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52-648: The Japan Foundation ( 国際交流基金 , Kokusai Kōryū Kikin ) was established in 1972 by an Act of the National Diet as a special legal entity to undertake international dissemination of Japanese culture , and became an Independent Administrative Institution under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on 1 October 2003 under the "Independent Administrative Institution Japan Foundation Law". The Japan Foundation aims towards comprehensive and effective development of its international cultural exchange programs in

104-448: A quorum and deliberations are in public unless at least two-thirds of those present agree otherwise. Each house elects its own presiding officer who casts the deciding vote in the event of a tie. The Diet has parliamentary immunity . Members of each house have certain protections against arrest while the Diet is in session and arrested members must be released during the term of the session if

156-622: A bill must be first passed by both houses of the Diet and then promulgated by the Emperor . This role of the Emperor is similar to the Royal Assent in some other nations; however, the Emperor cannot refuse to promulgate a law and therefore his legislative role is merely a formality. The House of Representatives is the more powerful chamber of the Diet. While the House of Representatives cannot usually overrule

208-406: A different method; the main difference between the houses is in the sizes of the two groups and how they are elected. Voters are also asked to cast two votes: one for an individual candidate in a constituency, and one for a party list. Any national of Japan at least 18 years of age may vote in these elections, reduced from age 20 in 2016. Japan's parallel voting system ( mixed-member majoritarian )

260-477: A result of these early conflicts, public opinion of politicians was not favorable. The Imperial Diet consisted of a House of Representatives and a House of Peers ( 貴族院 , Kizoku-in ) . The House of Representatives was directly elected, if on a limited franchise; universal adult male suffrage was introduced in 1925 when the Universal Manhood Suffrage Law was passed, but excluded women, and

312-405: A secret ballot. It also insists that the electoral law must not discriminate in terms of "race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income". Generally, the election of Diet members is controlled by statutes passed by the Diet. This is a source of contention concerning re-apportionment of prefectures' seats in response to changes of population distribution. For example,

364-430: A vote of the House of Councillors only by a two-thirds majority of members present. The House of Councillors has 248 members who each serve six-year terms, two years longer than those of the House of Representatives. Councillors must be at least 30 years old, compared with 25 years old in the House of Representatives. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved, and terms are staggered so that only half of its membership

416-484: Is a Japanese website designed by the Japan Foundation to enhance the strength of information transmission about Japanese culture to the world. It replaced the paper magazines Kokusai-Kouryu (International Exchanges) (1974–2004) and Wochi-Kochi (Far and Near) (2004–2009). Those were the only domestic paper magazines which were especially published for "international cultural exchanges". The word "wochi-kochi" itself

468-549: Is a pronoun from ancient Japanese "Yamato" language meaning "here and there" or "the future and the present". As the web magazine title, "wochi-kochi" demonstrates places and times, and it expresses the desires to spread Japanese language/culture overseas, moreover, play a role as the cultural bridge among countries and people. Keeping those aspects from previous magazines, the Wochi-Kochi Magazine website carries interviews, contributed articles and serialized stories written by

520-420: Is not to be confused with the mixed-member proportional systems used in many other nations. The Constitution of Japan does not specify the number of members of each house of the Diet, the voting system, or the necessary qualifications of those who may vote or be returned in parliamentary elections , thus allowing all of these things to be determined by law. However it does guarantee universal adult suffrage and

572-406: Is the upper house of the National Diet of Japan . The House of Representatives is the lower house . The House of Councillors is the successor to the pre-war House of Peers . If the two houses disagree on matters of the budget, treaties, or the nomination of the prime minister, the House of Representatives can insist on its decision. In other decisions, the House of Representatives can override

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624-552: Is the national legislature of Japan . It is composed of a lower house, called the House of Representatives ( 衆議院 , Shūgiin ), and an upper house, the House of Councillors ( 参議院 , Sangiin ). Both houses are directly elected under a parallel voting system . In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally responsible for nominating the Prime Minister . The Diet was first established as

