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133-508: Jagadhri is a city and a municipal council in the Yamunanagar district of the Indian state of Haryana . This town lies adjacent to the city of Yamunanagar . The demarcation line between the two is difficult to discern. Jagadhri is around 90  km away from Chandigarh , the capital city of Haryana state. This town is known for the cluster of brass and copper industries. Jagadhri is known as

266-492: A mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda , a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata , and Shesha , the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja . Mohotkata uses a lion , Mayūreśvara uses a peacock, Dhumraketu uses a horse , and Gajanana uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana . Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as

399-459: A mouse , elephant , tortoise , ram, or peacock . Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse . Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet. The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in

532-568: A third eye or the sectarian mark (IAST: tilaka ), which consists of three horizontal lines. The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead. A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra (IAST: bhālacandra ; "Moon on the Forehead") includes that iconographic element. Ganesha is often described as red in colour. Specific colours are associated with certain forms. Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in

665-1216: A 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune , each of the eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore. The eight shrines are: Morgaon , Siddhatek , Pali , Mahad , Theur , Lenyadri , Ozar and Ranjangaon . There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Siddhivinayak temple in Mumbai, Ganpatipule temple at Ganpatipule , Binkhambi Ganesh mandir in Kolhapur, Jai Vinayak temple in Jaigad, Ratnagiri, Wai in Maharashtra; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh ; Jodhpur , Nagaur and Raipur ( Pali ) in Rajasthan ; Baidyanath in Bihar ; Baroda , Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi , Uttar Pradesh . Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include

798-460: A category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaṇas " to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements. Ganapati ( गणपति ; gaṇapati ), a synonym for Ganesha , is a compound composed of gaṇa , meaning "group", and pati , meaning "ruler" or "lord". Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati

931-573: A central area containing buildings with special economic, political, and religious significance. Archaeologists refer to this area by the Greek term temenos or if fortified as a citadel . These spaces historically reflect and amplify the city's centrality and importance to its wider sphere of influence . Today cities have a city center or downtown , sometimes coincident with a central business district . Cities typically have public spaces where anyone can go. These include privately owned spaces open to

1064-665: A central authority. The term can also refer either to the physical streets and buildings of the city or to the collection of people who dwell there and can be used in a general sense to mean urban rather than rural territory . National censuses use a variety of definitions – invoking factors such as population , population density , number of dwellings , economic function, and infrastructure – to classify populations as urban. Typical working definitions for small-city populations start at around 100,000 people. Common population definitions for an urban area (city or town) range between 1,500 and 50,000 people, with most U.S. states using

1197-461: A central point. This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of town walls and citadels marking older city boundaries. In more recent history, such forms were supplemented by ring roads moving traffic around the outskirts of a town. Dutch cities such as Amsterdam and Haarlem are structured as a central square surrounded by concentric canals marking every expansion. In cities such as Moscow , this pattern

1330-562: A clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries CE. Some of the earliest known Ganesha images include two images found in eastern Afghanistan. The first image was discovered in the ruins north of Kabul along with those of Surya and Shiva . It is dated to the 4th century. The second image found in Gardez , the Gardez Ganesha , has an inscription on Ganesha pedestal that has helped date it to

1463-539: A combination of these. Societies that live in cities are often called civilizations . The degree of urbanization is a modern metric to help define what comprises a city: "a population of at least 50,000 inhabitants in contiguous dense grid cells (>1,500 inhabitants per square kilometer)". This metric was "devised over years by the European Commission , OECD , World Bank and others, and endorsed in March [2021] by

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1596-604: A continuous urban landscape called urban agglomeration , conurbation , or megalopolis (exemplified by the BosWash corridor of the Northeastern United States .) The emergence of cities from proto-urban settlements , such as Çatalhöyük , is a non-linear development that demonstrates the varied experiences of early urbanization . The cities of Jericho , Aleppo , Byblos , Faiyum , Yerevan , Athens , Matera , Damascus , and Argos are among those laying claim to

1729-559: A deity related to the principal deity ( parivāra-devatã ); or as the principal deity of the temple ( pradhāna ). As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati's doorkeeper. In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: अष्टविनायक; aṣṭavināyaka ; lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within

1862-430: A distinctive elite social class, but it should indeed be considered a city based on a functional redefinition of urban development. In particular, Jenné-Jeno featured settlement mounds arranged according to a horizontal, rather than vertical, power hierarchy, and served as a center of specialized production and exhibited functional interdependence with the surrounding hinterland. More recently, scholars have concluded that

1995-493: A folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence. Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places. Ganesha is Vighneshvara ( Vighnaraja, Marathi – Vighnaharta) , the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order. He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in

