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73-478: The Jaghbub oasis is located in a deep depression that extends below sea level. This depression, an area lower than the surrounding region, reaches to about -10 m. The basin of the region is made up of a thin layer of sandy clay. The sand here has the ability to accumulate into waves. Jaghbub was founded in the year 1856. In the year of its founding, Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi established an important Zawiya there. The Encyclopedia of Africa points to him being

146-483: A depression is a landform sunken or depressed below the surrounding area. Depressions form by various mechanisms. Erosion -related: Collapse-related: Impact-related: Sedimentary-related: Structural or tectonic-related: Volcanism-related: Second Italo-Senussi War Italian victory The Second Italo-Senussi War , also referred to as the Pacification of Libya , was a conflict that occurred during

219-451: A British North African military leader were hesitant to do this out of fear of angering Arab populations and being perceived as harsh. Italian oil company CORI, which was partnered with AGIP acquired a grant to purchase vast swaths of Libyan land southwest of Jaghbub, where it eventually struck oil. During the 1977 war between Egypt and Libya , Jaghbub was the site of a prominent battle which killed 2000 people. During Gaddafi's reign,

292-518: A dissertation by Ahmida that Senussi moved over to Jaghbub in 1856 in order to escape Ottoman surveillance or interference. However, Osman disputes this, arguing that Jaghbub's location in the path of camel caravan mecca pilgrimage route is why the Senussis chose it as a base of their operations. Yet Shibeika claimed this move was done in light of worsening relations with the Ottoman Empire . However, this

365-776: A part of a deal. Sayyid arrested Al-Baruni and Hilal in a prison in Jaghbub after Hilal agreed to a plot rejected by Ahmad al-Sharif to get the Senussis to fight the British. However, in 1916 Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif agreed to open an Ottoman front against the British, sending 500 troops through Jaghbub to occupy several oases. The Italians were concerned by the possibility that British corporations might start building infrastructure in Jaghbub, which could counter Italian influence. In response, debates would begin to ensue over what to do about Jaghbub. In 1920, Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi

438-529: A road network in the Jebel Akhdar Mountains - a project that none of his predecessors had previously carried out. Simultaneously with these measures, a mass exodus of the Cyrenean population to the surrounding countries began. In a carefully prepared and coordinated operation with ten differently-composed columns, Graziani tried from 16 June 1930, to encircle and destroy the units of Omar Mukhtar. However,

511-585: A siege by mostly Australian troops for three months before being forced to surrender on 23 March 1941. The resistance of the Italian troops was celebrated by the fascist regime and used to minimize the military defeat in Cyrenaica . During WWII, questions arose over how to assign colonial territory of the Italian empire postwar. Though some suggestions were made to transfer Jaghbub back into Egyptian control as an autonomous province, an Egyptian ambassador to Britain and

584-401: A site of Islamic intellectual learning and Senussi military training, including horseback training. It would draw in students all across North Africa. Notable figures, such as the poet Rajab Hamad Buhwaish al-Minifi, were educated in Jaghbub. In addition, Omar al-Mukhtar was provided with military training in Jaghbub as well. Moreover, Abd al-Mut'al would also stay in Jaghbub for some time. In

657-713: A small population of migrants escaping Ottoman expropriation of their property in Cyrenacia . Both the Ottoman and British Empires laid claim on Jaghbub in the years before the First World War. Through the duration of the Italo-Turkish war, the British Empire considered Jaghbub to be British territory. By 1912, Jaghbub had reemerged as a center of Senussi power. This began diplomatic disputes between Britain and Italy over control of

730-497: A strategic location, that the promise was made by the British during the first world war, and that the desire to quell the Senussis could be an excuse to demand other Egyptian oasis towns. From the British perspective, people like Fathi considered Jaghbub to be Egyptian lands from a French and a German map. However, Fathi was willing to trade Jaghbub for a piece of territory. As the diplomatic conflict persisted, Italy made their intentions to occupy Jaghbub through force clear. Initially,

