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114-436: The theory has been criticized and modified over the course of time, as one of several competing theories of emotion. Modern theorists have built on its ideas by proposing that the experience of emotion is modulated by both physiological feedback and other information, rather than consisting solely of bodily changes, as James suggested. Psychologist Tim Dalgleish states that most modern affective neuroscientists would support such

228-406: A behavior and emotion category. In other words, "stimulation of the same site produces different mental states across instances, depending on the prior state of the individual and also the immediate context." She concludes that this means there is more going on when a person feels an emotion than just a physiological response: some kind of processing must happen between the physiological response and

342-442: A completed trial. Located in the temporal lobe , the auditory cortex is the primary receptive area for sound information. The auditory cortex is composed of Brodmann areas 41 and 42, also known as the anterior transverse temporal area 41 and the posterior transverse temporal area 42 , respectively. Both areas act similarly and are integral in receiving and processing the signals transmitted from auditory receptors . Located in

456-409: A distinct biological state. Dewey's assumed error "represents a 180-degree inversion of [James'] meaning, as if [James] were claiming the existence of emotion essences, when ironically he was arguing against them." Barrett notes that "Dewey's role in this [error] is forgotten." Barrett also points out that when testing this theory with electrical stimulation, there is not a one-to-one response between

570-641: A drastic increase in social interaction that cause positive emotional arousal. On the chance they experience a negative emotional reaction from a social event, they are likely to be able to pair it with something that is more positively emotionally salient. This causes the negative emotion to be less potent, and therefore increase their hedonic perspective on life. A meta-analysis is a statistical approach to synthesizing results across multiple studies. Included studies investigated healthy, unmedicated adults and that used subtraction analysis to examine brain areas that were more active during emotional processing than during

684-399: A fixation cross at the center of a screen. An emotional stimulus and a neutral stimulus appear side by side, after which a dot appears behind either the neutral stimulus (incongruent condition) or the affective stimulus (congruent condition). Participants are asked to indicate when they see this dot, and response latency is measured. Dots that appear on the same side of the screen as the image

798-426: A higher satisfaction in life. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) has a significant influence on emotion regulation, especially regarding high emotional arousing stimuli. Compared to other areas of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the vmPFC loses volume at a much lower rate. Due to this, an older person's emotional regulation abilities are not heavily impacted by brain changes associated with aging. Additionally,

912-413: A mere physical sensation. According to Barrett's theory of constructed emotion , a person must make meaning of the physical response based on context, prior experience, and social cues, before they know what emotion is attached to the situation. Barrett and James Gross have reviewed a variety of alternative models to the so-called James–Lange theory. A study in 2009 found that patients who had lesions to

1026-480: A more positive emotional affect. In fact, there seems to be a decrease in negative emotions felt by older adults once until they reach the age of 60, in which this decrease stops. It is important to note that while the frequency of negative emotion decreases with age, the intensity of the emotions experienced does not change. Additionally, emotional satisfaction is not lower just because they experience less frequent negative emotions. Carstensen (2003) hypothesized that

1140-527: A neutral (control) condition. In the first neuroimaging meta-analysis of emotion, Phan et al. (2002) analyzed the results of 55 peer reviewed studies between January 1990 and December 2000 to determine if the emotions of fear, sadness, disgust, anger, and happiness were consistently associated with activity in specific brain regions. All studies used fMRI or PET techniques to investigate higher-order mental processing of emotion (studies of low-order sensory or motor processes were excluded). The authors' tabulated

1254-472: A person can experience many different kinds of fear, which feel differently, and which correspond to different neural patterns in the brain. People typically associate aging with a decline in the functioning of all mental processing abilities; however, this is not the case for emotion regulation. Older adults typically have a stronger drive to maintain and improve on their emotional well being. Thus providing them to utilize emotion regulation skills that provide

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1368-442: A placid face? The present writer, for one, certainly cannot. The rage is as completely evaporated as the sensation of its so-called manifestations. Physician Carl Lange developed similar ideas independently in 1885. Both theorists defined emotion as a feeling of physiological changes due to a stimulus, but the theorists focused on different aspects of emotion. Although James did talk about the physiology associated with an emotion, he

1482-648: A role in processing visual information and paying attention to emotional signals. Vytal, et al. 2010 examined 83 neuroimaging studies published between 1993–2008 to examine whether neuroimaging evidence supports biologically discrete, basic emotions (i.e. fear, anger, disgust, happiness, and sadness). Consistency analyses identified brain regions associated with individual emotions. Discriminability analyses identified brain regions that were differentially active under contrasting pairs of emotions. This meta-analysis examined PET or fMRI studies that reported whole brain analyses identifying significant activations for at least one of

1596-433: A set of stimuli. Startle reflexes have been shown to be modulated by emotion. For example, healthy participants tend to show enhanced startle responses while viewing negatively valenced images and attenuated startle while viewing positively valenced images, as compared with neutral images. The startle response to a particular stimulus is greater under conditions of threat. A common example given to indicate this phenomenon