2128-466: A grid plan with specialized districts used across the Hellenistic Mediterranean . The urban-type settlement extends far beyond the traditional boundaries of the city proper in a form of development sometimes described critically as urban sprawl . Decentralization and dispersal of city functions (commercial, industrial, residential, cultural, political) has transformed the very meaning of

2261-507: A key role in both the economy and government. Late antique cities in the East were also undergoing intense transformations, with increased political participation of the crowds and demographical fluctuations. Christian communities and their doctrinal differences increasingly shaped the urban fabric. The locus of power shifted to Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities Baghdad , Cairo , and Córdoba . From

2394-452: A marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband", so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband". Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Om . The term oṃkārasvarūpa (Om is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates

2527-520: A minimum between 1,500 and 5,000 inhabitants. Some jurisdictions set no such minima. In the United Kingdom , city status is awarded by the Crown and then remains permanent. (Historically, the qualifying factor was the presence of a cathedral , resulting in some very small cities such as Wells , with a population of 12,000 as of 2018 , and St Davids , with a population of 1,841 as of 2011 .) According to

2660-873: A pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and Gajanana ( gajānana ), having the face of an elephant . Vinayaka ( विनायक ; vināyaka ) or Binayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇa s and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak ( Marathi : अष्टविनायक , aṣṭavināyaka ). The names Vighnesha ( विघ्नेश ; vighneśa ) and Vighneshvara ( विघ्नेश्वर ; vighneśvara ) (Lord of Obstacles) refers to his primary function in Hinduism as

2793-688: A privileged elite among towns having won self-governance from their local lord or having been granted self-governance by the emperor and being placed under his immediate protection. By 1480, these cities, as far as still part of the empire, became part of the Imperial Estates governing the empire with the emperor through the Imperial Diet . By the 13th and 14th centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. In Italy, medieval communes developed into city-states including

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2926-495: A rule cannot produce their own food and therefore must develop some relationship with a hinterland that sustains them. Only in special cases such as mining towns which play a vital role in long-distance trade, are cities disconnected from the countryside which feeds them. Thus, centrality within a productive region influences siting, as economic forces would, in theory, favor the creation of marketplaces in optimal mutually reachable locations. The vast majority of cities have

3059-580: A single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi ). Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra ). He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi . Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo . The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: Kşema (safety) and Lābha (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story,

3192-549: A super-wealthy elite living in gated communities and large masses of people living in substandard housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions. Cities around the world have expanded physically as they grow in population, with increases in their surface extent, with the creation of high-rise buildings for residential and commercial use, and with development underground. Urbanization can create rapid demand for water resources management , as formerly good sources of freshwater become overused and polluted, and

3325-437: A temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below pīpaḹa ( Sacred fig ) trees ... in a niche ... in temples of Viṣṇu (Vishnu) as well as Śiva (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples ... the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen." Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including Southeast Asia , Nepal (including

3458-423: A temple. A minority viewpoint considers that cities may have arisen without agriculture, due to alternative means of subsistence (fishing), to use as communal seasonal shelters, to their value as bases for defensive and offensive military organization, or to their inherent economic function. Cities played a crucial role in the establishment of political power over an area, and ancient leaders such as Alexander

3591-454: A tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaṇeśa . Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka . There

3724-567: A workers' town associated with the pyramid of Senusret II , and the religious city Amarna built by Akhenaten and abandoned. These sites appear planned in a highly regimented and stratified fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes. In Mesopotamia, the civilization of Sumer , followed by Assyria and Babylon , gave rise to numerous cities, governed by kings and fostered multiple languages written in cuneiform . The Phoenician trading empire, flourishing around

3857-443: Is a historical place. It is supposed that there was an Ashram of Ved Vyas on the bank of a pond situated here. The statue of Uma Mahadev made in 9th-10th century, and statue of Ganesha made in 11th-12th century and remains of Gupta Empire prove the antecedence of Kapalmochan. People come from all parts of the country feel spiritual elevated by taking holy bath here in ponds (kunds) known as Rinmochan, Kapalmochan and Surya kund. There

3990-630: Is a main ancient temple of lord shiva. It lies 23 km north of Yamuna Nagar town. It is approachable by road via Bilaspur and is about 2 km from the nearest village Kathgarh. Located in the foothills of the Shivalik Hills, it has the Adi-Badri Narayana, Shri Kedar Nath and Mantra Devi Temples in the background. Three mounds of antiquities have recently been excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India . Chaneti Buddhist Stupa

4123-517: Is a non-Vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering". Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century. According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to

