The Jacksonville Light Infantry were a militia unit organized on April 30 of 1859 in Jacksonville, Florida . The unit fought for the Confederacy during the American Civil War as well as with the U.S. Army during the Spanish–American War and World War I .
163-476: When the company was first organized in 1859, there were 41 men on the roster; 13 commissioned and noncommissioned officers and 28 privates. Following Florida's secession, the Jacksonville Light Infantry was the first company to be accepted into service by the state. The company was led by Dr. Holmes Steele, one of Jacksonville's first physicians as well as the city mayor in 1859 and an editor of one of
326-409: A cell wall . Newly dead animals may be covered by an exoskeleton . Fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition. Animals fragment detritus as they hunt for food, as does passage through the gut. Freeze-thaw cycles and cycles of wetting and drying also fragment dead material. The chemical alteration of the dead organic matter
489-495: A food chain . Real systems are much more complex than this—organisms will generally feed on more than one form of food, and may feed at more than one trophic level. Carnivores may capture some prey that is part of a plant-based trophic system and others that are part of a detritus-based trophic system (a bird that feeds both on herbivorous grasshoppers and earthworms, which consume detritus). Real systems, with all these complexities, form food webs rather than food chains which present
652-605: A habitat . Ecosystem ecology is the "study of the interactions between organisms and their environment as an integrated system". The size of ecosystems can range up to ten orders of magnitude , from the surface layers of rocks to the surface of the planet. The Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study started in 1963 to study the White Mountains in New Hampshire . It was the first successful attempt to study an entire watershed as an ecosystem. The study used stream chemistry as
815-433: A humid subtropical zone. In summer months, the temperature ranges from 74 and 92 °F (23 and 33 °C), and between 50 and 72 °F (10 and 22 °C) in the winter, although drops may occur in winter months to below freezing approximately a dozen times. Water temperatures in the river correlate to the air temperatures. The average range of water temperatures is between 50 and 95 °F (10 and 35 °C), rising in
978-507: A 46,000-acre (190 km ) basin spreading across Putnam , Lake, and Marion Counties , and the western part of Volusia County. Slightly north of the Wekiva River is Blue Spring, the largest spring on the St. Johns, producing over 64,000,000 US gallons (240,000,000 L) a day. Florida springs stay at an even temperature of 72 °F (22 °C) throughout the year. Because of this, Blue Spring
1141-547: A St. Johns tributary, where sport fishers concentrate on king mackerel ( Scomberomorus cavalla ), cobia ( Rachycentron canadum ), dolphin ( Coryphaena hippurus ) and Wahoo ( Acanthocybium solandri ). The home stadium for the Jacksonville Jaguars faces the river, as does most of the commercial center of downtown. Seven bridges span the St. Johns at Jacksonville; all of them allow tall ships to pass, although some restrict passing times when train or automobile traffic
1304-609: A central role over a wide range, for example, in the slow development of soil from bare rock and the faster recovery of a community from disturbance . Disturbance also plays an important role in ecological processes. F. Stuart Chapin and coauthors define disturbance as "a relatively discrete event in time that removes plant biomass". This can range from herbivore outbreaks, treefalls, fires, hurricanes, floods, glacial advances , to volcanic eruptions . Such disturbances can cause large changes in plant, animal and microbe populations, as well as soil organic matter content. Disturbance
1467-711: A chain of lakes, the largest of which is Lake Apopka in Lake County, and the Green Swamp near Haines City in Polk County , drained by the Palatlakaha River . The Silver River, fed by one of Florida's most productive springs expelling 54,000,000 US gallons (200,000,000 L) daily, is located about midway along the 96-mile (154 km) Ocklawaha. Confederate Captain John William Pearson named his militia after
1630-415: A chemical spill in 1980 that dumped DDE in it. It has experienced chronic algal blooms caused by citrus farm fertilizer and wastewater runoff from nearby farms. The proliferation of largemouth bass ( Micropterus salmoides ), black crappie ( Pomoxis nigromaculatus ), and bluegill ( Lepomis macrochirus ) in central Florida is a major attraction for fishermen from all over the country. The St. Johns
1793-507: A critical role in global nutrient cycling and ecosystem function. Phosphorus enters ecosystems through weathering . As ecosystems age this supply diminishes, making phosphorus-limitation more common in older landscapes (especially in the tropics). Calcium and sulfur are also produced by weathering, but acid deposition is an important source of sulfur in many ecosystems. Although magnesium and manganese are produced by weathering, exchanges between soil organic matter and living cells account for
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#17328380716101956-512: A day into the St. Johns. Near this confluence are the towns of DeBary and Deltona . Forests surrounding the Wekiva River are home to the largest black bear ( Ursus americanus floridanus ) population in Florida; several troops of Rhesus monkeys ( Macaca mulatta ) have adapted to live near the river as well. The monkeys' introduction to Florida is unclear; they were reportedly brought either to serve in backdrop scenes of Tarzan movies filmed around
