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146-605: The joint exercise in realistic military training (RMT) known as Jade Helm 15 was sponsored by the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM or SOCOM) and involved the United States Army Special Operations Command (USASOC) and Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) with other U.S. military units in multiple states, including Texas, Arizona, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico, and Utah. Its stated purpose

292-457: A pontoon bridge under given conditions with given manpower, and this data can then generate norms for expected performance under similar conditions in the future, or serve to refine the bridge-building process. Any form of training can be regarded as a "simulation" in the strictest sense of the word (inasmuch as it simulates an operational environment); however, many if not most exercises take place not to test new ideas or models, but to provide

438-465: A "psychological operation aimed at getting people used to seeing military forces on the streets" so that they do not realize when an invasion actually takes place; an international operation aimed to seize people's firearms; recently closed Walmarts used by the military to "stockpile supplies for Chinese troops who will be arriving to disarm Americans"; and a military plan to "round up political dissidents" and "remove key political figures" who may be against

584-423: A 'gospel' truth. However, whilst this is generally understood by most game theorists and analysts, it can be tempting for a layman—for example, a politician who needs to present a 'black and white' situation to his electorate—to settle on an interpretation that supports his preconceived position. Tom Clancy , in his novel Red Storm Rising , illustrated this problem when one of his characters, attempting to persuade

730-491: A November 2015 GQ interview, President Obama described Jade Helm as "his favorite conspiracy theory". One of the first versions of the conspiracy appeared in All News Pipeline. It was later spread by conspiracy theorist and radio host Alex Jones , who said on his Infowars radio program and website that the federal government was preparing to invade Texas. "They're going to practice breaking into things and stuff. This

876-459: A best-, intermediate- and worst-case outcome. The advocate of war chose to present only the best-case outcome, thus distorting the results to support his case. Although fictional, the above scenario may however have been based on fact. The Japanese extensively wargamed their planned expansion during World War II, but map exercises conducted before the Pacific War were frequently stopped short of

1022-457: A column titled, "Abbott should counter, not cater to, Texans' crazy Jade Helm fears," noting that Abbott's "response to this nut-studded fruitcake of fear was unfortunate." On April 29, White House Press Secretary Josh Earnest addressed the concerns of critics in the regular press briefing, saying, "I have no idea what he's thinking," regarding Abbott's letter to the Texas Guard. "In no way will

1168-560: A conclusion where Japan was defeated. One often-cited example prior to Midway had the umpires magically resurrecting a Japanese carrier sunk during a map exercise, although Professor Robert Rubel argues in the Naval War College Review their decision was justified in this case given improbable rolls of the dice. Given the historical outcome, it is evident the dice rolls were not so improbable, after all. There were however equally illustrative fundamental problems with other areas of

1314-435: A constant thorn in the side of the designers of military simulations – whereas political-military simulations are often required by their nature to grapple with what are referred to by modellers as "squishy" problems, purely military models often seem to prefer to concentrate on hard numbers. Whilst a warship can be regarded, from the perspective of a model, as a single entity with known parameters (speed, armour, gun power, and

1460-593: A cover for the imposition of martial law in the United States". There was some tie-in between the Jade Helm 15 exercise and a resurgence of the FEMA camps conspiracy theory with the exercise raising fear that it was a dry run for forcing citizens into internment camps . These fears were demonstrated to have been unfounded when the exercise was completed and no one was placed into a camp. Some conspiracy theorists have connected

1606-407: A fibrous matrix as nephrite is.) It only occurs in metamorphic rocks. Both nephrite and jadeite were used from prehistoric periods for hardstone carving . Jadeite has about the same hardness (between 6.0 and 7.0 Mohs hardness ) as quartz, while nephrite is slightly softer (6.0 to 6.5) and so can be worked with quartz or garnet sand, and polished with bamboo or even ground jade. However nephrite

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1752-605: A form of military simulation (although its precise origins are debated). In more recent times, the forerunner of modern simulations was the Prussian game Kriegsspiel , which appeared around 1811 and is sometimes credited with the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War . It was distributed to each Prussian regiment and they were ordered to play it regularly, prompting a visiting German officer to declare in 1824, "It's not

1898-642: A full-scale deployment, making it an attractive option for more minor simulations that would not merit anything larger, as well as for very major operations where cost, or secrecy, is an issue. (This was true in the planning of OPERATION AI .) Increasing the level of abstraction still further, simulation moves towards an environment readily recognised by civilian wargamers . This type of simulation can be manual , implying no (or very little) computer involvement, computer-assisted , or fully computerised. Manual simulations have probably been in use in some form since mankind first went to war. Chess can be regarded as

2044-448: A game at all! It's training for war!" Eventually so many rules sprang up, as each regiment improvised their own variations, two versions came into use. One, known as "rigid Kriegsspiel ", was played by strict adherence to the lengthy rule book. The other, "free Kriegsspiel ", was governed by the decisions of human umpires . Each version had its advantages and disadvantages: rigid Kriegsspiel contained rules covering most situations, and

2190-448: A general scientific principle, the most reliable data comes from actual observation and the most reliable theories depend on it. This also holds true in military analysis, where analysts look towards live field-exercises and trials as providing data likely to be realistic (depending on the realism of the exercise) and verifiable (it has been gathered by actual observation). One can readily discover, for example, how long it takes to construct

2336-508: A kosmochlor-rich jade rock. Mines at Tawmaw and Hweka are mostly exhausted. From 1964 to 1981, mining was exclusively an enterprise of the Myanmar government. In 1981, 1985, and 1995, the Gemstone laws were modified to allow increasing private enterprise. In addition to this region, there are also notable mines in the neighboring Sagaing District, near the towns of Nasibon and Natmaw and Hkamti. Sagaing

2482-701: A match for the lighter cruisers, but Pratt's formula correctly predicted the ensuing British victory. In contrast, many modern operations research models have proven unable to reproduce historical results when they are validated; the Atlas model, for instance, in 1971 was shown to be incapable of achieving more than a 68% correspondence with historical results. Trevor Dupuy , a prominent American historian and military analyst known for airing often controversial views, has said that "many OR analysts and planners are convinced that neither history nor data from past wars has any relevance". In Numbers, Predictions, and War , he implies

2628-497: A mineralogically more specific name. Both the amphibole jade (nephrite) and pyroxene jade are mineral aggregates (rocks) rather than mineral species. Nephrite was deprecated by the International Mineralogical Association as a mineral species name in 1978 (replaced by tremolite ). The name "nephrite" is mineralogically correct for referring to the rock. Jadeite, is a legitimate mineral species, differing from