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4256-763: Is a pan-Hindu god found in its various traditions. In the Ganapatya tradition of Hinduism, Ganesha is the Supreme Being. The principal texts on Ganesha include the Ganesha Purana , the Mudgala Purana and the Ganapati Atharvasirsha . Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati ( Ganpati ), Vighneshvara , and Pillaiyar . The Hindu title of respect Shri ( Sanskrit : श्री ; IAST : śrī ; also spelled Sri or Shree )

4389-417: Is a popular figure in Indian art . Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time. He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations. Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by

4522-557: Is also a Hindu temple and Gurudawara of Dasham patshahi where the tenth guru of the Sikhs Guru Gobind Singh stayed. On the occasion of Guru Nanak Dev Jayanti, a huge gathering of devotees of both Sikh and Hindu origin takes place. The temple is situated on the road coming from Bilaspur to Chhachhrauli , 4 km away from Bilaspur and attracts large numbers of people. This temple has a Vigrah of Hanuman with five faces, contributing to temple's name, Panchmukhi (five faces). It

4655-519: Is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa . Courtright translates this passage as follows: "You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [ mūlādhāra cakra ]." Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara. Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the wheel of life ". Though Ganesha

4788-477: Is also invoked during writing sessions as a patron of letters and learning. Several texts relate anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits. Ganesha is mentioned in Hindu texts between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, and a few Ganesh images from the 4th and 5th centuries CE have been documented by scholars. Hindu texts identify him as the son of Parvati and Shiva of the Shaivism tradition, but he

4921-525: Is an old historical place. It was said that people coming from Haridwar and all the religious places of Himachal Pradesh used to take rest here. It was known as the 'Sadhu-raha' in the past. City Historically, city dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization , more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability . Present-day cities usually form

5054-548: Is believed that wishes come true here, after the 20th day of the Diwali on the Occasion. It is believed that the five Pandavas visited this place and prayed to Lord Hanuman by creating his five faces. The premises of the Temple has been greatly renovated during the recent years and has good facilities for the devotees. The main tehsil situated in north east and 11 km from Jagadhri. In

5187-599: Is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya . This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important. The word priya can mean "fond of", and in

5320-505: Is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda , it is uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha. The Amarakosha , an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha : Vinayaka , Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vighnesha ), Dvaimātura (one who has two mothers), Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha ), Ekadanta (one who has one tusk), Heramba , Lambodara (one who has

5453-418: Is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut." The Pashupati seal (c. 2300 BCE - 2000 BCE) depicts 4 animals including an elephant around a deity who is claimed by some to be Shiva . Brown notes that this seal indicates the sacredness of elephants before Vedic period. One theory of the origin of Ganesha

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5586-423: Is often added before his name. The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana ( gaṇa ), meaning a 'group, multitude, or categorical system' and isha ( īśa ), meaning 'lord or master'. The word gaṇa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaṇas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva , Ganesha's father. The term more generally means

5719-493: Is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati , the Puranic texts give different versions about his birth. In some he was created by Parvati, or by Shiva or created by Shiva and Parvati, in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the river. The family includes his brother,

5852-497: Is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity. Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity. Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies. Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin art performances such as the Bharatanatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha. Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to

5985-703: Is reflected in the Mudgala Purana , which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta. Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries). This feature is so important that according to the Mudgala Purana , two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly). Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST: udara ). The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has

6118-464: Is situated 3 km away from Jagadhri. It is round in shape, made of bricks, 8 meters in height, in the area of about 100 sq meters, is an old Buddhist Stupa . According to Hieun Tsang , this was built by the King Ashoka . Panjtirthi is situated 15 km away from Yamuna Nagar Topra Kalan to Harnol road. There are Lord Rama , Sita , Pandavas , Shiv temples, a Gurudwara and sacred pond . It

6251-508: Is still clearly visible. A system of rectilinear city streets and land plots, known as the grid plan , has been used for millennia in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. The Indus Valley Civilization built Mohenjo-Daro , Harappa , and other cities on a grid pattern, using ancient principles described by Kautilya , and aligned with the compass points . The ancient Greek city of Priene exemplifies

6384-513: Is still used today. In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda , Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati —who is the deity of the hymn—and Bṛhaspati only". Equally clearly, the second passage ( RV 10 .112.9) refers to Indra , who is given the epithet ' gaṇapati ', translated "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts )." However, Rocher notes that

6517-581: Is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas ( Vināyakas ). In the Yajurveda , the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties but who were easily propitiated. The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. Krishan is one of the academics who accept this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He

6650-420: Is the most urban continent, with four-fifths of its population living in cities, including one-fifth of the population said to live in shantytowns ( favelas , poblaciones callampas , etc.). Batam , Indonesia , Mogadishu , Somalia , Xiamen , China , and Niamey , Niger , are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities, with annual growth rates of 5–8%. In general, the more developed countries of

