrence River , where he assisted Gabriel Druillettes . This mission was located in a river town that had permanent shops and taverns. A large number of French soldiers were stationed in
15488-420: Was conveyed to them by certain influential friends. They recommenced teaching at Castle Lane, and imparting the sacraments, though their activities were restricted by the arrival of Royal Commissioners. Good reported that as he was an Englishman, English officials in the city cultivated him and he was invited to dine with them on a number of occasions, though he was warned to exercise prudence and avoid promoting
15616-466: Was established at Limerick by the apostolic visitor of the Holy See , David Wolfe . Wolfe had been sent to Ireland by Pope Pius IV with the concurrence of the third Jesuit superior general, Diego Laynez . He was charged with setting up grammar schools "as a remedy against the profound ignorance of the people". Wolfe's mission in Ireland initially concentrated on setting the sclerotic Irish Church on
15744-410: Was located on Mackinac Island . The group would be welcomed by a small group of Ottawa who already inhabited the island. Shortly after the new residents arrived on the island, they became worried about the possibility of winter starvation. They had noticed that game was scarce and no corn had grown. A group of elders approached Marquette with these concerns, and Marquette agreed. In the fall, the mission
15872-538: Was moved to the mainland at St. Ignace, Michigan . Marquette's request to take a leave from missionary work to explore the great river was granted in 1673. Marquette joined the expedition of Louis Jolliet, a French-Canadian explorer. They departed from Saint Ignace on May 17, with two canoes and five voyageurs of French-Indian ancestry . Four of these are known to be: Jacques Largillier, Jean Plattier, Pierre Moreau, and Jean Tiberge. They travelled through Lake Huron and Lake Michigan and into Green Bay . This
16000-614: Was not the Jesuits' only intended outcome, and that this Christianization came alongside land theft and other attempts at Europeanization. A Huron religious leader in the 1640s made a speech condemning Jesuit missionaries' plans to develop the land and noting how the Jesuit missionaries' presence resulted in higher mortality rates for the Huron. “Such powerful attacks on Christianity and its effects on traditional ways of life were repeated constantly by native priests throughout New France. Their potent arguments frequently thwarted Jesuit efforts.” Tekakwitha's canonization, which took place in 2012,
16128-611: Was offered. Marquette did accept a calumet that was gifted to him by the chief. The chief explained that it was a symbol of peace and advised Marquette to display it as an indication of his amicable intentions. As the men left the village, the Peoria chief cautioned them against going too much farther south. As the party continued south, Marquette hoped to find the Chanouananons. They were known to be friendly to French, and Marquette felt they may be interested in Christianity. They did not find
16256-530: Was recorded by Jesuit José de Acosta of a conversation with the Archbishop of Santo Domingo. In the words of one historian: "The use of the name Jesus gave great offense. Both on the Continent and in England, it was denounced as blasphemous; petitions were sent to kings and to civil and ecclesiastical tribunals to have it changed; and even Pope Sixtus V had signed a Brief to do away with it." But nothing came of all
16384-498: Was unsuccessful. He felt they may have misunderstood the intentions of the men with guns, and that they may have been inviting them to their village. Marquette was correct. He and the other men followed them to their village, where they were fed beef and white plums. At the mouth of the Saint Francis River, the men spotted a village. They heard war cries and saw men jumping into the river, trying to get to them. Marquette held
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