1710-737: A single emotional category can be consistently and specifically localized to either a single brain region or a defined network of brain regions. Each basic emotion category also shares other universal characteristics: distinct facial behavior, physiology, subjective experience and accompanying thoughts and memories. This approach to emotion hypothesizes that emotions like happiness, sadness, fear, anger and disgust (and many others) are constructed mental states that occur when brain systems work together. In this view, networks of brain regions underlie psychological operations (e.g., language, attention, etc.) that interact to produce emotion, perception, and cognition. One psychological operation critical for emotion

1824-439: A small heat detecting thermometer in the membrane which begins the polarization of the neural fiber when exposed to changes in temperature. Ultimately, this allows us to detect ambient temperature in the warm/hot range. Similarly, the molecular cousin to TRPV1, TRPM8, is a cold-activated ion channel that responds to cold. Both cold and hot receptors are segregated by distinct subpopulations of sensory nerve fibers, which shows us that

1938-421: A social situation becomes emotionally charged differences emerge. When intense emotions in a social situation were evoked for older adults, they tended to the situation in a more passive manner in comparison to middle aged adults. They also tend to rely more on their previous problem solving skills than both younger and older adults. This is because as people age, there tends to be a shift in preferences to maintain

2052-410: A specific area of the brain. While the term sensory cortex is often used informally to refer to the somatosensory cortex , the term more accurately refers to the multiple areas of the brain at which senses are received to be processed. For the five traditional senses in humans, this includes the primary and secondary cortices of the different senses : the somatosensory cortex, the visual cortex ,

2166-401: A specific emotion. Cannon argued that visceral responses are slow and not sensitive enough to elicit emotional responses. J.N. Langley had shown that there was a period of two to four seconds between when the chorda tympani nerve was stimulated and when the salivary gland associated with this nerve responded. Thus, Cannon argued that there was too much of a delay between the stimulation of

2280-656: A viewpoint. In 2002, a research paper on the autonomic nervous system stated that the theory has been "hard to disprove". Despite important critical appraisals, the theory finds support even today: famed consciousness researcher Anil Seth is known for supporting a form of this theory. Emotions are often assumed to be judgments about a situation that cause feelings and physiological changes. In 1884, psychologist and philosopher William James proposed that physiological changes actually precede emotions, which are equivalent to our subjective experience of physiological changes, and are experienced as feelings. In his words, "our feeling of

2394-436: A would-be burglar. Or, if the person heard glass breaking and thought it was their roommate being careless and clumsy, they would have a pounding heart and raised blood pressure due to their subject anger, according to James. James argues that the sequence of events in experiencing emotion is: Emotion stimulus → Physiological Response Pattern → Affective Experience. The theory itself emphasizes how physiological arousal, with

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2508-478: Is Schachter and Singer's two factor theory of emotion . This theory states that cognitions are used to interpret the meaning of physiological reactions to outside events. This theory is different in that emotion is developed from not only cognition, but that combined with a physical reaction. Cannon emphasized that the viscera had been separated from the central nervous system with no impact on emotional behavior in experiments on animals. He said this contradicted

2622-459: Is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory neurons (including the sensory receptor cells), neural pathways , and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception and interoception . Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision , hearing , touch , taste , smell , balance and visceral sensation. Sense organs are transducers that convert data from

2736-443: Is also higher in those experiencing anger than those experiencing fear, sadness and happiness. It also showed that electrodermal responses were higher in people experiencing fear rather than during sadness. But there were also times when the physiological patterns wouldn't differentiate which concludes that this theory is not 100% accurate and that there was not a unique pattern for each basic and distinct emotion. Which led them to blame

2850-571: Is attenuated in later trials due to habituation to the threat stimuli. Fear-potentiated startle (FPS) has been utilized as a psychophysiological index of fear reaction in both animals and humans. FPS is most often assessed through the magnitude of the eyeblink startle reflex, which can be measured by electromyography . This eyeblink reflex is an automatic defensive reaction to an abrupt elicitor, making it an objective indicator of fear. Typical FPS paradigms involve bursts of noise or abrupt flashes of light transmitted while an individual attends to

2964-467: Is aware of their body's physiological arousal and emotional behavior their emotions are shown. He did not think the idea of common sense reactions were real but that each emotion triggered a specific physiological response. For instance, when someone hears breaking glass and they think someone is breaking in, if their heart starts pounding and they begin trembling, James would argue that they are experiencing this physiological reaction because they feel fear of

3078-408: Is measuring happiness but giving rewards sporadically throughout the experiment while the other study is measuring anger by giving the participants a very difficult cross word puzzle to solve. Their physiological responses will be measured - which are blood pressure and electrodermal responses. Verbal and facial expressions will also be examined to determine either happiness or anger. According to James,

3192-417: Is primarily involved in the processing of negative emotions, while the left hemisphere is involved in processing positive emotions. In one explanation, negative emotions are processed by the right brain, while positive emotions are processed by the left. An alternative explanation is that the right hemisphere is dominant when it comes to feeling both positive and negative emotions. Recent studies indicate that

3306-463: Is processed and interpreted. Chemoreceptors, or chemosensors, detect certain chemical stimuli and transduce that signal into an electrical action potential. The two primary types of chemoreceptors are: Photoreceptors are neuron cells and are specialized units that play the main role in initiating vision function. Photoreceptors are light-sensitive cells that capture different wavelengths of light. Different types of photoreceptors are able to respond to