6783-632: Is the place where the Ashoka pillar having Pali inscriptions was originally installed by Ashoka. This pillar was uprooted by Mughal invader Ferozeshah Tughlaq and was moved to Delhi and reinstalled. Chaneti has one full size Buddhist stupa excavated similar to those found in Sanchi and Sarnath . Sugh also had signs of Buddhism which have been razed by local natives. The town was known historically for its metal work and brass ware including utensils. Nowadays production of brass ware has fallen off, due to high costs and

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6916-695: Is where the Yamuna loses its waters to the Western and Eastern Yamuna Canals that supply water for irrigation and the Delhi waterworks. The Tajewala was replaced by the Hathnikund Barrage in 1999. Buria is a famous town situated 8 km away from Jagadhari. It is said that Humayun came here for hunting in Shivalik forests and constructed Rang-Mahal . Many people guess the relation of 'Rang-Mahal' to Raja Birbal , one of

7049-440: Is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists and beyond India. Although Ganesha has many attributes, he is readily identified by his elephant head and four arms. He is widely revered, more specifically, as the remover of obstacles and bringer of good luck; the patron of arts and sciences ; and the deva of intellect and wisdom. As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rites and ceremonies. Ganesha

7182-509: Is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions; especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business. K.N Soumyaji says, "there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. ... Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country". Devotees believe that if Ganesha

7315-565: The śuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of Bhadrapada (August/September) and the Ganesh Jayanti (Ganesha's birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of magha (January/February)." An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September. The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising

7448-739: The Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana , where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag. The names Mūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) and Ākhuketana (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama . The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati 's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire". Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolises those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish. Krishan notes that

7581-527: The Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra . Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule. Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions , and he established

7714-553: The Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century. Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha ( noose ) in the other upper arm. In rare instances, he may be depicted with a human head. The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form,

7847-589: The Navaratnas of Akbar . Buria is also known as Buria Sahib because of a well-known Gurudwara related to Guru Teg Bahadur , ninth guru of Sikhs . An old Shiva Temple is also located in Buria. In nearby Dayalgarh, is the renovated old temple of Shree Paataaleshvar Mahadev with a garden and some ashrams of saints made during medieval times. Bilaspur town, named after the writer of the Mahabharata - Maharishi Vyasa ,

7980-586: The Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa . In Northern Europe, cities including Lübeck and Bruges formed the Hanseatic League for collective defense and commerce. Their power was later challenged and eclipsed by the Dutch commercial cities of Ghent , Ypres , and Amsterdam . Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of Sakai , which enjoyed considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan. In

8113-931: The United Nations ... largely for the purpose of international statistical comparison". The word city and the related civilization come from the Latin root civitas , originally meaning 'citizenship' or 'community member' and eventually coming to correspond with urbs , meaning 'city' in a more physical sense. The Roman civitas was closely linked with the Greek polis —another common root appearing in English words such as metropolis . In toponymic terminology, names of individual cities and towns are called astionyms (from Ancient Greek ἄστυ 'city or town' and ὄνομα 'name'). Urban geography deals both with cities in their larger context and with their internal structure. Cities are estimated to cover about 3% of

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8246-501: The Uruk period . In the fourth and third millennium BC , complex civilizations flourished in the river valleys of Mesopotamia , India , China , and Egypt . Excavations in these areas have found the ruins of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion. Some had large, dense populations , but others carried out urban activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations. Among

8379-716: The civilization of Djenne-Djenno was likely established by the Mande progenitors of the Bozo people . Their habitation of the site spanned the period from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE. Archaeological evidence from Jenné-Jeno, specifically the presence of non-West African glass beads dated from the third century BCE to the fourth century CE, indicates that pre-Arabic trade contacts probably existed between Jenné-Jeno and North Africa. Additionally, other early urban centers in West Africa, dated to around 500 CE, include Awdaghust , Kumbi Saleh ,

8512-706: The commune ( in France and Chile ; or comune in Italy). Ganesha Traditional Ganesha ( Sanskrit : गणेश , IAST : Gaṇeśa ), also spelled Ganesh , and also known as Ganapati , Vinayaka , Lambodara and Pillaiyar , is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect. His depictions are found throughout India . Hindu denominations worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha

8645-427: The government workers . (This arrangement contrasts with the more typically horizontal relationships in a tribe or village accomplishing common goals through informal agreements between neighbors, or the leadership of a chief.) The governments may be based on heredity, religion, military power, work systems such as canal-building, food distribution, land-ownership, agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, finance, or