676-519: Is up for election every three years. Of the 121 members subject to election each time, 73 are elected from 45 districts by single non-transferable vote (SNTV) and 48 are elected from a nationwide list by proportional representation (PR) with open lists . The power of House of Councillors is very similar to the Canadian Senate or the Irish Seanad . In central issues, there is a "supremacy of

728-665: The Cabinet Legislation Bureau of the government, as well as to the ruling party. Japan's first modern legislature was the Imperial Diet ( 帝国議会 , Teikoku-gikai ) established by the Meiji Constitution in force from 1889 to 1947. The Meiji Constitution was adopted on February 11, 1889, and the Imperial Diet first met on November 29, 1890, when the document entered into force. The first Imperial Diet of 1890

780-580: The Constitution describes the National Diet as "the highest organ of State power" and "the sole law-making organ of the State". This statement is in forceful contrast to the Meiji Constitution , which described the Emperor as the one who exercised legislative power with the consent of the Diet. The Diet's responsibilities include not only the making of laws but also the approval of the annual national budget that

832-551: The Japanese Constitution provided that half of the councillors elected in the first House of Councillors election in 1947 would be up for re-election three years later in order to introduce staggered six-year terms. The House initially had 250 seats. Two seats were added to the House in 1970 after the agreement on the repatriation of Okinawa , increasing the House to a total of 252. Legislation aimed at addressing malapportionment that favoured less populated prefectures

884-598: The Kurokawa decision of 1976, invalidating an election in which one district in Hyōgo Prefecture received five times the representation of another district in Osaka Prefecture . In recent elections the malapportionment ratio amounted to 4.8 in the House of Councillors (census 2005: Ōsaka/Tottori; election 2007: Kanagawa/Tottori ) and 2.3 in the House of Representatives (election 2009: Chiba 4/Kōchi 3). Candidates for

936-592: The Liberal Democratic Party had controlled Japan for most of its post-war history, and it gained much of its support from rural areas. During the post-war era, large numbers of people were relocating to the urban centers in the seeking of wealth; though some re-apportionments have been made to the number of each prefecture's assigned seats in the Diet, rural areas generally have more representation than do urban areas. The Supreme Court of Japan began exercising judicial review of apportionment laws following

988-522: The advice of the Cabinet . In an emergency the Cabinet can convoke the Diet for an extraordinary session, and an extraordinary session may be requested by one-quarter of the members of either house. At the beginning of each parliamentary session, the Emperor reads a special speech from his throne in the chamber of the House of Councillors. The presence of one-third of the membership of either house constitutes

1040-488: The confidence and supply arrangement during the restored LDP single-party government ensured legislative government majorities until the opposition victory in the 1998 House of Councillors election which led to the formation of another coalition government by 1999. The legislative two-thirds override power of the House of Representatives was never used between 1950s and 2008 when the LDP-Kōmeitō coalition government had lost

1092-517: The Diet and the Emperor. This meant that while the Emperor could no longer legislate by decree he still had a veto over the Diet. The Emperor also had complete freedom in choosing the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, and so, under the Meiji Constitution, Prime Ministers often were not chosen from and did not enjoy the confidence of the Diet. The Imperial Diet was also limited in its control over

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1144-429: The Diet if the House of Representatives passes a motion of no confidence introduced by fifty members of the House of Representatives. Government officials, including the Prime Minister and Cabinet members , are required to appear before Diet investigative committees and answer inquiries. The Diet also has the power to impeach judges convicted of criminal or irregular conduct. In most circumstances, in order to become law

1196-563: The Diet was "twisted" from 1989 to 1993, 1998–1999, 2007–2009, and most recently 2010–2013. In recent years, many constitutional revision advocates call for reforming the role of the House of Councillors ("carbon copy" of the House of Representatives or "recalcitrant naysayer") or abolishing it altogether to "prevent political paralysis", after the recently more frequent twisted Diets have seen an increase in inter-chamber friction/"political nightmare"s. Examples of high-stakes, internationally noted conflicts in recent twisted Diets: Article 102 of