3420-483: Is repeatedly paired with an aversive one, borrowing from classical conditioning . FPS studies have demonstrated that PTSD patients have enhanced startle responses during both danger cues and neutral/safety cues as compared with healthy participants. Affect plays many roles during learning. Deep, emotional attachment to a subject area allows a deeper understanding of the material and therefore, learning occurs and lasts. The emotions evoked when reading in comparison to

3534-478: Is some evidence that the amygdala, anterior insula, and orbitofrontal cortex all contribute to "core affect", which are feelings of pleasure or discomfort. The anterior cingulate and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex play a key role in attention, which is closely related to core affect. By using sensory information, the anterior cingulate directs attention and motor responses. According to psychological constructionist theory, emotions are conceptualizations connecting

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3648-425: Is still a quiescent state for the cochlea, since there is a well-defined mode of power input that it receives (vibratory energy on the eardrum), which provides an unambiguous definition of "zero input power". Some sensory systems can have multiple quiescent states depending on its history, like flip-flops , and magnetic material with hysteresis . It can also adapt to different quiescent states. In complete darkness,

3762-657: Is still disputed. The existence of basic emotions and their defining attributes represents a long lasting and yet unsettled issue in psychology. The available research suggests that the neurobiological existence of basic emotions is still tenable and heuristically seminal, pending some reformulation. These approaches hypothesize that emotion categories (including happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust) are biologically basic. In this view, emotions are inherited, biologically based modules that cannot be separated into more basic psychological components. Models following this approach hypothesize that all mental states belonging to

3876-516: Is that one's startle response to a flash of light will be greater when walking in a dangerous neighborhood at night than it would under safer conditions. In laboratory studies, the threat of receiving shock is enough to potentiate startle, even without any actual shock. Fear potentiated startle paradigms are often used to study fear learning and extinction in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other anxiety disorders. In fear conditioning studies, an initially neutral stimulus

3990-445: Is the network of brain regions that underlie valence (feeling pleasant/unpleasant) and arousal (feeling activated and energized). Emotions emerge when neural systems underlying different psychological operations interact (not just those involved in valence and arousal), producing distributed patterns of activation across the brain. Because emotions emerge from more basic components, heterogeneity affects each emotion category; for example,

4104-444: Is the outer segment (OS), where it is responsible for capturing light and transducing it. The second compartment is the inner segment (IS), which includes the necessary organelles that function in cellular metabolism and biosynthesis. Mainly, these organelles include mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum as well as among others. The third compartment is the connecting cilium (CC). As its name suggests, CC works to connect

4218-411: Is the state the system converges to when there is no input power. It is not always well-defined for nonlinear, nonpassive sensory organs, since they can't function without input energy. For example, a cochlea is not a passive organ, but actively vibrates its own sensory hairs to improve its sensitivity. This manifests as otoacoustic emissions in healthy ears, and tinnitus in pathological ears. There

4332-695: Is the study of how the brain processes emotions . This field combines neuroscience with the psychological study of personality , emotion , and mood . The basis of emotions and what emotions are remains an issue of debate within the field of affective neuroscience. The term "affective neuroscience" was coined by neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp , at a time when cognitive neuroscience focused on parts of psychology that did not include emotion, such as attention or memory. Emotions are thought to be related to activity in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and help us make decisions about our environment. Early stages of research on emotions and

4446-418: Is then transmitted to the thalamus , which in turn projects the signal to several regions of the neocortex , including the gustatory cortex. The neural processing of taste is affected at nearly every stage of processing by concurrent somatosensory information from the tongue, that is, mouthfeel . Scent, in contrast, is not combined with taste to create flavor until higher cortical processing regions, such as

4560-495: The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is an important area of the brain that is used for emotion regulation. The ACC has proven to be a key player in emotion regulation in not just young adults, but also in older adults. In older adults the ACC is important to create connections with from the vmPFC in order to regulate emotions. This connection was the most salient when negative emotions were reappraised. This demonstrates that older adults use

4674-423: The auditory cortex , the primary olfactory cortex , and the gustatory cortex . Other modalities have corresponding sensory cortex areas as well, including the vestibular cortex for the sense of balance. The human sensory system consists of the following subsystems: Located in the parietal lobe , the primary somatosensory cortex is the primary receptive area for the sense of touch and proprioception in

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4788-405: The cerebellum ), and motor control (via Brodmann area 4 ). See also: S2 Secondary somatosensory cortex . The visual cortex refers to the primary visual cortex, labeled V1 or Brodmann area 17 , as well as the extrastriate visual cortical areas V2-V5. Located in the occipital lobe , V1 acts as the primary relay station for visual input, transmitting information to two primary pathways labeled

4902-401: The dorsal and ventral streams . The dorsal stream includes areas V2 and V5, and is used in interpreting visual 'where' and 'how.' The ventral stream includes areas V2 and V4, and is used in interpreting 'what.' Increases in task-negative activity are observed in the ventral attention network, after abrupt changes in sensory stimuli, at the onset and offset of task blocks, and at the end of