8778-472: The knowledge economy . A new smart city paradigm, supported by institutions such as the RAND Corporation and IBM , is bringing computerized surveillance , data analysis, and governance to bear on cities and city dwellers. Some companies are building brand-new master-planned cities from scratch on greenfield sites. Urbanization is the process of migration from rural to urban areas, driven by various political, economic, and cultural factors. Until

8911-434: The root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant". In the Burmese language , Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne ( မဟာပိန္နဲ , pronounced [məhà pèiɰ̃né] ), derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka ( မဟာဝိနာယက ). The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Khanet (can be transliterated as Ganet), or

9044-496: The service economy and public-private partnerships , with concomitant gentrification , uneven revitalization efforts , and selective cultural development. Under the Great Leap Forward and subsequent five-year plans continuing today, China has undergone concomitant urbanization and industrialization and become the world's leading manufacturer . Amidst these economic changes, high technology and instantaneous telecommunication enable select cities to become centers of

9177-535: The " Global North " remain more urbanized than the less developed countries of the " Global South "—but the difference continues to shrink because urbanization is happening faster in the latter group. Asia is home to by far the greatest absolute number of city-dwellers: over two billion and counting. The UN predicts an additional 2.5 billion city dwellers (and 300 million fewer country dwellers) worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and Africa. Megacities , cities with populations in

9310-417: The "Brass City" of India.  Jagadhri, corrupted form of its old name Yugandhari, was named after the king of the Yugandharas. Yugandharas find mention in Mahabharata as well as Buddhist texts as region with warriors or mountains. Yugandhara likely was used for a region inhabited by a tribe of that name and it comprised some mountainous tracts also which were given the same name. Excavations have found

9443-539: The "functional definition", a city is not distinguished by size alone, but also by the role it plays within a larger political context. Cities serve as administrative, commercial, religious, and cultural hubs for their larger surrounding areas. The presence of a literate elite is often associated with cities because of the cultural diversities present in a city. A typical city has professional administrators , regulations, and some form of taxation (food and other necessities or means to trade for them) to support

9576-524: The 18th century), Ile-Ifẹ̀ (70,000 to 105,000 inhabitants in the 14th and 15th centuries), Niani (50,000 inhabitants in 1400 AD) and Timbuktu (100,000 inhabitants in 1450 AD). In the West, nation-states became the dominant unit of political organization following the Peace of Westphalia in the seventeenth century. Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following

9709-420: The 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring markets and small-scale manufacturing. With the agricultural and industrial revolutions urban population began its unprecedented growth, both through migration and demographic expansion . In England , the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891. In 1900, 15% of

9842-698: The 30th and 18th centuries BC. Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, beginning with the Olmec and spreading to the Preclassic Maya , the Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the Aztec , Andean civilizations , Mayan , Mississippians , and Pueblo peoples drew on these earlier urban traditions. Many of their ancient cities continue to be inhabited, including major metropolitan cities such as Mexico City , in

9975-459: The 4th or 5th century. An independent cult with Ganesha as the primary deity was well established by about the 10th century. Narain summarises the lack of evidence about Ganesha's history before the 5th century as follows: What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaṇeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On

10108-632: The 5th century. Another Ganesha sculpture is embedded in the walls of Cave 6 of the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh . This is dated to the 5th century. An early iconic image of Ganesha with elephant head, a bowl of sweets and a goddess sitting in his lap has been found in the ruins of the Bhumara Temple in Madhya Pradesh, and this is dated to the 5th-century Gupta period . Other recent discoveries, such as one from Ramgarh Hill, are also dated to

10241-424: The 6th century. The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900 to 1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973 and 1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost, and another similar statue is dated 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal. Ganesha has

10374-465: The 9th and the 10th centuries. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms. According to the Ganesha Purana , Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck. Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST: yajñyopavīta ) wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be

10507-722: The 9th through the end of the 12th century, Constantinople , the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire , was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million. The Ottoman Empire gradually gained control over many cities in the Mediterranean area, including Constantinople in 1453 . In the Holy Roman Empire , beginning in the 12th century, free imperial cities such as Nuremberg , Strasbourg , Frankfurt , Basel , Zürich , and Nijmegen became

10640-552: The Andes, the first urban centers developed in the Norte Chico civilization , Chavin and Moche cultures, followed by major cities in the Huari , Chimu , and Inca cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru . It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between

10773-531: The Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to

10906-519: The Great founded and created them with zeal. Jericho and Çatalhöyük , dated to the eighth millennium BC , are among the earliest proto-cities known to archaeologists. However, the Mesopotamian city of Uruk from the mid-fourth millennium BC (ancient Iraq) is considered by most archaeologists to be the first true city, innovating many characteristics for cities to follow, with its name attributed to