803-420: A wall to the city. This wall had a distinct trapezoidal shape from an aerial view. The Qabba there, which housed the tombs of the grand Senussi and his family members, was ornamented with a large dome and was described by Cresti as being the iconic focus of the city. The tomb of the grand Senussi in particular was housed in gold-like covering. A minaret also used to be part of the religious complex. Cresti points to

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876-633: The Battle of Uadi Bu Taga , Mukhtar was wounded and then captured by the Libyan Savari of the Italian Army, followed by a court martial and his public execution by hanging at Suluq. Mukhtar's death effectively ended the resistance, and in January 1932, Badoglio proclaimed the end of the campaign. Mukhtar's aides were executed later that year on 24 September 1932. After the failed negotiations with Omar Mukhtar,

949-628: The Frontier Wire , which was a 270 km long wall that stretched from the Mediterranean coastline all the way to Jaghbub. This wall was made in part from barbed wire. The construction of the wall allowed the Italians to control cross border movement supporting Alwad Ali and prevent rebel leaders, particularly Omar Mukhtar, from escaping into Egypt. Around early 1926, with the help of the Frontier Wire,

1022-599: The Italian colonization of Libya between Italian military forces (composed mainly by colonial troops from Libya, Eritrea , and Somalia ) and indigenous rebels associated with the Senussi Order . The war lasted from 1923 until 1932, when the principal Senussi leader, Omar al-Mukhtar , was captured and executed. The Libyan genocide took place during and after the conflict. Fighting took place in all three of Libya's provinces ( Tripolitania , Fezzan , and Cyrenaica ), but

1095-632: The National Fascist Party , as Prime Minister of Italy led to a much more aggressive approach to foreign policy. Given the importance that the Fascists gave to Libya as part of a new Italian Empire , this incident served as a useful pretext for large-scale military action to reclaim it. The war began with Italian forces rapidly occupying the Sirte desert separating Tripolitania from Cyrenaica. Using aircraft, motor transport and good logistical organization,

1168-486: The Second Italo-Senussi War . During Italy's suppression campaign and in the context of the Second Italo-Senussi War , Jahgbub became a target for being known to be a major center of rebel organization. Jaghbub had been known to be a conduit for cross border supply transfers for the Senussis from Egyptian sources. As a result, a diplomatic situation arose between Italy and Egypt, with Italy claiming that Egypt

1241-609: The Senussis – a Muslim political-religious tariqa based in Libya – erupted into major violence during World War I , when Senussis in Libya began collaborating with the Ottomans against Italian troops. The Libyan Senussis also escalated the conflict by attacking British forces stationed in Egypt . Conflict between the British and the Senussis continued until 1917. In 1917, an exhausted Italy signed

1314-578: The Treaty of Acroma , which acknowledged the effective independence of Libya from Italian control. In 1918, Tripolitanian rebels founded the Tripolitanian Republic , though the rest of the country remained under nominal Italian rule. Local resistance against Italy continued, such that by 1920, the Italian government was forced to recognize Senussi leader Sayid Idris as Emir of Cyrenaica and grant him autonomy. In 1922, Tripolitanian leaders offered Idris

1387-562: The 1880s Jaghbub was receiving smuggled weapons shipments from the Ottoman Empire through the Bedouin tribes . During this time, the Turkish governor of Awjala grew angry with how tribespeople were sending massive quantities of grain to Jaghbub as tribute to the Senussis when they often resisted to paying the Ottoman Empire taxes. Through the latter part of the 19th century, Jaghbub began to attract

1460-557: The Bedouin rebels in the desert. 12,000 Cyrenaicans died in 1931 and all the nomadic peoples of northern Cyrenaica were forcefully removed from the region and relocated to huge concentration camps in the Cyrenaican lowlands. Italian military authorities carried out the forced migration and deportation of the entire population of Jebel Akhdar in Cyrenaica, resulting in 100,000 Bedouins , half