2774-434: A missile impact. This had the effect of ' teleporting ' the bomber, at the instant of impact, hundreds or even thousands of miles away, causing the missile to miss. Furthermore, this error went unnoticed for a number of years. Other unrealistic models have had battleships consistently steaming at seventy knots (twice their top speed), an entire tank army halted by a border police detachment, and attrition levels 50% higher than

2920-534: A model that cannot even reproduce a known outcome is little more than a whimsy, with no basis in reality. Historically, there have even been a few rare occasions where a simulation was validated as it was being carried out. One notable such occurrence was just before the famous Ardennes offensive in World War II, when the Germans attacked allied forces during a period of bad weather in the winter of 1944, hoping to reach

3066-499: A set amount of time to discuss and formulate a strategy, with input from the directors/umpires (often called Control ) as required. Where more than one team is participating, teams may be divided on partisan lines—traditionally Blue and Red are used as designations, with Blue representing the 'home' nation and Red the opposition. In this case, the teams will work against each other, their moves and counter-moves being relayed to their opponents by Control, who will also adjudicate on

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3212-447: A similar range of meanings when appearing as a radical as parts of other characters. Jade in Japan was used for jade bracelets. It was a symbol of wealth and power. Leaders also used jade in rituals. It is the national stone of Japan. Examples of use in Japan can be traced back to the early Jomon period about 7,000 years ago. XRF analysis results have revealed that all jade used in Japan since

3358-449: A simulation modelling an invasion of nation A by nation B was put through one hundred iterations to determine the likely depth of penetration into A's territory by B's forces after four weeks, an average result could be calculated. Examining those results, it might be found that the average penetration was around fifty kilometres—however, there would also be outlying results on the ends of the probability curve . At one end, it could be that

3504-583: A simulation, hence the persistence of manual simulations in war colleges throughout the world. Both computer-assisted and entirely computerised simulations are common as well, with each being used as required by circumstances. The Rand Corporation is one of the best known designers of Military Simulations for the US Government and Air Force, and one of the pioneers of the Political-Military simulation. Their SAFE (Strategic And Force Evaluation) simulation

3650-516: A special significance, comparable with that of gold and diamonds in the West. Jade was used for the finest objects and cult figures, and for grave furnishings for high-ranking members of the imperial family. Due to that significance and the rising middle class in China, in 2010 the finest jade when found in nuggets of "mutton fat" jade – so-named for its marbled white consistency – could sell for $ 3,000 an ounce,

3796-467: A tenfold increase from a decade previously. The Chinese character 玉 (yù) is used to denote the several types of stone known in English as "jade" (e.g. 玉器, jadewares), such as jadeite (硬玉, 'hard jade', another name for 翡翠) and nephrite (軟玉, 'soft jade'). While still in use, the terms "hard jade" and "soft jade" resulted from a mistranslation by a Japanese geologist, and should be avoided. But because of

3942-573: A war game". Political-military simulations remain in widespread use today: modern simulations are concerned not with a potential war between superpowers, but more with international cooperation, the rise of global terrorism and smaller brushfire conflicts such as those in Kosovo , Bosnia , Sierra Leone and the Sudan . An example is the MNE ( M ulti n ational E xperiment) series of simulations that have been run from

4088-521: A wargaming sand table at the time of Khe Sanh ) in a series of simulations codenamed Sigma . The period was one of great belief in the value of military simulations, riding on the back of the proven success of operations research (or OR ) during World War II and the growing power of computers in handling large amounts of data. The story concerned a fictional aide in Richard Nixon 's administration, who, when Nixon took over government in 1969, fed all

4234-661: Is a district in Myanmar proper, not a part of the ethic Kachin State. Carved nephrite jade was the main commodity trade during the historical Maritime Jade Road , an extensive trading network connecting multiple areas in Southeast Asia. The nephrite jade was mined in eastern Taiwan by the animist Taiwanese indigenous peoples and processed mostly in the Philippines by the animist indigenous Filipinos. Some were also processed in Vietnam , while

4380-455: Is also noted for its craftsman tradition of using large amounts of green serpentine or false jade obtained primarily from Afghanistan in order to fashion jewellery and ornamental items such as sword hilts and dagger handles. The Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad has a wide range of jade hilted daggers, mostly owned by the former Sultans of Hyderabad. Today, it is estimated that Myanmar

4526-498: Is an acronym for "Homeland Eradication of Local Militants". Eric Johnston formed a "Counter Jade Helm" group to monitor the training operations and to practice "counterinsurgency" tactics and intelligence-gathering. In August, three men were arrested by the FBI and accused of plotting to "resist Jade Helm" with weapons and home-made bombs. Two of the three men reportedly told the owner of a military surplus store that they believed Jade Helm "is

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4672-549: Is an example of a manual simulation, with one or more teams of up to ten participants being sequestered in separate rooms and their moves being overseen by an independent director and his staff. Such simulations may be conducted over a few days (thus requiring commitment from the participants): an initial scenario (for example, a conflict breaking out in the Persian Gulf) is presented to the players with appropriate historical, political and military background information. They then have

4818-407: Is called actinolite (the silky fibrous mineral form is one form of asbestos ). The higher the iron content, the greener the colour. Tremolite occurs in metamorphosed dolomitic limestones, and actinolite in metamorphic greenschists/glaucophane schists. Jadeite is a sodium- and aluminium-rich pyroxene . The more precious kind of jade, this is a microcrystalline interlocking growth of crystals (not

4964-441: Is closely connected with such jewellery production as Fabergé , whose workshops combined the green stone with gold, diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a strong belief among many Siberians , which stemmed from tradition, that jade was part of a class of sacred objects that had life. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a strong belief among many Mongolians , which came from ancient tradition, that jade

5110-835: Is considered a taonga , or treasure, and therefore protected under the Treaty of Waitangi , and the exploitation of it is restricted and closely monitored. It is found only in the South Island of New Zealand, known as Te Wai Pounamu in Māori —"The [land of] Greenstone Water", or Te Wahi Pounamu —"The Place of Greenstone". Pounamu taonga increase in mana (prestige) as they pass from one generation to another. The most prized taonga are those with known histories going back many generations. These are believed to have their own mana and were often given as gifts to seal important agreements. Tools, weapons and ornaments were made of it; in particular adzes ,

5256-509: Is different from colour and texture quality. In other words, Type A jadeite is not enhanced but can have poor colour and texture. There are three main methods of enhancement, sometimes referred to as the ABC Treatment System: The jade trade in Myanmar consists of the mining , distribution, and manufacture of jadeite —a variety of jade—in the nation of Myanmar (Burma). The jadeite deposits found in Myanmar's northern regions are