1248-418: The House demands. They are immune outside the house for words spoken and votes cast in the House. Each house of the Diet determines its own standing orders and has responsibility for disciplining its own members. A member may be expelled, but only by a two-thirds majority vote. Every member of the Cabinet has the right to appear in either house of the Diet for the purpose of speaking on bills, and each house has

1300-475: The House of Councillors can only delay a bill, but not prevent passage. Opposition control of the House of Councillors is often summarized by the term nejire Kokkai ( ja:ねじれ国会 , "twisted" or "skewed" Diet). Setting aside the immediate postwar years, when many governments were in the minority in the upper house, but the strongest force, the centrist Ryokufūkai , was not in all-out opposition to either centre-left or centre-right governments and willing to cooperate,

1352-419: The House of Councillors can still be invoked to take provisional decisions for the whole Diet. Such decisions will become invalid unless confirmed by the House of Representatives as soon as the whole Diet convenes again. The basic stipulations on the role of the House of Councillors are subject of chapter IV of the constitution . Laws and rules containing more detailed provisions on parliamentary procedures and

1404-406: The House of Councillors majority in the 2007 election, but did control a two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives since 2005. After that, it has been used somewhat more frequently (see ja:衆議院の再議決 , Shūgin no saikaketsu , ~"Override decisions by the House of Representatives" for a list). If a government controls a two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives and is willing to use it,

1456-492: The House of Councillors on a bill, the House of Councillors can only delay the adoption of a budget or a treaty that has been approved by the House of Representatives, and the House of Councillors has almost no power at all to prevent the lower house from selecting any Prime Minister it wishes. Furthermore, once appointed it is the confidence of the House of Representatives alone that the Prime Minister must enjoy in order to continue in office. The House of Representatives can overrule

1508-412: The House of Representatives is enough for a united opposition to be able to block the passage of legislation. For certain important administrative nominations by the cabinet, the approval of both houses is required (although the laws containing this requirement could be changed by two-thirds lower house override as a "nuclear option"); and constitutional amendment proposals need two-thirds majorities in both

1560-447: The House of Representatives" ( ja:衆議院の優越 , Shūgiin no yūetsu ). In the election of the prime minister , the ratification of international treaties, and on passing the budget, a decision by the House of Representatives always overrides dissent from the House of Councillors. Only the lower house can pass votes of no-confidence against the cabinet. All other legislation requires either the approval by majorities in both houses, an agreement in

1612-562: The Imperial Diet in 1890 under the Meiji Constitution , and took its current form in 1947 upon the adoption of the post-war constitution . Both houses meet in the National Diet Building ( 国会議事堂 , Kokkai-gijidō ) in Nagatachō , Chiyoda , Tokyo . The houses of the National Diet are both elected under parallel voting systems. This means that the seats to be filled in any given election are divided into two groups, each elected by

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1664-1229: The LDP and the Japan Socialist Party (now Social Democratic Party ), which in fact had sponsored the reform. There are three types of sessions of the National Diet: Any session of the National Diet may be cut short by a dissolution of the House of Representatives (衆議院解散, shūgiin kaisan ). In the table, this is listed simply as "(dissolution)"; the House of Councillors or the National Diet as such cannot be dissolved. House of Councillors 35°40′35.5″N 139°44′40.5″E  /  35.676528°N 139.744583°E  / 35.676528; 139.744583 Opposition (92) Unaffiliated (9) Vacant (8) Naruhito [REDACTED] Fumihito [REDACTED] Shigeru Ishiba ( LDP ) Second Ishiba Cabinet ( LDP – Komeito coalition ) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Fukushiro Nukaga Kōichirō Genba [REDACTED] Masakazu Sekiguchi Hiroyuki Nagahama Saburo Tokura Kazuo Ueda The House of Councillors ( Japanese : 参議院 , Hepburn : Sangiin )