5016-417: The olfactory bulb . The chemoreceptors in the receptor neurons that start the signal cascade are G protein-coupled receptors . The central mechanisms include the convergence of olfactory nerve axons into glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, where the signal is then transmitted to the anterior olfactory nucleus , the piriform cortex , the medial amygdala , and the entorhinal cortex , all of which make up

5130-474: The somatosensory system . This cortex is further divided into Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3. Brodmann area 3 is considered the primary processing center of the somatosensory cortex as it receives significantly more input from the thalamus , has neurons highly responsive to somatosensory stimuli, and can evoke somatic sensations through electrical stimulation . Areas 1 and 2 receive most of their input from area 3. There are also pathways for proprioception (via

5244-593: The tawny owl , the ratio is closer to 1000:1. Ganglion cells reside in the adrenal medulla and retina where they are involved in the sympathetic response . Of the ~1.3 million ganglion cells present in the retina, 1-2% are believed to be photosensitive ganglia . These photosensitive ganglia play a role in conscious vision for some animals, and are believed to do the same in humans. Mechanoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to mechanical forces, such as pressure or distortion . While mechanoreceptors are present in hair cells and play an integral role in

5358-427: The vestibular and auditory systems , the majority of mechanoreceptors are cutaneous and are grouped into four categories: Thermoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to varying temperatures . While the mechanisms through which these receptors operate is unclear, recent discoveries have shown that mammals have at least two distinct types of thermoreceptors: TRPV1 is a heat-activated channel that acts as

5472-691: The visual system , auditory system and somatosensory system . While debate exists among neurologists as to the specific number of senses due to differing definitions of what constitutes a sense , Gautama Buddha and Aristotle classified five 'traditional' human senses which have become universally accepted: touch , taste , smell , vision , and hearing . Other senses that have been well-accepted in most mammals, including humans, include pain , balance , kinaesthesia , and temperature . Furthermore, some nonhuman animals have been shown to possess alternate senses, including magnetoreception and electroreception . The initialization of sensation stems from

5586-412: The "go" cue occurs more frequently, it can be used to measure how well a subject suppresses a response under different emotional conditions. This task is often used in combination with neuroimaging in healthy individuals and patients with affective disorders to identify relevant brain functions associated with emotional regulation . Several studies, including go/no-go studies, suggest that sections of

5700-565: The James–Lange theory because James believed that the viscera were the center of emotion. Cannon examined research on dogs performed by Sherrington , who separated the spinal cord and vagus nerves from all connections in the rest of the body, and found that the expression of emotion did not change, suggesting that the viscera do not have an observable impact on certain emotional behavior in dogs. Cannon also emphasized that visceral responses occur when experiencing many different emotions, and in

5814-652: The OS and the IS regions together for the purpose of essential protein trafficking. The fourth compartment contains the nucleus and is a continuation of the IS region, known as the nuclear region. Finally, the fifth compartment is the synaptic region, where it acts as a final terminal for the signal, consisting of synaptic vesicles. In this region, glutamate neurotransmitter is transmitted from the cell to secondary neuron cells. The three primary types of photoreceptors are: cones are photoreceptors which respond significantly to color . In humans,

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5928-436: The absence of emotion. For example, the same visceral responses such as increased heart rate, sweating, widening of the pupils, and the discharge of adrenaline can be associated with the experience of fear or anger. However, they are also connected to conditions such as fever, feeling cold, and having difficulty breathing. Therefore, the physical emotional responses that had so far been documented are too general to be linked to

6042-401: The anterior cingulate cortex with sadness, although this finding was less consistent (across induction methods) and was not specific. Both meta-analyses found that disgust was associated with the basal ganglia, but these findings were neither consistent nor specific. Neither consistent nor specific activity was observed across the meta-analyses for anger or happiness. This meta-analysis introduced

6156-441: The autonomic nervous system because the autonomic nervous system responds in a global fashion rather than showing those distinct reactions in an emotion-inducing situation and people also generally only notice changes in their autonomic nervous system rather than any specific physiological change. Which in the end concludes that our own perceptions of our body's physiological reactions doesn't give enough evidence and proof to determine

6270-415: The basis for the right hemisphere hypothesis and the valence hypothesis. It is believed that the right hemisphere is more specialized in processing emotions than the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere is associated with nonverbal, synthetic, integrative, holistic and gestaltic mental strategies. As demonstrated by patients who have increased spatial neglect when damage affects the right brain rather than

6384-449: The brain that is activated when feeling disgust is activated when observing another's disgust. In a traditional learning environment, the teacher's facial expression can play a critical role in language acquisition. Showing a fearful facial expression when reading passages that contain fearful tones facilitates students learning of the meaning of certain vocabulary words and comprehension of the passage. The neurobiological basis of emotion

6498-467: The brain was conducted by Paul Broca , James Papez , and Paul D. MacLean . Their work suggests that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system . The limbic system is made up of the following brain structures: Research has shown the limbic system is directly related to emotion, but there are other brain areas and structures that are important for producing and processing emotion. Many theories about

6612-416: The case when it comes to emotion regulation. A study conducted by Carstensen and colleagues (2000) found that as people increase in age so does their ability to regulate their emotions. It is important to note that just because older adults had better emotion regulation skills, does not mean they live more stable daily lives. In fact, they tend to have more unstable negative emotions especially in comparison to