11039-718: The Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (Om, Gaṃ , Salutation to the Lord of Hosts). Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls called laddus . He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a modakapātra . Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste ( raktachandana ) or red flowers. Dūrvā grass ( Cynodon dactylon ) and other materials are also used in his worship. Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesha Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in

11172-491: The Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography . For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage). Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualised as blue during meditation in that form. The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle). Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana , Ganesha uses

11305-475: The age group of 0 to 6 years was 14,011. The total number of literates in Jagadhri was 94,468, which constituted 75.6% of the population with male literacy of 78.3% and female literacy of 72.5%. The effective literacy rate of 7+ population of Jagadhri was 85.2%, of which male literacy rate was 88.3% and female literacy rate was 81.5%. The Scheduled Castes population was 15,460. Tajewala Barrage , completed in 1873,

11438-530: The ancient capital of Ghana, and Maranda , a center located on a trade route between Egypt and Gao. The dissolution of the Roman Empire in the West was connected with profound changes in urban fabric of western Europe. In places where Roman administration quickly weakened urbanism went through a profound crisis, even if it continued to remain an important symbolic factor. In regions like Italy or Spain cities diminished in size but nevertheless continued to play

11571-460: The athletic, artistic, spiritual, and political life of the polis. Rome was the first city that surpassed one million inhabitants. Under the authority of its empire , Rome transformed and founded many cities ( Colonia ), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society. In the ancient Americas , early urban traditions developed in the Andes and Mesoamerica . In

11704-495: The battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source. Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly. Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken. Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk. The importance of this distinctive feature

11837-407: The benefit of mitigating the urban heat island effect, especially in cities that are in warmer climates. These spaces prevent carbon imbalances, extreme habitat losses, electricity and water consumption, and human health risks. The urban structure generally follows one or more basic patterns: geomorphic, radial, concentric, rectilinear, and curvilinear. The physical environment generally constrains

11970-566: The brothers and may reflect sectarian tensions. Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories. One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmachari . This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India. Another popularly-accepted mainstream pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives. He also may be shown with

12103-493: The city has successfully transitioned to the manufacture of aluminium and stainless steel products. Moreover, Jagadhri has also witnessed the growth of a new timber trade in the last decade. There are many old temples, such as LathMar Mandir, Khera Mandir, Gauri Shankar Mandir and Guga Madi Mandir, Devi Mandir (Mansa Devi). As of 2011 Indian Census , Jagadhri had 26,716 households with a total population of 124,894 of which 67,685 were male and 57,209 were females. Population within

12236-499: The common era. Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way: In this search for a historical origin for Gaṇeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the Brāhmaṇic tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on

12369-520: The core of larger metropolitan areas and urban areas —creating numerous commuters traveling toward city centres for employment, entertainment, and education. However, in a world of intensifying globalization , all cities are to varying degrees also connected globally beyond these regions. This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues , such as sustainable development , climate change , and global health . Because of these major influences on global issues,

12502-536: The early Old World cities, Mohenjo-daro of the Indus Valley civilization in present-day Pakistan , existing from about 2600 BC, was one of the largest, with a population of 50,000 or more and a sophisticated sanitation system . China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial microcosms . The Ancient Egyptian cities known physically by archaeologists are not extensive. They include (known by their Arab names) El Lahun ,

12635-479: The emergence of an Atlantic trade. However, most towns remained small. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the old Roman city concept was extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories and were bound to several laws regarding administration, finances, and urbanism. The growth of the modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive urbanization and

12768-470: The emergence of the Ganapatyas , to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter). However, both functions continue to be vital to his character. Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning. In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is an active noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect. The concept of buddhi

12901-511: The evidence from archaeological excavations in Mathura and outside India. First terracotta images of Ganesha are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram, and Chandraketugarh . These figures are small, with an elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd–3rd centuries CE). Ganesha appeared in his classic form as

13034-604: The existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century. The evidence for more ancient Ganesha, suggests Narain, may reside outside Brahmanic or Sanskritic traditions, or outside geocultural boundaries of India. Ganesha appears in China by the 6th century, states Brown, and his artistic images in temple setting as "remover of obstacles" in South Asia appear by about 400 CE. He is, states Bailey, recognised as goddess Parvati's son and integrated into Shaivism theology by early centuries of

13167-791: The first millennium AD, the Khmer capital of Angkor in Cambodia grew into the most extensive preindustrial settlement in the world by area, covering over 1,000 km and possibly supporting up to one million people. West Africa already had cities before the Common Era , but the consolidation of Trans-Saharan trade in the Middle Ages multiplied the number of cities in the region, as well as making some of them very populous, notably Gao (72,000 inhabitants in 800 AD), Oyo-Ile (50,000 inhabitants in 1400 AD, and may have reached up to 140,000 inhabitants in

