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54-538: Approximately 170, see Section Species . Jatropha is a genus of flowering plants in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae . The name is derived from the Greek words ἰατρός ( iatros ), meaning "physician", and τροφή ( trophe ), meaning "nutrition", hence the common name physic nut . Another common name is nettlespurge . It contains approximately 170 species of succulent plants , shrubs and trees (some are deciduous , like Jatropha curcas ). Most of these are native to

108-562: A slow cooker , will not remove all the lectins. Some studies have found that lectins may interfere with absorption of some minerals, such as calcium , iron , phosphorus , and zinc . The binding of lectins to cells in the digestive tract may disrupt the breakdown and absorption of some nutrients, and as they bind to cells for long periods of time, some theories hold that they may play a role in certain inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and type 1 diabetes , but research supporting claims of long-term health effects in humans

162-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

216-482: A deeper understanding of their numerous biological functions, the plant lectins, also known as phytohemagglutinins , were noted for their particularly high specificity for foreign glycoconjugates (e.g., those of fungi and animals) and used in biomedicine for blood cell testing and in biochemistry for fractionation . Although they were first discovered more than 100 years ago in plants, now lectins are known to be present throughout nature. The earliest description of

270-914: A function. Several plant lectins have been found to recognize noncarbohydrate ligands that are primarily hydrophobic in nature, including adenine , auxins , cytokinin , and indole acetic acid , as well as water-soluble porphyrins . These interactions may be physiologically relevant, since some of these molecules function as phytohormones . Lectin receptor kinases (LecRKs) are believed to recognize damage associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which are created or released from herbivore attack. In Arabidopsis , legume-type LecRKs Clade 1 has 11 LecRK proteins. LecRK-1.8 has been reported to recognize extracellular NAD molecules and LecRK-1.9 has been reported to recognize extracellular ATP molecules. Extraction of proteins and lectins can be extracted via similar processes, also with their analysis, and discovery. For example cottonseed contains compounds of interest within

324-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

378-579: A lectin is believed to have been given by Peter Hermann Stillmark in his doctoral thesis presented in 1888 to the University of Dorpat . Stillmark isolated ricin, an extremely toxic hemagglutinin, from seeds of the castor plant ( Ricinus communis ). The first lectin to be purified on a large scale and available on a commercial basis was concanavalin A , which is now the most-used lectin for characterization and purification of sugar-containing molecules and cellular structures. The legume lectins are probably

432-453: A lectin-free diet in his book The Plant Paradox (2017). It excludes a large range of commonplace foods including whole grains , legumes, and most fruit, as well as the nightshade vegetables : tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, bell peppers, and chili peppers. Gundry's claims about lectins are considered pseudoscience . His book cites studies that have nothing to do with lectins, and some that show—contrary to his own recommendations—that avoiding

486-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

540-488: A major family of protein antinutrients , which are specific sugar-binding proteins exhibiting reversible carbohydrate-binding activities. Lectins are similar to antibodies in their ability to agglutinate red blood cells. Many legume seeds have been proven to contain high lectin activity, termed hemagglutination . Soybean is the most important grain legume crop in this category. Its seeds contain high activity of soybean lectins ( soybean agglutinin or SBA). Long before

594-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

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648-475: A result, their productivity is variable, and the long-term impact of their large-scale use on soil quality and the environment is unknown. 2009 research found that Jatropha biodiesel production requires significantly more water than other common biofuel crops , and that initial yield estimates were high. Earlier, higher estimates from Worldwatch Institute had suggested that 1 acre of cultivation could yield 202 gallons (4.8 barrels) of biodiesel. Jatropha curcas

702-741: A role in recognition at the cellular and molecular level and play numerous roles in biological recognition phenomena involving cells, carbohydrates, and proteins. Lectins also mediate attachment and binding of bacteria , viruses , and fungi to their intended targets. Lectins are found in many foods. Some foods, such as beans and grains, need to be cooked, fermented or sprouted to reduce lectin content. Some lectins are beneficial, such as CLEC11A , which promotes bone growth, while others may be powerful toxins such as ricin . Lectins may be disabled by specific mono- and oligosaccharides , which bind to ingested lectins from grains, legumes, nightshade plants, and dairy; binding can prevent their attachment to