6726-569: The color of neutral words results in a quicker response. Selective attention to negative or threatening stimuli, which are often related to psychological disorders, is commonly tested with this task. Different mental disorders have been associated with specific attentional biases. Participants with spider phobia, for example, tend to be more inclined to use spider-related words than negatively charged words. Similar findings have been found for threat words related to other anxiety disorders. Even so, other studies have questioned these conclusions. When

6840-542: The concept of the basic, irreducible elements of emotional life as dimensions such as approach and avoidance. Kober reviewed 162 neuroimaging studies published between 1990 and 2005 in order to determine if specific brain regions were activated when experiencing an emotion directly and (indirectly) through the experience of someone else. According to the study, six different functional groups showed similar activation patterns. The psychological functions of each group were discussed in more basic terms. These regions may also play

6954-416: The consistency and specificity of prior meta-analytic findings specific to each notional basic emotion. Consistent neural patterns were defined by brain regions showing increased activity for a specific emotion (relative to a neutral control condition), regardless of the method of induction used (for example, visual vs. auditory cue). Specific neural patterns were defined as separate circuits for one emotion vs.

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7068-453: The cortex, transforming the object from an "object-simply apprehended" to an "object-emotionally felt." James explained that his theory went against common sense. For example, while most would think the order of emotional experience would be that a person sees a bear, becomes afraid, and runs away, James thought that first the person has a physiological response to the bear, such as trembling, and then becomes afraid and runs. According to James,

7182-446: The different hemispheres. While emotions are integral to thought processes, cognition has been investigated without emotion until the late 1990s, focusing instead on non-emotional processes such as memory , attention , perception , problem solving , and mental imagery . Cognitive neuroscience and affective neuroscience have emerged as separate fields for studying the neural basis of non-emotional and emotional processes. Despite

7296-401: The emotions portrayed in the content affects comprehension. Someone who is feeling sad understands a sad passage better than someone feeling happy. Therefore, a student's emotion plays an important role during the learning process. Emotion can be embodied or perceived from words read on a page or in a facial expression. Neuroimaging studies using fMRI have demonstrated that the same area of

7410-624: The evidence for regional specialization of discrete emotions (fear, disgust, anger, happiness and sadness) across a larger set of studies. Studies included in the meta-analysis measured activity in the whole brain and regions of interest (activity in individual regions of particular interest to the study). 3-D Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS3) statistics were used to compare rough spatial distributions of 3-D activation patterns to determine if statistically significant activations were specific to particular brain regions for all emotional categories. This pattern of consistently activated, regionally specific activations

7524-495: The exclusion of emotional behavior, is the determiner of emotional feelings. It also emphasizes that each emotional feeling has a distinct, unique pattern of physiological responses associated with it. It must meet two criteria which include (a) at least two emotions should be induced and (b) the presence of any emotion should be verified using other measures such as facial expressions or verbal reports. An example would be conducting an experiment to measure happiness and anger. One study

7638-414: The fact that fields are classified according to how the brain processes cognition and emotion, the neural and mental mechanisms behind emotional and non-emotional processes often overlap. Emotion go/no-go tasks are used to study behavioral inhibition, especially how it is influenced by emotion. A "go" cue tells the participant to respond rapidly, but a "no-go" cue tells them to withhold a response. Because

7752-462: The feelings neither of quickened heart-beats nor of shallow breathing, neither of trembling lips nor of weakened limbs, neither of goose-flesh nor of visceral stirrings, were present, it is quite impossible to think. Can one fancy the state of rage and picture no ebullition of it in the chest, no flushing of the face, no dilatation of the nostrils, no clenching of the teeth, no impulse to vigorous action, but in their stead limp muscles, calm breathing, and

7866-598: The five discrete emotion categories was assessed on a more precise spatial scale than in prior meta-analyses. Consistency was first assessed by comparing the cross-study ALE map for each emotion to ALE maps generated by random permutations. Discriminability was assessed by pair-wise contrasts of emotion maps. Consistent and discriminable activation patterns were observed for the five categories. Lindquist, et al. reviewed 91 PET and fMRI studies published between January 1990 and December 2007. Induction methods were used to elicit fear, sadness, disgust, anger, and happiness. The goal

7980-400: The five emotions relative to a neutral or control condition. The authors used activation likelihood estimation (ALE) to perform spatially sensitive, voxel-wise (sensitive to the spatial properties of voxels ) statistical comparisons across studies. This technique allows for direct statistical comparison between activation maps associated with each discrete emotion. Thus, discriminability between

8094-461: The following methods. In order to instill anger, Schoonhoven would kick the subject's sheen; shock, by firing a revolver far from the subject's vision field; fear, by involving the subject's head with a boa constrictor from the zoology lab of the Columbia University. According to Adler, however, the pleasant emotions tests, hunger and sexual desire, were not well envisaged. On the hunger side,

8208-411: The frontal lobes of both hemispheres play an active role in emotions, while the parietal and temporal lobes process them. Depression has been associated with decreased right parietal lobe activity, while anxiety has been associated with increased right parietal lobe activity. Based on the original valence model, increasingly complex models have been developed as a result of the increasing understanding of