13300-905: The following: Kanipakam in Andhra Pradesh ; the Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple at Tiruchirapalli , Puliakulam Munthi Vinayagar Temple at Coimbatore and Karpaga Vinayagar Temple in Pillaiyarpatti which is a town named after Ganesha in Tamil Nadu ; Kottarakkara , Pazhavangadi , Kasargod in Kerala ; Hampi , and Idagunji in Karnataka ; and Bhadrachalam in Telangana . T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara (Vigneshvara) with or without

13433-440: The form in which a city is built. If located on a mountainside, urban structures may rely on terraces and winding roads. It may be adapted to its means of subsistence (e.g. agriculture or fishing). And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape. Beyond these "geomorphic" features, cities can develop internal patterns, due to natural growth or to city planning . In a radial structure, main roads converge on

13566-466: The four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu Valley ), and in several western countries. An elephant–headed anthropomorphic figure on Indo-Greek coins from the 1st century BCE has been proposed by some scholars to be "incipient Ganesha", but this has been strongly contested. Others have suggested Ganesha may have been an emerging deity in India and southeast Asia around the 2nd century CE based on

13699-467: The god of war, Kartikeya , who is also called Skanda and Murugan. Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the firstborn. In northern India , Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, after which worship of him declined significantly. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between

13832-400: The god's visit. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi , when the idols ( murtis ) are immersed in the most convenient body of water. Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event. He did so "to bridge the gap between

13965-410: The head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature. A more primitive statue in one of

14098-800: The international community has prioritized investment in sustainable cities through Sustainable Development Goal 11 . Due to the efficiency of transportation and the smaller land consumption , dense cities hold the potential to have a smaller ecological footprint per inhabitant than more sparsely populated areas. Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element in fighting climate change. However, this concentration can also have some significant negative consequences, such as forming urban heat islands , concentrating pollution , and stressing water supplies and other resources. A city can be distinguished from other human settlements by its relatively great size, but also by its functions and its special symbolic status , which may be conferred by

14231-468: The land surface of the Earth. Town siting has varied through history according to natural, technological, economic, and military contexts. Access to water has long been a major factor in city placement and growth, and despite exceptions enabled by the advent of rail transport in the nineteenth century, through the present most of the world's urban population lives near the coast or on a river. Urban areas as

14364-475: The longest continual inhabitation . Cities, characterized by population density , symbolic function, and urban planning , have existed for thousands of years. In the conventional view, civilization and the city were both followed by the development of agriculture , which enabled the production of surplus food and thus a social division of labor (with concomitant social stratification ) and trade . Early cities often featured granaries , sometimes within

14497-572: The master and remover of obstacles ( vighna ). A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai ( Tamil : பிள்ளை ) or Pillaiyar ( பிள்ளையார் ). A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child". He adds that the words pallu , pella , and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk", also " elephant tooth or tusk". Anita Raina Thapan notes that

14630-429: The more official title of Phra Phi Khanet . The earliest images and mention lists Ganesha as a major deity in present-day Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam dating to the 7th and 8th centuries, and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th century or earlier. In Sri Lankan , among Sinhalese Buddhists, he is known as Gana deviyo , and revered along with Buddha , Vishnu , Skanda and other deities. Ganesha

14763-492: The multi-millions, have proliferated into the dozens, arising especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Economic globalization fuels the growth of these cities, as new torrents of foreign capital arrange for rapid industrialization, as well as the relocation of major businesses from Europe and North America, attracting immigrants from near and far. A deep gulf divides the rich and poor in these cities, which usually contain

14896-536: The name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs ; IAST: brahmāṇḍas ) of the past, present, and future are present in him. The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms. Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts. His earliest images had two arms. Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during

15029-403: The number of heads are known. While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories. The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant. Details of

15162-479: The one hand, there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaṇeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand, there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence [in ancient Brahmanic literature] of

15295-665: The only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (Abhaya mudra ). The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme. Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art. Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head. One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati , has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in

15428-520: The past it was the capital of the Sikh state of Kalsia . Created by Raja Gurbaksh Singh in 1763. Today 'Ravi Mahal', Ghantaghar, Janak Niwas and the fort have their own dignity. There is also a Sainik Parivar Bhawan & Bal-kunj social welfare institution at Chhachrauli. It is known as "Cherapunjji of Haryana" as it receives the highest rainfall in Haryana. This village is situated north east from jagadhari- there

15561-409: The path of those who need to be checked. Hence, he is often worshipped by the people before they begin anything new. Paul Courtright says that Ganesha's dharma and his raison d'être is to create and remove obstacles. Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time. Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and