5402-466: Is done from large boulders that contain bountiful deposits of jade. Jade is exposed using diamond-tipped core drills in order to extract samples. This is done to ensure that the jade meets requirements. Hydraulic spreaders are then inserted into cleavage points in the rock so that the jade can be broken away. Once the boulders are removed and the jade is accessible, it is broken down into more manageable 10-tonne pieces using water-cooled diamond saws. The jade

5548-588: Is fired at). In operational use during the Falklands War in 1982, the British recorded its actual Pk as 0.78. Another factor that can render a model invalid is human error. One notorious example was the US Air Force's Advanced Penetration Model , which due to a programming error made US bombers invulnerable to enemy air defences by inadvertently altering their latitude or longitude when checking their location for

5694-491: Is found in small numbers of pit-houses and burials . The craft production of small comma -shaped and tubular "jades" using materials such as jade, microcline , jasper , etc., in southern Korea originates from the Middle Mumun Pottery Period ( c.  850 –550 BC). Comma-shaped jades are found on some of the gold crowns of Silla royalty ( c.  300 /400–668 AD) and sumptuous elite burials of

5840-399: Is going to be hellish," Jones said. "Now this is just a cover for deploying the military on the streets ... This is an invasion ... in preparation for the financial collapse and maybe even Obama not leaving office." The conspiracy theories also appeared repeatedly on the conservative Drudge Report website . After Abbott's response, Dallas Morning News columnist Jacquielynn Floyd wrote

5986-483: Is high on the list of any nation's most closely guarded secrets. However, the difficulty of discovering the unknown , when it is at least known that it exists, seems trivial compared to discovering the unguessed . As Len Deighton famously pointed out in Spy Story , if the enemy has an unanticipated capability (and he almost always does), it may render tactical and strategic assumptions into nonsense. By its very nature, it

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6132-492: Is known about it outside professional circles. Yet modelling is often the means by which governments test and refine their military and political policies. The term military simulation can cover a wide spectrum of activities, ranging from full-scale field-exercises , to abstract computerized models that can proceed with little or no human involvement—such as the RAND Strategy Assessment Center (RSAC). As

6278-476: Is no need to juggle schedules to suit busy participants, acquire suitable facilities and arrange for their use, or obtain security clearances. An additional important advantage is the ability to perform many hundreds or even thousands of iterations in the time that it would take a manual simulation to run once. This means statistical information can be gleaned from such a model; outcomes can be quoted in terms of probabilities, and plans developed accordingly. Removing

6424-430: Is not a hard-and-fast rule and often disregarded. Whilst the major purpose of a political-military simulation is to provide insights that can be applied to real-world situations, it is very difficult to point to a particular decision as arising from a certain simulation—especially as the simulations themselves are usually classified for years, and even when released into the public domain are sometimes heavily censored. This

6570-402: Is not only due to the unwritten policy of non-attribution, but to avoid disclosing sensitive information to a potential adversary. This has been true within the simulation environment itself as well – former U.S. president Ronald Reagan was a keen visitor to simulations conducted in the 1980s, but as an observer only. An official explained: "No president should ever disclose his hand, not even in

6716-501: Is not possible to predict the direction every new advance in technology will take, and previously undreamt-of weapons systems can come as a nasty shock to the unprepared: the British introduction of the tank during World War I caused panic amongst German soldiers at Cambrai and elsewhere, and the advent of Hitler 's vengeance weapons , such as the V-1 "flying bomb", caused deep concern amongst Allied high command. Human factors have been

6862-659: Is often known as the attrition model , as it can be applied to show the balance between opposing forces as one side or the other loses numerical strength. Another method of categorising military simulations is to divide them into two broad areas. Heuristic simulations are those that are run with the intention of stimulating research and problem solving; they are not necessarily expected to provide empirical solutions. Stochastic simulations are those that involve, at least to some extent, an element of chance. Most military simulations fall somewhere in between these two definitions, although manual simulations lend themselves more to

7008-587: Is often referred to by either of two different silicate mineral names: nephrite (a silicate of calcium and magnesium in the amphibole group of minerals), or jadeite (a silicate of sodium and aluminum in the pyroxene group of minerals). Nephrite is typically green, although may be yellow, white or black. Jadeite varies from white or near-colorless, through various shades of green (including an emerald green, termed 'imperial'), to lavender , yellow, orange, brown and black. Rarely it may be blue. Both of these names refer to their use as gemstones, and each has

7154-426: Is possible to send a message to your opponent about your intentions: for example, by conspicuously conducting field exercises near a disputed border, a nation indicates its readiness to respond to any hostile incursions. This was fine in theory, and formed the basis of east–west interaction for much of the cold war, but was also problematic and dogged by criticism. An instance of the doctrine's shortcomings can be seen in

7300-586: Is revered for its symbolism of purity, harmony, and protection in various cultures, especially in East Asia where it holds significant cultural and spiritual importance. Types B and C have been enhanced with resin and colourant respectively. The English word jade is derived (via French l'ejade and Latin ilia 'flanks, kidney area') from the Spanish term piedra de ijada (first recorded in 1565) or 'loin stone', from its reputed efficacy in curing ailments of

7446-423: Is still being used. The human factors problem was an essential element in the development of Jeremiah at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the 1980s. Research by Lulejian and Associates had indicated that the individual soldier's assessment of his probability of survival was the key metric in understanding why and when combat units became ineffective. While their research was based on day to day time scales,

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7592-432: Is that occasionally they may take on a role or express an opinion that is at odds with their professional or public stance (for example portraying a fundamentalist terrorist or advocating hawkish military action), and thus could harm their reputation or career if their in-game persona became widely known. It is also traditional that in-game roles are played by participants of an equivalent rank in real life, although this

7738-528: Is the origin of upwards of 70% of the world's supply of high-quality jadeite. Most of the jadeite mined in Myanmar is not cut for use in Myanmar, instead being transported to other nations, primarily in Asia , for use in jewelry and other products. The jadeite deposits found in Kachinland , in Myanmar's northern regions is the highest quality jadeite in the world, considered precious by sources in China going as far back as

7884-674: Is then loaded onto trucks and transported to the proper storage facilities. Russia imported jade from China for a long time, but in the 1860s its own jade deposits were found in Siberia. Today, the main deposits of jade are located in Eastern Siberia, but jade is also extracted in the Polar Urals and in the Krasnoyarsk territory (Kantegirskoye and Kurtushibinskoye deposits). Russian raw jade reserves are estimated at 336 tons. Russian jade culture

8030-442: Is tougher and more resistant to breakage. Among the earliest known jade artifacts excavated from prehistoric sites are simple ornaments with bead, button, and tubular shapes. Additionally, jade was used for adze heads, knives , and other weapons , which can be delicately shaped. As metal-working technologies became available, the beauty of jade made it valuable for ornaments and decorative objects. The name Nephrite derives from