8322-442: The information coming into the spinal cord is originally separate. Each sensory receptor has its own "labeled line" to convey a simple sensation experienced by the recipient. Ultimately, TRP channels act as thermosensors, channels that help us to detect changes in ambient temperatures. Nociceptors respond to potentially damaging stimuli by sending signals to the spinal cord and brain. This process, called nociception , usually causes

8436-442: The insula and orbitofrontal cortex. Most sensory systems have a quiescent state, that is, the state that a sensory system converges to when there is no input. This is well-defined for a linear time-invariant system , whose input space is a vector space, and thus by definition has a point of zero. It is also well-defined for any passive sensory system, that is, a system that operates without needing input power. The quiescent state

8550-414: The left brain, the right hemisphere is more connected to subcortical systems of autonomic arousal and attention. Right hemisphere disorders have been associated with abnormal patterns of autonomic nervous system responses. These findings suggest the right hemisphere and subcortical brain areas are closely related. According to the valence hypothesis, although the right hemisphere is involved in emotion, it

8664-521: The name of the displayed emotion. The task is a common tool to study deficits in emotion regulation in patients with dementia , Parkinson's , and other cognitively degenerative disorders. The task has been used to analyze recognition errors in disorders such as borderline personality disorder , schizophrenia , and bipolar disorder . The emotional dot-probe paradigm is a task used to assess selective visual attention to and failure to detach attention from affective stimuli. The paradigm begins with

8778-505: The nineteenth century. In ‘ The Little White Bird ’ (1902) J. M. Barrie discusses the psychological abilities of fairies with his young companion, David. He comments, "David tells me that fairies never say, ‘We feel happy’: what they say is, ‘We feel dancey’. " This, and related texts, suggest that J. M. Barrie was familiar with the James-Lange theory. Barrie, who wrote the Peter Pan stories,

8892-426: The number of studies that reported activation in specific brain regions. For each brain region, statistical chi-squared analysis was conducted. Two regions showed a statistically significant association. In the amygdala, 66% of studies inducing fear reported activity in this region, as compared to ~20% of studies inducing happiness, ~15% of studies inducing sadness (with no reported activations for anger or disgust). In

9006-408: The olfactory cortex, the gustatory pathway operates through both peripheral and central mechanisms. Peripheral taste receptors , located on the tongue , soft palate , pharynx , and esophagus , transmit the received signal to primary sensory axons, where the signal is projected to the nucleus of the solitary tract in the medulla , or the gustatory nucleus of the solitary tract complex. The signal

9120-422: The other emotions (for example, the fear circuit must be discriminable from the anger circuit, although both may include common brain regions). In general, the results supported Phan et al. and Murphy et al., but not specificity. Consistency was determined through the comparison of chi-squared analyses that revealed whether the proportion of studies reporting activation during one emotion was significantly higher than

9234-451: The outer physical world to the realm of the mind where people interpret the information, creating their perception of the world around them. The receptive field is the area of the body or environment to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. For instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field; the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field. Receptive fields have been identified for

9348-991: The participant was looking at will be identified more quickly. Thus, it is possible to discern which object the participant was attending to by subtracting the reaction time to respond to congruent versus incongruent trials. The best documented research with the dot probe paradigm involves attention to threat related stimuli, such as fearful faces, in individuals with anxiety disorders. Anxious individuals tend to respond more quickly to congruent trials, which may indicate vigilance to threat and/or failure to detach attention from threatening stimuli. A specificity effect of attention has also been noted, with individuals attending selectively to threats related to their particular disorder. For example, those with social phobia selectively attend to social threats but not physical threats. However, this specificity may be even more nuanced. Participants with obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms initially show attentional bias to compulsive threat, but this bias

9462-458: The participants were physical, such as activation of the sympathetic nerve impulse, which creates constriction of the blood vessels and dilation of the bronchioles . Cannon stated that this study disproved the idea that physiological responses are the sole reason for the experience of emotion. The James–Lange theory was much discussed amongst the intelligentsia in America and Britain at the end of

9576-433: The perception of pain . They are found in internal organs, as well as on the surface of the body. Nociceptors detect different kinds of damaging stimuli or actual damage. Those that only respond when tissues are damaged are known as "sleeping" or "silent" nociceptors. All stimuli received by the receptors listed above are transduced to an action potential , which is carried along one or more afferent neurons towards

9690-403: The perception of the emotion. Further, Barrett says that the experience of emotion is subjective: there is no way to decipher whether a person is feeling sad, angry, or otherwise without relying on the person's perception of emotion. Also, humans do not always exhibit emotions using the same behaviors; humans may withdraw when angry, or fight out of fear. She says that emotion is more complex than

9804-792: The physiological response comes first, and it is perceived as an emotion and followed by a reaction. In Mortimer J. Adler 's first attempt to earn a PhD in Experimental Psychology, he conducted a research study aligned with the postulates of James-Lange Theory of Emotions along with George Schoonhoven. Adler and Schoonhoven hypothesized that emotions could be grouped into two separate classes: pleasant and unpleasant. In order to demonstrate this hypothesis, they submitted their Psychology graduate students to some laboratory tensions that they could distinguish said emotions based on their physiological reactions. On unpleasant emotions, they tested anger, shock and fear. Each of these emotions were tested by