1533-473: The British were completely hostile to the idea of transferring Jaghbub to Italy, though they promised to not "encroach" on Italian lands. Complicating the situation was how the British had promised to transfer Jaghbub to Italian control in exchange for Italy ceding the Sallum region to Egypt, but under what treaty is unclear. A dissertation by Donnarumma argues this occurs within the context of Italy and Britain sharing

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1606-490: The Italian occupying power renewed its repressive policy against the Cyrenean resistance with arrests and shootings in November 1929. Since Badoglio had not gotten a grip on the guerrillas in Cyrenaica until 1930, Mussolini appointed General Rodolfo Graziani as the new lieutenant governor of Cyrenaica at the suggestion of Colonial Minister Emilio De Bono . Graziani, notorious for his firmness in fascist principles, had just completed

1679-412: The Italian prison island of Ustica. Their lands were expropriated; Hundreds of houses and 70,000 hectares of prime land including the cattle on them changed hands. In addition, Graziani ordered the complete disarmament of the non-combatant population as well as draconian punishments in the event of civilians cooperating with Omar Mukhtar's adwar combat groups. Anyone who owned a weapon or provided support to

1752-487: The Italian trenches five soldiers had been buried up to their shoulders, their heads emerged from the black sand stained with their blood: heads horrible to see and there you could read all the tortures of hunger and thirst. –– Gaston Leroud, correspondent for Matin-Journal (1917) Reports of these killings led to cries for retaliation and revenge in Italy, and in the early 1920s the rise to power of Benito Mussolini , leader of

1825-489: The Italians were occupied 150,000 square kilometres (58,000 sq mi) of territory in five months , cutting off the physical connection formerly held by the rebels between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania. By late 1928, the Italians had taken control of Ghibla, and its tribes were disarmed. From 1923 to 1924, Italian troops regained all territory north of the Ghadames-Mizda-Beni Ulid region, with four-fifths of

1898-503: The Italians were able to successfully occupy Jaghbub, quelling the Senussi armed movement. In 1928, Senussis flocked from Kufra as the Italians had managed to occupy the region, moving back to Jaghbub. By 1932, Jaghbub began to lose its prominence as a trading center. The Siege of Giarabub was fought between Commonwealth and Italian forces during World War II . Italian and Libyan colonial troops led by Colonel Salvatore Castagna resisted

1971-537: The Khedive of Egypt and Italy to transfer Jaghbub to Italy. More specifically, the Khedive was discovered to have been bribed for doing this. Rodd would later note to the Italian government to stop using the Khedive for the negotiations. Robert Vansittart warned the Khedive that he would be removed from power if something like that were to happen again. Grey would note to an ambassador in London that Britain would not cede Jaghbub as

2044-466: The London pact. Some sources claim that the move away from Jaghbub was done to avoid disputes and situations with the Ottomans. However, other sources particularly stress this move was more the Senussis seeing greater opportunity to expand their influence from making this move. Klaus suggests part of this opportunity came from the desire to strengthen critical trade routes, which would have been difficult to do from Jaghbub. The question of who or what made

2117-453: The Mediterranean sea. Eventually, a treaty was signed between Italy and Egypt which transferred Jaghbub to Italy on December 6, 1925. This treaty was sometimes referred to as the treaty of Jaghbub. To avoid Bedouin arrest, the Egyptian government asked the Italians to respect the religion of the locals and to protect the grand Senussi's tomb. After the treaty was signed, debate persisted on whether

2190-520: The Senussi adwar combat units were again informed in good time by the local population and by deserters from Italian colonial troops. By dividing them into smaller groups, they escaped the Italian columns with slight losses. At this point, Badoglio took the initiative again and emphatically proposed a new dimension of repressive measures: By deporting the people of the Jabal-Achdar Mountains, he literally wanted to create an empty space around

2263-479: The Senussi Order had to face execution. In the colonial administration, Graziani began a purge of Arab employees who were accused of treason. He had the battalions of Libyan colonial troops, which in the past often indirectly supported Omar Mukhtar's resistance, disbanded. All forms of trade with Egypt were banned in order to control the smuggling of goods to the insurgents. Last but not least, Graziani began expanding