756-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

810-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

864-625: Is a skin irritant, and ingesting as few as three untreated seeds can be fatal to humans. In 2005, Western Australia banned Jatropha gossypiifolia as invasive and highly toxic to people and animals. It continues to be used as a medicine in certain geographic regions; however one study found the dried leaf to have no anti-fungal activity. Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

918-406: Is also being studied for use as a carbon sequestration plant in arid regions. Much like other members of the family Euphorbiaceae , members of the genus Jatropha contain several toxic compounds. The seeds of Jatropha curcas contain toxic lectin dimers and carcinogenic phorbol esters. Despite this, the seeds are occasionally eaten after roasting, which reduces some of the toxicity. Its sap

972-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

1026-684: Is limited and most existing studies have focused on developing countries where malnutrition may be a factor, or dietary choices are otherwise limited. The first writer to advocate a lectin-free diet was Peter J. D'Adamo, a Naturopath best known for promoting the Blood type diet . He argued that lectins may damage a person's blood type by interfering with digestion, food metabolism, hormones, insulin production—and so should be avoided. D'Adamo provided no scientific evidence nor published data for his claims, and his diet has been criticized for making inaccurate statements about biochemistry. Steven Gundry proposed

1080-466: Is mainly converted into biodiesel for use in diesel engines . It is also used for thermal energy storage or as heat transfer fluid at medium and high temperature. The cake resulting from oil extraction, a protein-rich product, can be used for fish or animal feed (if detoxified). It is also a biomass feedstock to power electricity plants or to produce biogas , and a high-quality organic fertilizer . In 2007, Goldman Sachs cited Jatropha curcas as one of

1134-464: Is often used is made from the root of another plant species, Krameria grayi . Spicy jatropha ( J. integerrima ) is cultivated as an ornamental in the tropics for its continuously blooming crimson flowers. Buddha belly plant ( J. podagrica ) was used to tan leather and produce a red dye in Mexico and the southwestern United States. It is also used as a house plant. The oil from Jatropha curcas

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1188-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

1242-402: Is still uncertain. Once thought to be necessary for rhizobia binding, this proposed function was ruled out through lectin-knockout transgene studies. The large concentration of lectins in plant seeds decreases with growth, and suggests a role in plant germination and perhaps in the seed's survival itself. The binding of glycoproteins on the surface of parasitic cells also is believed to be

1296-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

1350-585: Is used to trace the path of efferent axons with PHA-L , a lectin from the kidney bean . A lectin ( BanLec ) from bananas inhibits HIV-1 in vitro . Achylectins, isolated from Tachypleus tridentatus , show specific agglutinating activity against human A-type erythrocytes. Anti-B agglutinins such as anti-BCJ and anti-BLD separated from Charybdis japonica and Lymantria dispar , respectively, are of value both in routine blood grouping and research. Lectins from legume plants, such as PHA or concanavalin A , have been used widely as model systems to understand

1404-590: The Americas , with 66 species found in the Old World . Plants produce separate male and female flowers . As with many members of the family Euphorbiaceae , Jatropha contains compounds that are highly toxic. Jatropha species have traditionally been used in basketmaking, tanning and dye production. In the 2000s, one species, Jatropha curcas , generated interest as an oil crop for biodiesel production and also medicinal importance when used as lamp oil; native Mexicans in

1458-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

1512-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

1566-460: The Paramyxoviridae family, use this mechanism to bind and gain entry to target cells. Purified lectins are important in a clinical setting because they are used for blood typing . Some of the glycolipids and glycoproteins on an individual's red blood cells can be identified by lectins. Non blood-group antigens can be identified by lectins: In neuroscience, the anterograde labeling method