9918-549: The prefrontal cortex are involved in controlling emotional responses to stimuli during inhibition. Adapted from the Stroop , the emotional Stroop test measures how much attention you pay to emotional stimuli. In this task, participants are instructed to name the ink color of words while ignoring their meanings. Generally, people have trouble detaching their attention from words with an affective meaning compared with neutral words. It has been demonstrated in several studies that naming

10032-442: The primary olfactory cortex. In contrast to vision and hearing, the olfactory bulbs are not cross-hemispheric; the right bulb connects to the right hemisphere and the left bulb connects to the left hemisphere. The gustatory cortex is the primary receptive area for taste . The word taste is used in a technical sense to refer specifically to sensations coming from taste buds on the tongue. The five qualities of taste detected by

10146-400: The proportion of studies reporting activation during the other emotions. Specificity was determined through the comparison of emotion-category brain-localizations by contrasting activations in key regions that were specific to particular emotions. Increased amygdala activation during fear was the most consistently reported across induction methods (but not specific). Both meta-analyses associated

10260-431: The reason that older adults tended to have better emotion regulation skills than younger adults is due to the socioemotional selectivity theory . This theory highlights the role of social interactions in the ability to regulate emotions. Social interactions, while are often positive, can sometimes lead to negative emotional arousal. Since older adults have been alive longer, they have more dense social networks. This creates

10374-608: The researchers instructed their subjects not to eat for 24 straight hours, and would go to the lab. There, they would be submitted to smelling and seeing a bacon sandwich with a cup of coffee, but would not be permitted to eat it, so the downfall of that was that they would experience the sensations of anger afore-mentioned, such as dilated pupils, and so on. On the sexual desire side, the participants were enclosed with women with which they had already had sexual encounters before, girls which were instructed to engage in mild forms of fondling, accompanied by affectionate speech, which only caused

10488-481: The response of a specific receptor to a physical stimulus. The receptors which react to the stimulus and initiate the process of sensation are commonly characterized in four distinct categories: chemoreceptors , photoreceptors , mechanoreceptors , and thermoreceptors . All receptors receive distinct physical stimuli and transduce the signal into an electrical action potential . This action potential then travels along afferent neurons to specific brain regions where it

10602-481: The results will show that the physiological patterns, the blood pressure and electrodermal responses, will show different patterns for the different emotions. Further researchers have also found that there are a few specific physiological differences among discrete emotions. For example, research has shown that heart rate is always higher in people experiencing anger and fear rather than those who are experiencing happiness or even sadness. It also shows that blood pressure

10716-405: The retinal cells become extremely sensitive, and there is noticeable " visual snow " caused by the retinal cells firing randomly without any light input. In brighter light, the retinal cells become much less sensitive, consequently decreasing visual noise. Quiescent state is less well-defined when the sensory organ can be controlled by other systems, like a dog's ears that turn towards the front or

10830-423: The role of the right hemisphere in emotion has resulted in several models of emotional functioning.After observing decreased emotional processing after right hemisphere injuries, C.K. Mills hypothesized emotions are directly related to the right hemisphere. In 1992, researchers found that emotional expression and understanding may be controlled by smaller brain structures in the right hemisphere. These findings were

10944-440: The same changes as they occur is the emotion." James argued: If we fancy some strong emotion, and then try to abstract from our consciousness of it all the feelings of its characteristic bodily symptoms, we find we have nothing left behind, no "mind-stuff" out of which the emotion can be constituted, and that a cold and neutral state of intellectual perception is all that remains. … What kind of an emotion of fear would be left, if

11058-435: The sides as the brain commands. Some spiders can use their nets as a large touch-organ, like weaving a skin for themselves. Even in the absence of anything falling on the net, hungry spiders may increase web thread tension, so as to respond promptly even to usually less noticeable, and less profitable prey, such as small fruit flies, creating two different "quiescent states" for the net. Things become completely ill-defined for

11172-492: The stability of their positive emotions. The major difference observed in how older adults and younger adults regulate their emotions when negative emotional stimuli are present can be explained by numerous theories. How older adults handle emotionally salient events or stimuli are often vastly different from younger adults, and even middle aged adults. There does not appear to be many differences in ways that younger, middle, and older adults handle social situations; however, when

11286-741: The subcallosal cingulate, 46% of studies inducing sadness reported activity in this region, as compared to ~20% inducing happiness and ~20% inducing anger. This pattern of clear discriminability between emotion categories was in fact rare, with other patterns occurring in limbic regions, paralimbic regions, and uni/heteromodal regions. Brain regions implicated across discrete emotion included the basal ganglia (~60% of studies inducing happiness and ~60% of studies inducing disgust reported activity in this region) and medial prefrontal cortex (happiness ~60%, anger ~55%, sadness ~40%, disgust ~40%, and fear ~30%). Murphy, et al. 2003 analyzed 106 peer reviewed studies published between January 1994 and December 2001 to examine

11400-421: The subject nature of an emotional experience. The specific pathway involved in the experience of emotion was also described by James. He stated that an object has an effect on a sense organ , which relays the information it is receiving to the cortex . The brain then sends this information to the muscles and viscera , which causes them to respond. Finally, impulses from the muscles and viscera are sent back to