2119-567: A dramatic effect on its geomorphology. Florida was once part of the supercontinent Gondwana . Lying underneath the visible rock formations is a basement of igneous granite and volcanic composition under a sedimentary layer formed during the Paleozoic era 542 to 251 million years ago. During the Cretaceous period (145 to 66 million years ago), the basement and its sedimentary overlay were further covered by calcium carbonate and formations left by
2282-517: A faster recovery. More severe and more frequent disturbance result in longer recovery times. From one year to another, ecosystems experience variation in their biotic and abiotic environments. A drought , a colder than usual winter, and a pest outbreak all are short-term variability in environmental conditions. Animal populations vary from year to year, building up during resource-rich periods and crashing as they overshoot their food supply. Longer-term changes also shape ecosystem processes. For example,
2445-425: A food source for fish and birds. Insect larvae use water for breeding, feeding upon smaller copepods and amphipods that live in microscopic algae and periphyton formations. Mosquitos , born in water, are in turn the favorite food of 112 species of dragonflies and 44 species of damselflies in Florida. These animals are water hardy and adaptable to dry conditions when water levels fluctuate from one season to
2608-454: A form that can be readily used by plants and microbes. Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend, and may be part of. Ecosystem goods include the "tangible, material products" of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and medicinal plants . Ecosystem services , on the other hand, are generally "improvements in the condition or location of things of value". These include things like
2771-427: A function-based typology has been proposed to leverage the strengths of these different approaches into a unified system. Human activities are important in almost all ecosystems. Although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate. Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend. Ecosystem goods include
2934-698: A general level, for example, tropical forests , temperate grasslands , and arctic tundra . There can be any degree of subcategories among ecosystem types that comprise a biome, e.g., needle-leafed boreal forests or wet tropical forests. Although ecosystems are most commonly categorized by their structure and geography, there are also other ways to categorize and classify ecosystems such as by their level of human impact (see anthropogenic biome ), or by their integration with social processes or technological processes or their novelty (e.g. novel ecosystem ). Each of these taxonomies of ecosystems tends to emphasize different structural or functional properties. None of these
3097-489: A guide. In 1795, Florida was transferred back to Spain which lured Americans with cheap land. A former loyalist to Britain who left South Carolina during the American Revolutionary War , a planter and slave trader named Zephaniah Kingsley seized the opportunity and built a plantation named Laurel Grove near what is now Doctors Lake , close to the west bank of the St. Johns River, south of where Orange Park
3260-665: A means of monitoring ecosystem properties, and developed a detailed biogeochemical model of the ecosystem. Long-term research at the site led to the discovery of acid rain in North America in 1972. Researchers documented the depletion of soil cations (especially calcium) over the next several decades. Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation. Studies can be carried out at
3423-528: A more important role in moving nutrients around. This can be especially important as the soil thaws in the spring, creating a pulse of nutrients that become available. Decomposition rates are low under very wet or very dry conditions. Decomposition rates are highest in wet, moist conditions with adequate levels of oxygen. Wet soils tend to become deficient in oxygen (this is especially true in wetlands ), which slows microbial growth. In dry soils, decomposition slows as well, but bacteria continue to grow (albeit at
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#17328380716103586-403: A northerly direction, the upper basin is located in the headwaters of the river at its southernmost point. Indian River County is where the river begins as a network of marshes, at a point west of Vero Beach aptly named the St. Johns Marsh in central Florida. The St. Johns River is a blackwater stream , meaning that it is fed primarily by swamps and marshes lying beneath it; water seeps through
3749-406: A number of common, non random properties in the topology of their network. The carbon and nutrients in dead organic matter are broken down by a group of processes known as decomposition. This releases nutrients that can then be re-used for plant and microbial production and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (or water) where it can be used for photosynthesis. In the absence of decomposition,
3912-540: A population increase followed. When European explorers arrived in north Florida, they met the Timucua , numbering about 14,000, the largest group of indigenous people in the region. The later Seminole people called the river Welaka or Ylacco . These forms may derive from the Creek wi-láko , "big water", a compound usually applied to large rivers that run through lakes; the St. Johns forms and borders numerous lakes. Alternately,