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2336-458: The Senussi Order; zawias and mosques were closed, Senussi practices were forbidden, Senussi estates were confiscated, and preparations were made for Italian conquest of the Kufra Oasis, the last stronghold of the Senussi in Libya. In 1931, Italian forces seized Kufra where Senussi refugees were bombed and strafed by Italian aircraft as they fled into the desert. In September 1931, during

2409-477: The Senussi movement because its location and nomads in the region that were attracted to the Senussi message. Running Senussi operations from Jaghbub also allowed their work to be disentangled from that of any particular tribe. Moreover, the town was along a pilgrimage route to Mecca, and additional sources point to Jaghbub being founded along a trade route. The Senussi's would actively work there to spread their religious influence. The Zawiya founded by Senussi became

2482-405: The adwar combat units. On 20 June 1930 he wrote to Graziani in a letter: Above all, one must create a broad and precise territorial division between the rebel formations and the subjugated population. I am aware of the scope and gravity of this measure, which must lead to the annihilation of the so-called subject population. But now the way has been shown to us and we have to go to the end, even if

2555-455: The armed fighters. Now, after the failure of the military offensive against the resistance movement, the Italians changed their attitude. It became clear that a clear distinction between the two groups was not possible since the resistance movement was supported both materially and morally by the "subject population". The civilians paid taxes; donated weapons, clothing or food to Omar Mukhtar's desert warriors; or made horses available to them. Since

2628-483: The camps as the people were physically weakened due to meagre food rations and forced labour . By the time the camps closed in September 1933, 40,000 of the 100,000 total internees had already died in the camps. To close rebel supply routes from Egypt, the Italians constructed a 300-kilometre (190 mi) barbed-wire fence on the border with Egypt that was patrolled by armoured cars and aircraft. The Italians persecuted

2701-513: The camps to be oases of modern civilization that were hygienic and efficiently run, but in reality, the camps had poor sanitary conditions, as they had an average of about 20,000 Bedouins together with their camels and other animals, crowded into an area of 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi). The camps held only rudimentary medical services, with the camps of Soluch and Sisi Ahmed el Magrun with 33,000 internees each having only one doctor between them. Typhus and other diseases spread rapidly in

2774-471: The colonial history of Africa and even put Graziani's rabid counter-guerrilla methods in the shade. Guarded by mainly Eritrean colonial troops, the entire population was forced, together with their belongings and cattle, on death marches that sometimes led over hundreds of kilometers for 20 weeks. Anyone who was picked up on the Jabal Achdar after the forced evacuation had to expect an immediate execution. In

2847-483: The complete conquest of Libya. In 1930, Italian forces conquered Fezzan and raised the Italian flag in Tummo, the southernmost region of Fezzan. On 20 June 1930, Pietro Badoglio wrote to General Graziani: "As for overall strategy, it is necessary to create a significant and clear separation between the controlled population and the rebel formations. I do not hide the significance and seriousness of this measure, which might be

2920-518: The concentration camps, and hanging and executions. Mukhtar's troops reacted with the raiding of animals and intimidation against the Libyan tribes who had submitted to the Italians, such as on November 29, 1927, when they attacked a Braasa tribe camp near Slonta, which also affected women and children. In 2008, Italy and Libya reached agreement on a document compensating Libya for damages caused by Italian colonial rule. Muammar Gaddafi , Libya's ruler at

2993-453: The conquest of Fezzan and had made a name for himself as the "butcher of Fessan" in years of guerrilla warfare. Literally interpreting the regime's slogans, he understood the pacification of the country as the submission of “barbarians” to “Romans”. On 27 March 1930 Graziani moved into the Governor's Palace of Benghazi. Colonial Minister De Bono regarded an escalation of violence as inevitable for