11514-574: The subject to feel embarrassment. Unfortunately, the research could not attain to an end, nor would be published, because Schoonhover was diagnosed with cancer, and died thereafter. Since the theory's inception, scientists have found evidence that not all aspects of the theory are relevant or true. The theory was challenged in the 1920s by psychologists such as Walter Cannon and Philip Bard , who developed an alternative theory of emotion known as Cannon–Bard theory , in which physiological changes arise independently from emotions. A third theory of emotion

11628-406: The temporal lobe, the primary olfactory cortex is the primary receptive area for olfaction , or smell. Unique to the olfactory and gustatory systems, at least in mammals , is the implementation of both peripheral and central mechanisms of action. The peripheral mechanisms involve olfactory receptor neurons which transduce a chemical signal along the olfactory nerve , which terminates in

11742-487: The three different types of cones correspond with a primary response to short wavelength (blue), medium wavelength (green), and long wavelength (yellow/red). Rods are photoreceptors which are very sensitive to the intensity of light, allowing for vision in dim lighting. The concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly correlated with whether an animal is diurnal or nocturnal . In humans, rods outnumber cones by approximately 20:1, while in nocturnal animals, such as

11856-424: The tongue include sourness, bitterness, sweetness, saltiness, and the protein taste quality, called umami . In contrast, the term flavor refers to the experience generated through integration of taste with smell and tactile information. The gustatory cortex consists of two primary structures: the anterior insula , located on the insular lobe , and the frontal operculum , located on the frontal lobe . Similarly to

11970-423: The varying light wavelengths in relation to color, and transduce them into electrical signals. Photoreceptors are capable of phototransduction , a process which converts light ( electromagnetic radiation ) into, among other types of energy , a membrane potential . There are five compartments that are present in these cells. Each compartment corresponds to differences in function and structure. The first compartment

12084-582: The ventromedial prefrontal cortex had impaired emotional experiences, but unaffected autonomic responses while patients with lesions to the right somatosensory cortex had impaired autonomic responses without affected emotional experiences. This argued that autonomic responses were dissociated with emotional experiences. The researchers argued that this dissociation between autonomic responses and emotional experiences clashed with James's assertion that physiological responses are required to experience emotions. Affective neuroscience Affective neuroscience

12198-418: The viscera and the physiological response for it to precede the emotion. Stimulating the viscera to produce a specific emotion was found to be ineffective by physician Gregorio Marañón . In one of his studies, participants had adrenalin injected into their veins, which produced physiological changes expected to be linked with an emotion. However, the emotion was never produced. The only noticeable changes in

12312-445: The vmPFC to regulate their emotions in a more positive manner. Despite other areas of the brain decreasing in functionality as humans age, the connection between the vmPFC and ACC remains strong to reappraise negative emotions into more positive emotions. This is different from younger adults, who rely more on other areas of the PFC. As people age, most cognitive functions decline. This is not

12426-644: The words are matched for emotionality, anxious participants in some studies show the Stroop interference effect for both negative and positive words. In other words, the specificity effects of words for various disorders may be primarily due to their conceptual relation to the disorder's concerns rather than their emotionality. The Ekman faces task is used to measure emotion recognition of six basic emotions . Black and white photographs of 10 actors (6 male, 4 female) are presented, with each actor displaying each emotion. Participants are usually asked to respond quickly with

12540-426: The world and the body, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex facilitates executive attention. As well as playing an active role in conceptualizing, the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus also simulate previous experiences. In several studies, the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which supports language, was consistently active during emotion perception and experience. Sensory system The sensory nervous system

12654-454: Was a good friend of Henry James , William’s brother and had met William James . In 2017, Lisa Feldman Barrett reported that the James-Lange theory was created by neither William James nor Carl Lange. It was indeed named by the philosopher John Dewey , who misrepresented James' ideas on emotion. James never wrote that each category of emotion (fear, anger, etc.) has a distinct biological state. He wrote that each instance of emotion may have

12768-579: Was identified in four brain regions: amygdala with fear (~40% of studies), insula with disgust (~70%), globus pallidus with disgust (~70%), and lateral orbitofrontal cortex with anger (80%). Other regions showed different patterns of activation across categories. For example, both the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex and the rostral anterior cingulate cortex showed consistent activity across emotions (happiness ~50%, sadness ~50%, anger ~ 40%, fear ~30%, and disgust ~ 20%). Barrett , et al. 2006 examined 161 studies published between 1990 and 2001. The authors compared

12882-486: Was more focused on conscious emotion and the conscious experience of emotion. For example, a person who is crying reasons that he must be sad. Lange reinterpreted James's theory by operationalizing it. He made James's theory more testable and applicable to real life examples. However, both agreed that if physiological sensations could be removed, there would be no emotional experience. In other words, physiological arousal causes emotion. According to James, when an individual

12996-522: Was to compare basic emotions approaches with psychological constructionist approaches. It was found that many brain regions activated consistently or selectively for one emotion category when experienced or perceived. As predicted by constructionist models, no region demonstrated functional specificity for fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, or anger. The authors suggest that certain brain areas traditionally assigned to certain emotions are incorrect and instead correspond to different emotion categories. There

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