8176-492: Is trying to take over Texas", 40% believed "the government is not trying to take over Texas" and 28% were "unsure". Clint Watts and two others in the FBI began to notice Russian disinformation campaigns starting in April 2014. Watts said that Russian-driven efforts to spread misinformation were involved with Jade Helm 15. In 2017, Facebook shut down a page called "Heart of Texas" which

8322-630: Is trying to take over Texas", and that half of all Tea Party supporters were concerned about an imminent Texas invasion. Greg Capers, sheriff of San Jacinto County , published a letter in the Cleveland Advocate (of Cleveland, Texas ), in response to numerous phone calls from citizens, in which he criticized alternative news sources for spreading inaccurate information about the exercise, and encouraged citizens to "utilize legitimate mainstream news sources" for those interested in accurate information. On April 28, Texas Governor Greg Abbott ordered

8468-445: The FEBA is found to have hardly moved at all; at the other, penetration could be hundreds of kilometres instead of tens. The analyst would then examine these outliers to determine why this was the case. In the first instance, it might be found that the computer model's random number generator had delivered results such that A's divisional artillery was much more effective than normal. In

8614-582: The Kingdom of Khotan , on the southern leg of the Silk Road , yearly tribute payments consisting of the most precious white jade were made to the Chinese Imperial court and there worked into objets d'art by skilled artisans as jade had a status-value exceeding that of gold or silver . Jade became a favourite material for the crafting of Chinese scholars' objects, such as rests for calligraphy brushes, as well as

8760-604: The Korean Three Kingdoms . After the state of Silla united the Korean Peninsula in 668, the widespread popularisation of death rituals related to Buddhism resulted in the decline of the use of jade in burials as prestige mortuary goods. The Jain temple of Kolanpak in the Nalgonda district , Telangana , India is home to a 5-foot (1.5 m) high sculpture of Mahavira that is carved entirely out of jade. India

8906-524: The South Carolina Republican Party 's annual convention that he had "reached out to the Pentagon to inquire about this exercise." We are assured [that] it is a military training exercise. I have no reason to doubt those assurances, but I understand the reason for concern and uncertainty, because when the federal government has not demonstrated itself to be trustworthy in this administration,

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9052-549: The Texas State Guard to monitor the operation, writing: "During the training operation, it is important that Texans know [that] their safety, constitutional rights, private property rights and civil liberties will not be infringed", and requesting "regular updates on the progress and safety of the Operation". Abbott received significant bipartisan criticism. One critic was Republican state representative Todd Smith, who said Abbott

9198-705: The loins and kidneys . Nephrite is derived from lapis nephriticus , a Latin translation of the Spanish piedra de ijada . During Neolithic times, the key known sources of nephrite jade in China for utilitarian and ceremonial jade items were the now-depleted deposits in the Ningshao area in the Yangtze River Delta ( Liangzhu culture 3400–2250 BC) and in an area of the Liaoning province and Inner Mongolia ( Hongshan culture 4700–2200 BC). Dushan Jade (a rock composed largely of anorthite feldspar and zoisite)

9344-458: The "scope and scale" of the training exercise. The conspiracy theories seem to emanate from the map shown here from the U.S. Army Special Operations Command which divides the region into four colors, with two "hostile" states, two "permissive" states, two states leaning one way or the other, and California divided. Jim Shea of the Hartford Courant wrote that the conspiracy theories included:

9490-907: The ' mere ' (short club), and the hei-tiki (neck pendant). Nephrite jewellery of Maori design is widely popular with locals and tourists, although some of the jade used for these is now imported from British Columbia and elsewhere. Pounamu taonga include tools such as toki (adzes), whao (chisels), whao whakakōka (gouges), ripi pounamu (knives), scrapers , awls, hammer stones, and drill points. Hunting tools include matau (fishing hooks) and lures, spear points, and kākā poria (leg rings for fastening captive birds); weapons such as mere (short handled clubs); and ornaments such as pendants ( hei-tiki , hei matau and pekapeka), ear pendants (kuru and kapeu), and cloak pins. Functional pounamu tools were widely worn for both practical and ornamental reasons, and continued to be worn as purely ornamental pendants (hei kakï) even after they were no longer used as tools. Jade

9636-665: The 10th century. Jadeite in Myanmar is primarily found in the "Jade Tract" located in Lonkin Township in Kachin State in northern Myanmar which encompasses the alluvial region of the Uyu River between the 25th and 26th parallels. Present-day extraction of jade in this region occurs at the Phakant-gyi, Maw Sisa, Tin Tin, and Khansee mines. Khansee is also the only mine that produces maw sit sit,

9782-715: The Atatürk Wargaming, Simulation and Culture Center in Istanbul over recent years. The latest, MNE 4, took place in early 2006. MNE includes participants from Australia , Finland , Sweden , and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (including Canada , France , Germany , the United Kingdom , and the United States ), and is designed to explore the use of diplomatic, economic and military power in

9928-455: The Greek word meaning "kidney". This is because in ancient times it was believed that wearing this kind of jade around the waist could cure kidney disease. Nephrite can be found in a creamy white form (known in China as "mutton fat" jade) as well as in a variety of light green colours, whereas jadeite shows more colour variations, including blue, brown, red, black, dark green, lavender and white. Of

10074-488: The Jade Helm 15 military exercise with an apocalypse caused by a comet or asteroid striking the Earth. The Jade Helm 15 military exercise had an ending date of September 15, 2015, which is the same month identified by some conspiracy theorists for the catastrophic impact of a comet or asteroid. The conspiracy theorists claim that Jade Helm 15 is a dress rehearsal for the imposition of martial law which would be implemented in

10220-530: The Jomon period is from Itoigawa . The jade culture that blossomed in ancient Japan respected green ones, and jade of other colors was not used. There is a theory that the reason why the meaning is that it was believed that the color of green enables the reproduction of fertility, the life, and the soul of the earth. The use of jade and other greenstone was a long-term tradition in Korea ( c.  850 BC – AD 668). Jade

10366-807: The Pentagon that included modeling the Vietnam War , the fall of the Shah of Iran , the rise of pro-communist regimes in South America , tensions between India , Pakistan and China , and various potential flashpoints in Africa and Southeast Asia . Both MIT and Rand remain heavily involved in U.S. military simulation, along with institutions such as Harvard , Stanford , and the National Defense University . Other nations have their equivalent organizations, such as Cranfield Institute 's Defence Academy (formerly

10512-515: The Royal Military College of Science) in the United Kingdom . Participants in the Pentagon simulations were sometimes of very high rank, including members of Congress and White House insiders as well as senior military officers. The identity of many of the participants remains secret even today. It is a tradition in U.S. simulations (and those run by many other nations) that participants are guaranteed anonymity. The main reason for this