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3066-566: The entire area from the Marmarica region on the Egyptian border in the east to the Syrte desert in the West concerned. However, the urban population on the coast and residents of the oases inland were not affected. From the assembly points, those who had been rounded up had to set off in columns on foot or by camels, some were also deported from the coast by ships. Such a deportation had hardly any role models in

3139-487: The entire population of Cyrenaica should perish. Mattioli (2005) After a meeting with Graziani, Badoglio ordered the complete evacuation of Jabal Achdar on 25 June 1930. Three days later, the Italian army, together with Eritrean colonial troops and Libyan collaborators, began to round up the population and their cattle. Italian archival documents date the beginning of the action to the summer of 1930. The overwhelming majority of Libyan contemporary witnesses, however, agree that

3212-565: The estimated population of Tripolitania and Fezzan within the Italian area. In that period, they also regained the northern lowlands of Cyrenaica, but attempts to occupy the forested hills of Jebel Akhtar were met with strong guerrilla resistance, led by Senussi sheikh Omar Mukhtar . The majority of the Italian force consisted of 31,600 colonial troops from Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, along with 1900 Italian troops and about 6,000 Libyans.. Attempted negotiations between Italy and Omar Mukhtar broke down and Italy then planned for

3285-422: The first such arrests were made in autumn 1929. Specifically, Badoglio's order resulted in the forced relocation of 100,000 to 110,000 people and their internment in concentration camps, about half of the total population of Cyrenaica. While only one report of the deportation of a single tribe is available in Italian archives, the oral history of the victims reports in detail on the extent of the action, which covered

3358-453: The founder of Jaghbub. As a result, Jaghbub became the metaphorical capital for the Senussi movement, and remained so from 1856 to 1895. The role of Jaghbub as a capital was demonstrated through how regional Senussi sheiks would meet annually in Jaghbub to report and discuss the situation at the zawiyas they ran. Senussi ended up dying in Jaghbub in 1859. Jaghbub became a particularly important for

3431-440: The framework defined by Mussolini, while Graziani fulfilled the role of executor. The Italians had originally divided the Libyan population into two groups, on the one hand the armed resistance "rebels", on the other hand the non-fighting, subjugated population (sottomessi), which had surrendered in the eyes of the colonial administration. In doing so, they wanted to undermine the unity of the people and act more efficiently against

3504-400: The graves of historical figures in Jaghbub were targeted. The Senussi college and mosque there were ordered to be demolished in 1984. As a part of the demolition process, the bodies of Senussi and his brother in law were either excavated and dumped in the desert or were stolen. A news article written by Michel Cousins asserted that this move failed, as around 2011 pro-Senussi sentiment was likely

3577-496: The highest it had been since the 1960s. Cresti points to all of the religious historical sites in Jaghbub being destroyed in concert with the grave desecration of the Senussis ordered by Gaddafi. They also note that photos of these religious sites however can be obtained at the National Central Library of Rome . The Zawiya in Jaghbub underwent significant redesign circa the 1870s, which changed its size, shape, and added

3650-495: The initial move was done to avoid Ottoman, French, and Egyptian involvement in their affairs. One source claims that the British directed the Italians to negotiate the border issue with the Egyptians themselves. However, seeing that British officials like Fathi also had an interest in the issue, more research and secondary sources are needed to clarify what is meant. Alternatively, this could be an outright contradiction in which one of

3723-554: The late 1910s. Italian authorities forcibly expelled 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements, many of which were then given to Italian settlers . Italy had seized military control of Libya from the Ottoman Empire during the Italo-Turkish War in 1912, but the new colony had swiftly revolted, transferring large swaths of territory to local Libyan rule. Conflict between Italy and

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3796-457: The locals of Jaghbub would be able to choose their nationality. In their historical analysis, Rappas argues that the deal was agreed to by Britain to improve relations with Italy in an effort to check French power in Europe. Around the same year the treaty was signed, the capital for Senussi operations was moved from Jaghbub to Kufra . After Italy retained control over Jaghbub, they began to construct