15694-495: The people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era. The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: gaṇapati ) occurs twice in the Rig Veda , but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati , according to commentators. While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and

15827-529: The practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day. Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra. The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai , Pune , and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples. In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as a subordinate deity ( pãrśva-devatã ); as

15960-500: The public as well as forms of public land such as public domain and the commons . Western philosophy since the time of the Greek agora has considered physical public space as the substrate of the symbolic public sphere . Public art adorns (or disfigures) public spaces. Parks and other natural sites within cities provide residents with relief from the hardness and regularity of typical built environments . Urban green spaces are another component of public space that provides

16093-568: The punch marked square coins, a Greek hemidrachm coin of Indo-Greek king Apollodotus I or Apollodotus II (1st and 2nd century BCE ) and one of Antimachus I / Antimachus II (2nd century BCE), a gold coin of Samudragupta (ruled 336-380 CE) and other coins of the period up to the Prithviraj Chauhan and Tomara dynasty kings of Delhi. It was likely the capital city of a Janapada . There are few places which have signs of Ashoka like Topra kalan , Chaneti, Sugh and Lohgarh . Topra kalan

16226-429: The rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as

16359-494: The relevant passage as follows: (O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) Brahma , Vishnu , and Mahesa . You are Indra . You are fire [ Agni ] and air [ Vāyu ]. You are the sun [ Sūrya ] and the moon [ Chandrama ]. You are Brahman . You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this). Some devotees see similarities between

16492-866: The rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. England led the way as London became the capital of a world empire and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for manufacturing . In the United States from 1860 to 1910, the introduction of railroads reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, fueling migration from rural to city areas. Some industrialized cities were confronted with health challenges associated with overcrowding , occupational hazards of industry, contaminated water and air, poor sanitation , and communicable diseases such as typhoid and cholera . Factories and slums emerged as regular features of

16625-680: The same location as Tenochtitlan ; while ancient continuously inhabited Pueblos are near modern urban areas in New Mexico , such as Acoma Pueblo near the Albuquerque metropolitan area and Taos Pueblo near Taos ; while others like Lima are located nearby ancient Peruvian sites such as Pachacamac . From 1600 BC, Dhar Tichitt , in the south of present-day Mauritania , presented characteristics suggestive of an incipient form of urbanism. The second place to show urban characteristics in West Africa

16758-468: The shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Om in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts. According to Kundalini yoga , Ganesha resides in the first chakra , called Muladhara ( mūlādhāra ). Mula means "original, main"; adhara means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests. This association

16891-408: The sons are often said to be Śubha (auspiciousness) and Lābha . The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma , the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity. Ganesha

17024-486: The term and has challenged geographers seeking to classify territories according to an urban-rural binary. Metropolitan areas include suburbs and exurbs organized around the needs of commuters , and sometimes edge cities characterized by a degree of economic and political independence. (In the US these are grouped into metropolitan statistical areas for purposes of demography and marketing .) Some cities are now part of

17157-412: The turn of the first millennium BC , encompassed numerous cities extending from Tyre , Cydon , and Byblos to Carthage and Cádiz . In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece , especially Athens , developed the polis , an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city. The agora , meaning "gathering place" or "assembly", was the center of

17290-446: The urban landscape. In the second half of the 20th century, deindustrialization (or " economic restructuring ") in the West led to poverty , homelessness , and urban decay in formerly prosperous cities. America's "Steel Belt" became a " Rust Belt " and cities such as Detroit , Michigan, and Gary, Indiana began to shrink , contrary to the global trend of massive urban expansion. Such cities have shifted with varying success into

17423-575: The volume of sewage begins to exceed manageable levels. The local government of cities takes different forms including prominently the municipality (especially in England , in the United States , India , and other British colonies ; legally, the municipal corporation ; municipio in Spain and Portugal , and, along with municipalidad , in most former parts of the Spanish and Portuguese empires) and

17556-512: The world's population lived in cities. The cultural appeal of cities also plays a role in attracting residents. Urbanization rapidly spread across Europe and the Americas and since the 1950s has taken hold in Asia and Africa as well. The Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs reported in 2014 that for the first time, more than half of the world population lives in cities. Latin America

17689-532: Was Dia , in present-day Mali , from 800 BC. Both Dhar Tichitt and Dia were founded by the same people: the Soninke , who would later also found the Ghana Empire . Another ancient site, Jenné-Jeno , in what is today Mali , has been dated to the third century BCE. According to Roderick and Susan McIntosh, Jenné-Jeno did not fit into traditional Western conceptions of urbanity as it lacked monumental architecture and

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