10658-511: The Soviet Politburo that the political risks were acceptable as NATO would not be in a position to react in the face of political uncertainty caused by a division of opinion between the Allies, used a political wargame result as evidence the results of a simulation carried out to model just such an event. It is revealed in the text that there were in fact three sets of results from the simulation;

10804-420: The United States, James F. Dunnigan , a prominent student of warfare and founder of the commercial tabletop wargames publisher Simulations Publications Incorporated (SPI, now defunct), was brought into the Pentagon's wargaming circle in 1980 to work with Rand and Science Applications Incorporated (SAI) on the development of a more realistic model. The result, known as SAS ( S trategic A nalysis S imulation),

10950-463: The West, initially almost exclusively concerned with the rise of the Soviet Union as a superpower, have more recently focused on the global ' war on terror '. It became apparent, in order to model an ideologically motivated enemy in general (and asymmetric warfare in particular), political factors had to be taken into account in any realistic grand strategic simulation. This differed markedly with

11096-697: The Western Chinese province of Xinjiang but other parts of China as well, such as Lantian, Shaanxi . There, white and greenish nephrite jade is found in small quarries and as pebbles and boulders in the rivers flowing from the Kuen-Lun mountain range eastward into the Takla-Makan desert area. The river jade collection is concentrated in the Yarkand , the White Jade ( Yurungkash ) and Black Jade ( Karakash ) Rivers. From

11242-614: The aforementioned SAFE , STRAW ( Str ategic A ir W ar) and COW ( Co ld W ar). The typical political-military simulation is a manual or computer-assisted heuristic-type model, and many research organizations and think tanks throughout the world are involved in providing this service to governments. During the Cold War , the Rand Corporation and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , amongst others, ran simulations for

11388-469: The approach. All the above means that models of warfare should be taken for no more than they are: a non-prescriptive attempt to inform the decision-making process. The dangers of treating military simulation as gospel are illustrated in an anecdote circulated at the end of the Vietnam War, which was intensively gamed between 1964 and 1969 (with even President Lyndon Johnson being photographed standing over

11534-546: The bombing offensives conducted by the United States during the Vietnam War. US commanders decided, largely as a result of their Sigma simulations, to carry out a limited bombing campaign against selected industrial targets in North Vietnam . The intention was to signal to the North Vietnamese high command that, whilst the United States was clearly capable of destroying a much greater proportion of their infrastructure, this

11680-406: The consequences of their decisions. Simulations exist in many different forms, with varying degrees of realism. In recent times, the scope of simulations has widened to include not only military but also political and social factors, which are seen as inextricably entwined in a realistic warfare model. Whilst many governments make use of simulation, both individually and collaboratively, little

11826-492: The constitutional rights or civil liberties of any American citizen be infringed upon while this exercise is being conducted." The New York Times said that "numerous Republican elected officials in Texas have publicly embraced the ideology, conspiracy theories and anti-Obama sentiments of the far right", and reported that critics of Abbott pointed to the "disproportionate influence" of far-right activists over Republican primaries in

11972-493: The data held by the US pertaining to both nations into a computer model—population, gross national product, relative military strength, manufacturing capacity, numbers of tanks, aircraft and the like. The aide then asked the question of the model, "When will we win?" Apparently the computer replied, "You won in 1964!" Jade Jade is an umbrella term for two different types of decorative rocks used for jewelry or ornaments . Jade

12118-587: The developer of Jeremiah, K. E. Froeschner, applied the principle to the 10 second time step of the computer simulation. The result was a high degree of correlation with measured actions for which detailed data were available from a very few after action reports from WWII, the Israeli tank action on the Golan Heights as well as live exercises conducted at Hunter liggett Military Reservation in Monterey, California. Jeremiah

12264-471: The effect of casualties on morale to the speed of movement of an army in difficult terrain. One of the best known is the Lanchester Square Law formulated by the British engineer Frederick Lanchester in 1914. He expressed the fighting strength of a (then) modern force as proportional to the square of its numerical strength multiplied by the fighting value of its individual units . The Lanchester Law

12410-592: The event of a catastrophe of this level of severity. However, the NASA Near Earth Object Program publishes the Sentry Risk Table , which is a list that identifies such threats, and the list does not include any object with a high Torino Scale number (a measure of the severity of the threat) for 2015. Also, a NASA spokesperson said, "NASA knows of no asteroid or comet currently on a collision course with Earth". Some conspiracy theorists claimed that

12556-669: The exercise included areas of the United States such as Colorado and California where no actual operations were planned. The locations in Texas include Bastrop , Smithville , Big Spring , Caddo Lake , Caldwell , Christoval , College Station , Dell City , Eldorado , Goliad , Junction , Leakey , Menard , Mountain Home , San Angelo , San Antonio , and Victoria . USSOCOM claimed that "the size and scope of Jade Helm sets this one apart" from previous training exercises, such as Derna Bridge or Robin Sage . In Bastrop, 60 soldiers took part, including

12702-472: The feathers of the kingfisher bird. That definition was later expanded to include all other colors that the rock is found in. It quickly became almost as popular as nephrite and a favorite of Qing Dynasty's aristocracy, while scholars still had strong attachment to nephrite (white jade, or Hetian jade), which they deemed to be the symbol of a nobleman. In the history of the art of the Chinese empire, jade has had

12848-520: The field exercise, it is often more convenient to test a theory by reducing the level of personnel involvement. Map exercises can be conducted involving senior officers and planners, but without the need to physically move around any troops. These retain some human input, and thus can still reflect to some extent the human imponderables that make warfare so challenging to model, with the advantage of reduced costs and increased accessibility. A map exercise can also be conducted with far less forward planning than

12994-482: The field rather than stay to fight to the last man. One valid criticism of some military simulations is these nebulous human factors are often ignored (partly because they are so hard to model accurately, and partly because no commander likes to acknowledge men under his command may disobey him). In recognition of this shortcoming, military analysts have in the past turned to civilian wargames as being more rigorous, or at least more realistic, in their approach to warfare. In

13140-518: The global arena. Ideally military simulations should be as realistic as possible—that is, designed in such a way as to provide measurable, repeatable results that can be confirmed by observation of real-world events. This is especially true for simulations that are stochastic in nature, as they are used in a manner that is intended to produce useful, predictive outcomes. Any user of simulations must always bear in mind that they are, however, only an approximation of reality, and hence only as accurate as

13286-416: The heuristic approach and computerised ones to the stochastic. Manual simulations, as described above, are often run to explore a 'what if?' scenario and take place as much to provide the participants with some insight into decision-making processes and crisis management as to provide concrete conclusions. Indeed, such simulations do not even require a conclusion; once a set number of moves has been made and