3869-541: The majority of others point to the fence being 270 km long. One source that supports this assertion written by Michael Ebner claims the length of the fence to be 270 km long. Jaghbub has grown from roughly 466 people in 1950, 884 in 1970, 2,220 people in 2000, to around 2,960 people with a median age of 29 as of 2023. Jaghbub was an oasis associated with providing dates to caravan travelers. In 1926, an Italian geographer and geologist Desai went to Jaghbub to learn more about geology and geography there. James Holland

3942-523: The non-combatant population ensured the reproductive conditions of the adwar system and formed the social basis of the resistance movement, they were now classified as dangerous potential by the colonial administration. During the spring and summer of 1930, Graziani systematically targeted the social environment of the guerrillas. As a first measure, he had the Islamic cultural centres (zâwiyas) closed. The Qu'ran scholars who led them were captured and deported to

4015-455: The population of Cyrenaica, being expelled from their settlements. These 100,000 people, mostly women, children, and the elderly, were forced by Italian authorities to march across the desert to a series of barbed-wire concentration camp compounds erected near Benghazi , while stragglers who could not keep up with the march were shot by Italian authorities. Propaganda by the Fascist regime declared

4088-544: The position of Emir of Tripolitania; however, before Idris could accept the position, the new Italian government of Benito Mussolini initiated a campaign of reconquest. Since 1911, claims had been made of killings of Italian soldiers and civilians by Ottoman and local Muslim guerrillas, such as a slaughter in Sciara Sciat : I saw (in Sciara Sciat) in one mosque seventeen Italians, crucified with their bodies reduced to

4161-467: The ruin of the subdued population...But now the course has been set, and we must carry it out to the end, even if the entire population of Cyrenaica must perish". By 1931, well over half the population of Cyrenaica were confined to 15 concentration camps where many died as result of overcrowding in combination with a lack of water, food and medicine while Badoglio had the Air Force use chemical warfare against

4234-516: The source of the architectural design of the Qabba to being associated with revivalist-religious Egyptian architecture. Old photos of the city show the presence of the existence of old windmills no longer in use. In addition, one of the structures in Jaghbub that utilized an arch was given a stucco decoration after Italy asserted control over the city. It appears to be a critical and repeatedly mentioned narrative within secondary sources, and particularly in

4307-477: The sources is incorrect. There appears to be agreement that Jaghbub was promised to the Italians by the British, but under what treaty has been disputed. Donnarumma claims this promise was made under the treaty of London in return for transferring the Sallum area to Egypt. However, Ammann clarifies the town was promised under the Milner Scialoia agreement of 1920, with Milner and Sciaola agreeing to it because of

4380-410: The status of bloody rags and bones, but whose faces still retained traces of their hellish agony. Long rods had been passed through the necks of these wretched men and their arms rested on these rods. They were then nailed to the wall and died slowly with untold suffering. It is impossible for us to paint the picture of this hideous rotted meat hanging pitifully on the bloody wall. In a corner another body

4453-438: The summer heat, a considerable number of the deportees did not survive the rigors of the marches, especially children and the elderly. Anyone who fell to the ground exhausted and could no longer go on was shot by the guards. The high death rate was a deliberate consequence of the marches, and the land that was freed was again passed into the hands of colonists. Of the 600,000 camels, horses, sheep, goats and cattle that were taken on

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4526-453: The time , attended the signing ceremony wearing a historical photograph on his uniform that showed Cyrenaican rebel leader Omar Mukhtar in chains after being captured by Italian authorities during the war. At the ceremony, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi declared: "In this historic document, Italy apologizes for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule." He went on to say that this

4599-490: The town as the Senussis were actively resisting Italy from the town. In a meeting between Enver Bey , Sayyid Ahmad, and other Ottoman officers at Jaghbub, the Ottoman officers decided to continue resistance against Italian forces, though they could only do so up to 1913. In 1913, it was uncovered that Dr. Izzet-el-Gindi, sent by the Egyptian Khedive had been acting on behalf of the Italians in secret negotiations between