1620-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

1674-469: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

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1728-617: The Veracruz area developed by selective breeding a Jatropha curcas variant lacking the toxic compounds, yielding a better income when used as source for biodiesel, because of its edible byproduct. Toxicity may return if edible Jatropha is pollinated by toxic types. The stems of haat ( Jatropha cuneata ) are used for basketmaking by the Seri people in Sonora , Mexico. The stems are roasted, split and soaked through an elaborate process. The reddish dye that

1782-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

1836-468: The best candidates for future biodiesel production. It is resistant to drought and pests , and produces seeds containing 27-40% oil , averaging 34.4%. The remaining press cake of jatropha seeds after oil extraction could also be considered for energy production. However, despite their abundance and use as oil and reclamation plants, none of the Jatropha species have been properly domesticated and, as

1890-463: The carbohydrates within the cell membrane. The selectivity of lectins means that they are useful for analyzing blood type , and they have been researched for potential use in genetically engineered crops to transfer pest resistance. branched α-mannosidic structures (high α-mannose type, or hybrid type and biantennary complex type N-Glycans) R2-GlcNAcβ1-4(Fucα1-6)GlcNAc-R1 William C. Boyd alone and then together with Elizabeth Shapleigh introduced

1944-506: The development of pest. Concanavalin A and other commercially available lectins have been used widely in affinity chromatography for purifying glycoproteins. In general, proteins may be characterized with respect to glycoforms and carbohydrate structure by means of affinity chromatography , blotting , affinity electrophoresis , and affinity immunoelectrophoreis with lectins, as well as in microarrays , as in evanescent -field fluorescence-assisted lectin microarray. One example of

1998-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

2052-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

2106-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

2160-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

2214-477: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Lectin Lectins are carbohydrate -binding proteins that are highly specific for sugar groups that are part of other molecules, so cause agglutination of particular cells or precipitation of glycoconjugates and polysaccharides . Lectins have

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2268-401: The molecular basis of how proteins recognize carbohydrates, because they are relatively easy to obtain and have a wide variety of sugar specificities. The many crystal structures of legume lectins have led to a detailed insight of the atomic interactions between carbohydrates and proteins. Legume seed lectins have been studied for their insecticidal potential and have shown harmful effects for

2322-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

2376-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

2430-558: The powerful biological attributes of lectins is the biochemical warfare agent ricin. The protein ricin is isolated from seeds of the castor oil plant and comprises two protein domains . Abrin from the jequirity pea is similar: Lectins are widespread in nature, and many foods contain the proteins. Some lectins can be harmful if poorly cooked or consumed in great quantities. They are most potent when raw as boiling, stewing or soaking in water for several hours can render most lectins inactive. Cooking raw beans at low heat, though, such as in

2484-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

2538-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

2592-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

2646-557: The studies of extraction and purification of proteins Some hepatitis C viral glycoproteins may attach to C-type lectins on the host cell surface (liver cells) to initiate infection. To avoid clearance from the body by the innate immune system , pathogens (e.g., virus particles and bacteria that infect human cells) often express surface lectins known as adhesins and hemagglutinins that bind to tissue-specific glycans on host cell-surface glycoproteins and glycolipids . Multiple viruses, including influenza and several viruses in

2700-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

2754-526: The term "lectin" in 1954 from the Latin word lectus , "chosen" (from the verb legere , to choose or pick out). Lectins may bind to a soluble carbohydrate or to a carbohydrate moiety that is a part of a glycoprotein or glycolipid . They typically agglutinate certain animal cells and/or precipitate glycoconjugates . Most lectins do not possess enzymatic activity. Lectins have these functions in animals: The function of lectins in plants ( legume lectin )

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2808-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

2862-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

2916-511: The whole grains wheat , barley , and rye will allow increase of harmful bacteria while diminishing helpful bacteria. Lectins are one of many toxic constituents of many raw plants that are inactivated by proper processing and preparation (e.g., cooking with heat, fermentation). For example, raw kidney beans naturally contain toxic levels of lectin (e.g. phytohaemagglutinin ). Adverse effects may include nutritional deficiencies , and immune ( allergic ) reactions. Lectins are considered

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