13432-416: The human element entirely means the results of the simulation are only as good as the model itself. Validation thus becomes extremely significant—data must be correct, and must be handled correctly by the model: the modeller's assumptions ("rules") must adequately reflect reality, or the results will be nonsense. Various mathematical formulae have been devised over the years to attempt to predict everything from

13578-481: The imposition of martial law . Other theories have described Jade Helm 15 as a "secret plot" to impose martial law, confiscate firearms, invade Texas, and institute "total population control." The conspiracy theories also included concern about the name of the exercise, with the " jade " possibly referring to China , or possibly an acronym for artificial intelligence developed by the U.S. military . Conspiracy theorist and Texas radio host Alex Jones said that "helm"

13724-592: The initial request to state officials from USSOCOM listed elements of the United States Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command (MARSOC), Marine expeditionary units, the 82nd Airborne Division , and "interagency partners" as participants. Troops engaging in the exercise assumed the roles of either occupying or resistance forces. Most locations were in sparsely populated arid regions near small towns. Some participants wore civilian attire and drove civilian vehicles. Maps of

13870-632: The involvement of Russian bots but argued that blaming them for the controversy was an inversion of cause-and-effect, and that "Russian trolls simply echoed existing dysfunctions in American politics" rather than causing them. Hooks said that the problem was the paranoia and fear present in Texas politics, and blamed Texas politicians, including Governor Abbott, who cater to this conspiratorial fringe. Military simulation Military simulations , also known informally as war games , are simulations in which theories of warfare can be tested and refined without

14016-516: The like), land warfare often depends on the actions of small groups or individual soldiers where training, morale , intelligence , and personalities (leadership) come into play. For this reason it is more taxing to model—there are many variables that are difficult to formulate. Commercial wargames, both the tabletop and computer variety, often attempt to take these factors into account: in Rome: Total War , for example, units will generally rout from

14162-417: The manufacturer's own model. This might well indicate a very effective system, with a high kill probability ( Pk ). However, it may be the model was configured to show the weapons system under ideal conditions, and its actual operational effectiveness will be somewhat less than stated. The US Air Force quoted their AIM-9 Sidewinder missile as having a Pk of 0.98 (it will successfully destroy 98% of targets it

14308-599: The material was highly symbolic, and it was often employed in the performance of ideological practices and rituals . Jade was first identified in Canada by Chinese settlers in 1886 in British Columbia. At this time jade was considered worthless because the settlers were searching for gold. Jade was not commercialized in Canada until the 1970s. The mining business Loex James Ltd., which was started by two Californians, began commercial mining of Canadian jade in 1972. Mining

14454-481: The model itself. In the context of simulation, validation is the process of testing a model by supplying it with historical data and comparing its output to the known historical result. If a model can reliably reproduce known results, it is considered to be validated and assumed to be capable of providing predictive outputs (within a reasonable degree of uncertainty). Developing realistic models has proven to be somewhat easier in naval simulations than on land. One of

14600-489: The modeling process. One of these techniques is known as game theory —a commonly-used method is that of non-zero-sum analysis, in which score tables are drawn up to enable selection of a decision such that a favorable outcome is produced regardless of the opponent's decision. It was not until 1954 the first modern political-military simulation appeared (although the Germans had modeled a Polish invasion of Germany in 1929 that could be fairly labeled political-military), and it

14746-450: The mouthpieces of some opium pipes , due to the belief that breathing through jade would bestow longevity upon smokers who used such a pipe. Jadeite, with its bright emerald-green, lavender, pink, orange , yellow, red, black, white, near-colorless and brown colors was imported from Burma to China in quantity only after about 1800. The vivid white to green variety became known as fei cui (翡翠) or kingfisher jade, due to its resemblance to

14892-460: The natural consequence is that many citizens don't trust what it is saying. U.S. Representative Louie Gohmert said in a statement on May 5, 2015, that his "office has been inundated with calls referring to the Jade Helm 15 military exercise" with concerns that the U.S. Army is preparing for "modern-day martial law". He alluded to a notorious remark made by Barack Obama, who claimed that Pennsylvanians were "bitter" and "cling to guns or religion": "I

15038-428: The need for actual hostilities. Military simulations are seen as a useful way to develop tactical , strategical and doctrinal solutions, but critics argue that the conclusions drawn from such models are inherently flawed, due to the approximate nature of the models used. Many professional analysts object to using the term wargames for simulations as wargames require human players that make decisions and deal with

15184-498: The numbers each force began with. Issues of enemy technical capability and military philosophy will also affect any model used. Whilst a modeller with sufficiently high security clearance and access to the relevant data can expect to create a reasonably accurate picture of his own nation's military capacity, creating a similarly detailed picture for a potential adversary may be extremely difficult. Military information, from technical specifications of weapons systems to tactical doctrine,

15330-467: The object has been tracked for years. They asserted that the object name is known but its published coordinates and orbit information are incorrect, and the threat is not publicly listed because of the belief that panic would ensue. The apocalypse failed to happen on September 15, 2015. The Austin American-Statesman newspaper noted that after plans and maps of the exercise were made public, there

15476-413: The onus now lies on Red as to whether to escalate by providing more direct aid to their clients. Computer-assisted simulations are really just a development of the manual simulation, and again there are different variants on the theme. Sometimes the computer assistance will be nothing more than a database to help umpires keep track of information during a manual simulation. At other times one or other of

15622-439: The other hand, might decide to offer military aid to one side or another, perhaps seeing an opportunity to gain influence in the region and counter Blue's initiatives. At this point Control could declare a week has now passed, and present an updated scenario to the players: possibly the situation has deteriorated further and Blue must now decide if they wish to pursue the military option, or alternatively tensions might have eased and

15768-405: The participants (apart from those commanders whose units were actually under attack) to continue playing, using the messages they were receiving from the front as game moves. For the next few hours simulation and reality ran hand-in-hand: when the officers at the game table decided that the situation warranted commitment of reserves, the commander of the 116th Panzer Division was able to turn from

15914-771: The participants with the skills to operate within existing ones. Full-scale military exercises, or even smaller-scale ones, are not always feasible or even desirable. Availability of resources, including money, is a significant factor—it costs a lot to release troops and materiel from any standing commitments, to transport them to a suitable location, and then to cover additional expenses such as petroleum, oil and lubricants (POL) usage, equipment maintenance, supplies and consumables replenishment and other items. In addition, certain warfare models do not lend themselves to verification using this realistic method. It might, for example, prove counter-productive to accurately test an attrition scenario by killing one's own troops. Moving away from