1716-652: The LDP negotiated and passed the peace-keeping operations bill with centre-left/right-of-JSP opposition parties ( DSP and Kōmeitō ) against fierce opposition from JSP and JCP ; the PKO law became the base for the Self-Defense Forces' first (ground) deployment abroad as part of the UN mission in Cambodia . After the 1993 House of Representatives election, with the exception of a brief minority government in 1994, coalition governments or

1768-451: The budget. However, the Diet could veto the annual budget. If no budget was approved, the budget of the previous year continued in force. This changed with the new constitution after World War II. The proportional representation system for the House of Councillors, introduced in 1982, was the first major electoral reform under the post-war constitution. Instead of choosing national constituency candidates as individuals, as had previously been

1820-407: The case, voters cast ballots for parties. Individual councillors, listed officially by the parties before the election, are selected on the basis of the parties' proportions of the total national constituency vote. The system was introduced to reduce the excessive money spent by candidates for the national constituencies. Critics charged, however, that this new system benefited the two largest parties,

1872-449: The conference committee of both houses or an additional override vote by two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives. However, no single party has ever won a two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives under the current constitution, although the LDP came close several times, as did the DPJ in 2009. In other words, controlling a majority in the House of Councillors and one third of

1924-1054: The experts from various professional fields each month. From 1995 onward regularly inviting leading cartoonists from various Asian countries to conduct Asian Cartoon Exhibition and Conference at The Japan Foundation Asia Center, Tokyo as an annual event. Later on the same exhibition travels to the various Asian counties. In the process, it has employed the friendly medium of cartoons for introducing Asian societies to those who would like to know more about them and appreciate people other than their own kind. National Diet Opposition (92) Unaffiliated (9) Vacant (8) Opposition (242) Unaffiliated (2) Naruhito [REDACTED] Fumihito [REDACTED] Shigeru Ishiba ( LDP ) Second Ishiba Cabinet ( LDP – Komeito coalition ) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Fukushiro Nukaga Kōichirō Genba [REDACTED] Masakazu Sekiguchi Hiroyuki Nagahama Saburo Tokura Kazuo Ueda The National Diet ( Japanese : 国会 , Hepburn : Kokkai )

1976-585: The following categories: Prince Takamado served as administrator of the Japan Foundation from 1981 to 2002. The Japan Foundation is headquartered in Shinjuku, Tokyo and has a subsidiary office in Kyoto . There are also two domestic Japanese-Language Institutes in Saitama and Tajiri, Osaka . Internationally, the Japan Foundation maintains 25 overseas branches in 24 countries: The Wochi Kochi Magazine ( をちこちMagazine )

2028-460: The government submits and the ratification of treaties. It can also initiate draft constitutional amendments, which, if approved, must be presented to the people in a referendum. The Diet may conduct "investigations in relation to government" (Article 62). The Prime Minister must be designated by Diet resolution, establishing the principle of legislative supremacy over executive government agencies (Article 67). The government can also be dissolved by

2080-569: The houses of the Diet to be submitted to the people in a national referendum . One additional constitutional role of the House of Councillors is to serve as functioning fully elected emergency legislature on its own during lower house election campaigns: While the House of Representatives is dissolved, the National Diet can't be convened, and therefore no law can be passed in regular procedure; but in urgent cases requiring parliamentary action (e.g. election management, provisional budgets, disaster response), an emergency session (緊急集会, kinkyū shūkai ) of

2132-467: The lower house must be 25 years old or older and 30 years or older for the upper house. All candidates must be Japanese nationals. Under Article 49 of Japan's Constitution, Diet members are paid about ¥1.3 million a month in salary. Each lawmaker is entitled to employ three secretaries with taxpayer funds, free Shinkansen tickets, and four round-trip airplane tickets a month to enable them to travel back and forth to their home districts. Article 41 of