4672-425: The transition of moving the Senussi capital from Jaghbub to Kufra in 1895 also remains disputed. Some sources credit the move to Sheikh al-Mahdi. However, Minawi stands out for implying the date of the move was 1896, and that mosque members incentivized the move to Kufra by moving there. There was even variation between sources on the length of the fence. Vandewalle claimed that the fence was 300 km long. However,

4745-628: The way, only about 100,000 arrived. The survivors refer to the deportation in Arabic as al-Rihlan ("path of tears"). Italian war crimes included the use of chemical weapons , execution of surrendering combatants, and killing of civilians. According to Knud Holmboe tribal villages were being bombed with mustard gas by the spring of 1930, and suspects were hanged or shot in the back, with estimated thirty executions taking place daily. Angelo Del Boca estimated between 40,000 and 70,000 total Libyan dead due to forced deportations, starvation and disease inside

4818-431: The “pacification” of the region and on 10 January 1930, in a telegram to Badoglio, suggested the establishment of concentration camps (""campi di concentramento"") for the first time. Badoglio had also come to the conclusion that the "rebels" could not be permanently subjugated to the counter-guerrilla with the methods they had previously used. From then on, both appeared as pioneers and strategists in genocidal warfare within

4891-471: Was able to make a deal with Italy to make himself Amir of Cyrenacia and which would give autonomy to Jaghbub along with other towns. In return, they agreed to the Legge Fondamentale of Italy, to not tax locals beyond what was normal, and to disband their armies. However, they never followed through with disbanding their armies. These events occurred within the context of the background towards the start of

4964-471: Was crucified, but as an officer he was chosen to experience refined sufferings. His eyes were stitched closed. All the bodies were mutilated and castrated; so indescribable was the scene and the bodies appeared swollen as shapeless carrion. But that's not all! In the cemetery of Chui, which served as a refuge from the Turks and to whence soldiers retreated from afar, we could see another show. In front of one door near

5037-401: Was disputed by Minawi and Ladjal, arguing relations were improving between the Senussis and the Ottomans. Miwawi further elaborated on this situation by explaining that Mahdi Al-Senussi wanted to escape the challenge to authority he had over the Bedouin tribes presented by the kaymakamlik created in Jaghbub, which was operated by Tripoli administrators. Other sources have insisted that this escape

5110-497: Was done to flee the conflicts that Senussi faced over his heretical views. Everd-Pritchard argued that the move to Jaghbub may have occurred since the Senussis did not consider the Ottomans to be the Caliphs of Islam. Vandewalle stands out among other sources for asserting that Jaghbub became a capital for Senussi operations beginning in 1855, and for asserting that the location was chosen to avoid French confrontation. Zalewski insisted that

5183-470: Was most intense and prolonged in the mountainous Jebel Akhdar region of Cyrenaica. The war led to the mass deaths of the indigenous people of Cyrenaica , totalling one quarter of the region's population of 225,000. Italian war crimes included the use of chemical weapons , execution of surrendering combatants , and the mass killing of civilians, while the Senussis were accused of torture and mutilation of captured Italians and refusal to take prisoners since

5256-462: Was not supposed to own Jaghbub according to a map made around 1841. Amman has argued that Italian desire to control Jaghbub came from the desire to quell the Senussi movement, which would not be possible without controlling the city. Egypt repeatedly emphasized their concerns for not wanting to cede Jaghbub to Italy, citing multiple issues over potential Arab unrest in Egypt, concerns that they would be losing

5329-472: Was the first documented American to have traveled to Jaghbub, where he took pictures of famous Senussi figures. The construction of the fence was dramatized in the film Lion of the Desert . In addition, the movie Giarabub made in 1942 depicted the conquest of an Italian fort in Libya. Also, Giarabub is the subject of an Italian WW2 war song "La Sagra di Giarabub". Depression (geology) In geology ,

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