16060-416: The peoples of Brunei , Cambodia , Indonesia , Malaysia , Singapore , and Thailand also participated in the massive animist-led nephrite jade trading network, where other commodities were also traded. Participants in the network at the time had a majority animist population. The maritime road is one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world. It

16206-572: The pioneers of naval simulations, Fletcher Pratt , designed his "Naval War Game" in the late 1930s, and was able to validate his model almost immediately by applying it to the encounter between the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee and three British cruisers in the Battle of the River Plate off Montevideo in 1939. Rated on thickness of armour and gun power, Graf Spee should have been more than

16352-548: The port of Antwerp and force the Allies to sue for peace. According to German General Friedrich J Fangor, the staff of Fifth Panzerarmee had met in November to game defensive strategies against a simulated American attack. They had no sooner begun the exercise than reports began arriving of a strong American attack in the Hürtgen area—exactly the area they were gaming on their map table. Generalfeldmarschall Walther Model ordered

16498-410: The presence of two Humvee vehicles and a "water buffalo" water tank. Private land offered by residents would be used for the exercise, though he noted that they would not be paid for the land or receive a tax break of any kind. Lastoria also claimed that $ 150,000 in revenue would be brought to the area because of food, fuel, and shopping. Journalists were not allowed to embed in the operation, due to

16644-482: The principal sources of modern gem jadeite. In the area of Mogaung in the Myitkyina District of Upper Burma, jadeite formed a layer in the dark-green serpentine, and has been quarried and exported for well over a hundred years. Canada provides the major share of modern lapidary nephrite. Jade may be enhanced (sometimes called "stabilized"). Some merchants will refer to these as grades, but degree of enhancement

16790-594: The pyroxene jade rock. In China, the name jadeite has been replaced with fei cui , the traditional Chinese name for this gem that was in use long before Damour created the name in 1863. Jade is well known for its ornamental use in East Asian , South Asian , and Southeast Asian art . It is commonly used in Latin America , such as Mexico and Guatemala . The use of jade in Mesoamerica for symbolic and ideological ritual

16936-502: The results of such moves. At set intervals, Control will declare a change in the scenario, usually of a period of days or weeks, and present the evolving situation to the teams based on their reading of how it might develop as a result of the moves made. For example, Blue Team might decide to respond to the Gulf conflict by moving a carrier battle group into the area whilst simultaneously using diplomatic channels to avert hostilities. Red Team, on

17082-523: The rules were derived from historical battles where those same situations had occurred, making the simulation verifiable and rooted in observable data, which some later American models discarded. However, its prescriptive nature acted against any impulse of the participants towards free and creative thinking. Conversely, free Kriegsspiel could encourage this type of thinking, as its rules were open to interpretation by umpires and could be adapted during operation. This very interpretation, though, tended to negate

17228-616: The second, it might be that the model generated a spell of particularly bad weather that kept A's air force grounded. This analysis can then be used to make recommendations: perhaps to look at ways in which artillery can be made more effective, or to invest in more all-weather fighter and ground-attack aircraft. Since Carl von Clausewitz 's famous declaration "war is merely a continuation of Politics by other means", military planners have attempted to integrate political goals with military goals in their planning with varying degrees of commitment. Post- World War II political-military simulations in

17374-420: The simulation can become fully computerised and can, with minimal supervision, run by itself. The main advantage of this is the ready accessibility of the simulation—beyond the time required to program and update the computer models, no special requirements are necessary. A fully computerised simulation can run at virtually any time and in almost any location, the only equipment needed being a laptop computer. There

17520-432: The simulation, mainly relating to a Japanese unwillingness to consider their position should the element of surprise, on which the operation depended, be lost. Tweaking simulations to make results conform with current political or military thinking is a recurring problem. In US Naval exercises in the 1980s, it was informally understood no high-value units such as aircraft carriers were allowed to be sunk, as naval policy at

17666-454: The state. Comedian Jon Stewart addressed the debate around the exercises in a segment on The Daily Show on May 4 called "Fear and Absent Danger", noting that previous military exercises before Obama's presidency had not raised similar concerns among conspiracy theorists and then-governor Rick Perry . A survey by Public Policy Polling between May 7 and May 10, 2015, found that 32% of 685 Republican primary voters believed "the government

17812-436: The table and issue as operational orders those moves they had just been gaming. The division was mobilised in the shortest possible time, and the American attack was repulsed. Validation is a particular issue with political-military simulations, since much of the data produced is subjective . One controversial doctrine that arose from early post-WWII simulations was that of "signalling"—the idea that by making certain moves, it

17958-494: The teams might be replaced by a computer-simulated opponent (known as an agent or automaton ). This can reduce the umpires' role to interpreter of the data produced by the agent, or remove the need for an umpire altogether. Most commercial wargames designed to run on computers (such as Blitzkrieg , the Total War series, Civilization games, and even Arma 2 ) fall into this category. Where agents replace both human teams,

18104-432: The time allotted has run out, the scenario will finish regardless of whether the original situation has been resolved or not. Computerised simulations can readily incorporate chance in the form of some sort of randomised element, and can be run many times to provide outcomes in terms of probabilities. In such situations, it sometimes happens that the unusual results are of more interest than the expected ones. For example, if

18250-522: The time concentrated its tactical interest on such units. The outcome of one of the largest ever NATO exercises, Ocean Venture-81 , in which around 300 naval vessels, including two carrier battle groups, were adjudged to have successfully traversed the Atlantic and reached the Norwegian Sea despite the existence of a (real) 380-strong Soviet submarine fleet as well as their (simulated) Red Team opposition,

18396-473: The traditional approach to military simulations. Kriegsspiel was concerned only with the movement and engagement of military forces, and subsequent simulations were similarly focused in their approach. Following the Prussian success in 1866 against Austria at Sadowa , the Austrians , French , British , Italians , Japanese and Russians all began to make use of wargaming as a training tool. The United States

18542-431: The two, jadeite is rarer, documented in fewer than 12 places worldwide. Translucent emerald-green jadeite is the most prized variety, both historically and today. As "quetzal" jade, bright green jadeite from Guatemala was treasured by Mesoamerican cultures, and as "kingfisher" jade, vivid green rocks from Burma became the preferred stone of post-1800 Chinese imperial scholars and rulers. Burma ( Myanmar ) and Guatemala are

18688-447: The value added culturally to jades throughout Chinese history, the word has also come to refer more generally to precious or ornamental stones, and is very common in more symbolic usage as in phrases like 拋磚引玉/抛砖引玉 (lit. "casting a brick (i.e. the speaker's own words) to draw a jade (i.e. pearls of wisdom from the other party)"), 玉容 (a beautiful face; "jade countenance"), and 玉立 (slim and graceful; "jade standing upright"). The character has