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2184-427: The opposition, or avoided to submit bills with no prospects of passage, so the House of Councillors rarely voted against the decisions reached by the lower house for much of postwar history: As the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), founded in 1955, often held majorities in both houses or was sufficiently close to control both houses together with independents and micro-parties for a long period, inter-chamber disagreement

2236-486: The relations between the two houses include the National Diet Law (国会法, Kokkai-hō ), the conference committee regulations (両院協議会規程, ryōin-kyōgikai kitei ), and the rules of each house (衆議院/参議院規則, Shūgiin/Sangiin kisoku ). In practice, governments often tried to ensure legislative majorities, either by forming coalition governments with safe legislative majorities in the first place or by negotiating with part of

2288-522: The right to compel the appearance of Cabinet members. The vast majority of bills are submitted to the Diet by the Cabinet. Bills are usually drafted by the relevant ministry, sometimes with the advice of an external committee if the issue is sufficiently important or neutrality is necessary. Such advisory committees may include university professors, trade union representatives, industry representatives, and local governors and mayors, and invariably include retired officials. Such draft bills would be sent to

2340-470: The upper house in the following circumstances: Under the Constitution, at least one session of the Diet must be convened each year. Technically, only the House of Representatives is dissolved before an election. But, while the lower house is in dissolution, the House of Councillors is usually "closed". The Emperor both convokes the Diet and dissolves the House of Representatives but in doing so must act on

2392-532: Was a common name for an assembly in medieval European polities like the Holy Roman Empire . The Meiji Constitution was largely based on the form of constitutional monarchy found in nineteenth century Prussia that placed the king not as a servant of the state but rather the sole holder of power and sovereignty over his kingdom, which the Japanese view of their emperor and his role at the time favoured. The new Diet

2444-451: Was introduced in 2000; this resulted in ten seats being removed (five each at the 2001 and 2004 elections), bringing the total number of seats to 242. Further reforms to address malapportionment took effect in 2007 and 2016, but did not change the total number of members in the house. From 1947 to 1983, the House had 100 seats allocated to a national block ( 全国区 , zenkoku-ku ) , of which fifty seats were allocated in each election. It

2496-487: Was limited to men 25 years or older. The House of Peers, much like the British House of Lords , consisted of high-ranking nobles chosen by the Emperor. The first election by universal suffrage without distinction of sex was held in 1946, but it was not until 1947, when the constitution for post-war Japan came into effect, that universal suffrage was established In Japan. The word diet derives from Latin and

2548-577: Was modeled partly on the German Reichstag and partly on the British Westminster system . Unlike the post-war constitution, the Meiji constitution granted a real political role to the Emperor, although in practice the Emperor's powers were largely directed by a group of oligarchs called the genrō or elder statesmen. To become law or bill, a constitutional amendment had to have the assent of both

2600-480: Was originally intended to give nationally prominent figures a route to the House without going through local electioneering processes. Some national political figures, such as feminists Shidzue Katō and Fusae Ichikawa and former Imperial Army general Kazushige Ugaki , were elected through the block, along with a number of celebrities such as comedian Yukio Aoshima (later Governor of Tokyo), journalist Hideo Den and actress Yūko Mochizuki . Shintaro Ishihara won

2652-560: Was plagued by controversy and political tensions. The Prime Minister of Japan at that time was General Count Yamagata Aritomo , who entered into a confrontation with the legislative body over military funding. During this time, there were many critics of the army who derided the Meiji slogan of "rich country, strong military" as in effect producing a poor country (albeit with a strong military). They advocated for infrastructure projects and lower taxes instead and felt their interests were not being served by high levels of military spending. As

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2704-444: Was rare during most of the 1955 System . After the opposition victory in the 1989 election, the relative importance of the House of Councillors initially increased, as the LDP continued to govern alone and did not hold a two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives. Crucial legislation had to be negotiated with parts of the opposition. The most prominent example was the so-called "PKO Diet" ( ja:PKO国会 , PKO Kokkai ) of 1992 when

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