18834-420: The verifiable nature of the simulation, as different umpires might well adjudge the same situation in different ways, especially where there was a lack of historical precedent. In addition, it allowed umpires to weight the outcome, consciously or otherwise. The above arguments are still cogent in the modern, computer-heavy military simulation environment. There remains a recognised place for umpires as arbiters of

18980-412: The years of computerised models, too, being unrealistic and slanted towards a particular outcome. Critics point to the case of military contractors, seeking to sell a weapons system. For obvious reasons of cost, weapons systems (such as an air-to-air missile system for use by fighter aircraft) are extensively modelled on computer. Without testing of their own, a potential buyer must rely to a large extent on

19126-467: Was "pandering to idiots" at taxpayers' expense. Former CIA and NSA director Michael Hayden said that the conspiracy theory "got so much traction that the governor of Texas had to call up the National Guard". The Texas Observer disagreed, stating that "the issue got hardly any traction at all outside the fringe until Abbott gave it his seal of approval". On May 2, 2015, Texas senator Ted Cruz told

19272-659: Was "to improve the Special Operations Forces' capability as part of the National Security Strategy". It was coordinated and led from Eglin Air Force Base , an Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) base in northwest Florida. Approximately 1,200 troops were engaged over the course of the exercise. They were "mainly Army Green Berets , but also a small group of Navy SEALs and Air Force special operations troops as well as conventional Army infantry", although

19418-583: Was a rare and valued material in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica . The only source from which the various indigenous cultures , such as the Olmec and Maya , could obtain jade was located in the Motagua River valley in Guatemala . Jade was largely an elite good, and was usually carved in various ways, whether serving as a medium upon which hieroglyphs were inscribed, or shaped into symbolic figurines . Generally,

19564-569: Was an "explosion of outrage on social media after the release of the map, which labeled Texas, Utah and the southern tip of California as 'hostile.'" There was also speculation that shuttered Walmart stores would be used for " guerrilla-warfare staging areas and FEMA processing camps", though this theory was debunked by the website Snopes . A survey of registered Republicans by Public Policy Polling in May 2015, found that 32% thought that "the Government

19710-659: Was being mined as early as 6000 BC. In the Yin Ruins of the Shang Dynasty (1600 to 1050 BC) in Anyang, Dushan Jade ornaments were unearthed in the tomb of the Shang kings. Jade was considered to be the "imperial gem" and was used to create many utilitarian and ceremonial objects, from indoor decorative items to jade burial suits . From the earliest Chinese dynasties to the present, the jade deposits most used were not only those of Khotan in

19856-535: Was found to be associated with a Russian company promoting disinformation, including promoting the Jade Helm conspiracy. On May 3, 2018, The Texas Tribune reported that Michael Hayden , a former director of the CIA and NSA said that the "hysteria" surrounding the training exercise "was fueled by Russians wanting to dominate 'the information space.'" Hayden said that Russian bots were used to spread misinformation. The Texas Observer 's Christopher Hooks acknowledged

20002-670: Was in existence for at least 3,000 years, where its peak production was from 2000 BCE to 500 CE, older than the Silk Road in mainland Eurasia. It began to wane during its final centuries from 500 CE until 1000 CE. The entire period of the network was a golden age for the diverse animist societies of the region. Nephrite jade in New Zealand is known as pounamu in the Māori language (often called "greenstone" in New Zealand English ), and plays an important role in Māori culture . It

20148-513: Was in the nature of a warning to scale down involvement in the South 'or else'. Unfortunately, as an anonymous analyst said of the offensive (which failed in its political aims), "they either didn't understand, or did understand but didn't care". It was pointed out by critics that, since both Red and Blue teams in Sigma were played by Americans—with common language, training, thought processes and background—it

20294-617: Was influenced by its rarity and value among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures , such as the Olmecs , the Maya , and other ancient civilizations of the Valley of Mexico . Jade is classified into three main types: Type A, Type B, and Type C. Type A jade refers to natural, untreated jadeite jade, prized for its purity and vibrant colors. It is the most valuable and sought-after type, often characterized by its vivid green hues and high translucency. Type A jade

20440-523: Was part of a class of sacred objects that had life. It was not until 1863 that French mineralogist Alexis Damour determined that what was referred to as "jade" could in fact be one of two different minerals , either nephrite or jadeite . Nephrite consists of a microcrystalline interlocking fibrous matrix of the calcium, magnesium-iron rich amphibole mineral series tremolite (calcium-magnesium)-ferroactinolite (calcium-magnesium-iron). The middle member of this series with an intermediate composition

20586-530: Was publicly questioned in Proceedings , the professional journal of the US Naval Institute. The US Navy managed to get the article classified, and it remains secret to this day, but the article's author and chief analyst of Ocean Venture-81, Lieutenant Commander Dean L. Knuth, has since claimed two Blue aircraft carriers were successfully attacked and sunk by Red forces. There have been many charges over

20732-498: Was rather appalled that the hostile areas amazingly have a Republican majority, 'cling to their guns and religion,' and believe in the sanctity of the United States Constitution". He asserted that "the map of the exercise needs to change, the names on the map need to change, and the tone of the exercise needs to be completely revamped so the federal government is not intentionally practicing war against its own states." In

20878-451: Was relatively easy for signals sent by one team to be understood by the other. Those signals, however, did not seem to translate well across the cultural divide. Many of the criticisms directed towards military simulations derive from an incorrect application of them as a predictive and analytical tool. The outcome supplied by a model relies to a greater or lesser extent on human interpretation and therefore should not be regarded as providing

21024-544: Was relatively late to adopt the trend, but by 1889 wargaming was firmly embedded in the culture of the U.S. Navy (with the Royal Navy as the projected adversary). Political-military simulations take a different approach to their purely military counterparts. Since they are largely concerned with policy issues rather than battlefield performance, they tend to be less prescriptive in their operation. However, various mathematical techniques have arisen in an attempt to bring rigor to

21170-462: Was subsequently developed into Janus by other researchers and the 'Jeremiah Algorithm' deleted for reasons of economy (Janus ran initially on a small computer) and for the reasons cited above—some in the military (mostly lower ranks) did not like the idea of orders not being obeyed. However the Generals who witnessed Jeremiah and the algorithm in action were usually favourable and recognized the validity of

21316-689: Was the United States that would elevate simulation to a tool of statecraft. The impetus was U.S. concern about the burgeoning nuclear arms race (the Soviet Union exploded its first nuclear weapon in 1949, and by 1955 had developed their first true 'H' bomb ). A permanent gaming facility was created in The Pentagon and various professional analysts were brought in to run it, including the social scientist Herbert Goldhamer, economist Andrew Marshall and MIT professor Lincoln P. Bloomfield . Notable US political-military simulations run since World War II include

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