4075-421: A process known as denitrification . Mycorrhizal fungi which are symbiotic with plant roots, use carbohydrates supplied by the plants and in return transfer phosphorus and nitrogen compounds back to the plant roots. This is an important pathway of organic nitrogen transfer from dead organic matter to plants. This mechanism may contribute to more than 70 Tg of annually assimilated plant nitrogen, thereby playing
4238-452: A sharp turn west near Sanford for a few miles—which is referred to as the St. Johns River offset , but shortly changes direction to flow north again. Geologists hypothesize that the west-flowing offset may have formed earlier than the north flowing portions, possibly during the late Tertiary or early Pleistocene era 66 to 12 million years ago. Some fracturing and faulting may also be responsible for
4401-696: A significant portion of ecosystem fluxes. Potassium is primarily cycled between living cells and soil organic matter. Biodiversity plays an important role in ecosystem functioning. Ecosystem processes are driven by the species in an ecosystem, the nature of the individual species, and the relative abundance of organisms among these species. Ecosystem processes are the net effect of the actions of individual organisms as they interact with their environment. Ecological theory suggests that in order to coexist, species must have some level of limiting similarity —they must be different from one another in some fundamental way, otherwise, one species would competitively exclude
4564-408: A slower rate) even after soils become too dry to support plant growth. Ecosystems are dynamic entities. They are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from past disturbances. When a perturbation occurs, an ecosystem responds by moving away from its initial state. The tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance,
4727-464: A small effect on ecosystem function. Ecologically distinct species, on the other hand, have a much larger effect. Similarly, dominant species have a large effect on ecosystem function, while rare species tend to have a small effect. Keystone species tend to have an effect on ecosystem function that is disproportionate to their abundance in an ecosystem. An ecosystem engineer is any organism that creates, significantly modifies, maintains or destroys
4890-526: A system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its ecological resilience . Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation. Biomes are general classes or categories of ecosystems. However, there
5053-506: A total area of 2,600 square miles (6,700 km ) in Putnam, St. Johns , Clay , and Duval Counties. Twelve tributaries empty into the river in the lower basin. The St. Johns River widens considerably on the north end of Lake George; between Lake George and Palatka the river ranges between 600 and 2,640 feet (180 and 800 m) wide. Between Palatka and Jacksonville, that widens further to between 1 and 3 miles (1.6 and 4.8 km). This portion of
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5216-412: A variety of people have lived on or near the St. Johns, including Paleo-indians , Archaic people , Timucua , Mocama , Mayaca , Ais , French, Spanish, and British colonists, Seminoles , slaves and freemen, Florida crackers , land developers, tourists and retirees. It has been the subject of William Bartram 's journals, Harriet Beecher Stowe 's letters home, and Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings ' books. In
5379-522: A variety of scales, ranging from whole-ecosystem studies to studying microcosms or mesocosms (simplified representations of ecosystems). American ecologist Stephen R. Carpenter has argued that microcosm experiments can be "irrelevant and diversionary" if they are not carried out in conjunction with field studies done at the ecosystem scale. In such cases, microcosm experiments may fail to accurately predict ecosystem-level dynamics. Biomes are general classes or categories of ecosystems. However, there
5542-623: A wide variety of tools constructed around this time, archeologists note the transition into Archaic people . The Archaic people made tools from bone, animal teeth, and antlers. They wove fibers from plants such as cabbage palms and saw palmettos. A few burial sites have been excavated—including the Windover Archaeological Site in Brevard County near Titusville —that provide evidence of burial rituals. Archaic peoples interred their dead in shallow peat marshes , which preserved much of
5705-454: Is an international synthesis by over 1000 of the world's leading biological scientists that analyzes the state of the Earth's ecosystems and provides summaries and guidelines for decision-makers. The report identified four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services. It concludes that human activity is having a significant and escalating impact on
5868-563: Is characterized as brackish water. Near the center of Jacksonville, average measures have been collected at 11.40 ppt. Farther south at the Buckman Bridge, joining the south side of Jacksonville to Orange Park, it decreases to 2.9 ppt and falls again to 0.81 ppt at the Shands Bridge near Green Cove Springs . Dissolved oxygen in fresh water is measured to indicate the health of plant and animal life. It enters water through
6031-442: Is consumed by animals while still alive and enters the plant-based trophic system. After plants and animals die, the organic matter contained in them enters the detritus-based trophic system. Ecosystem respiration is the sum of respiration by all living organisms (plants, animals, and decomposers) in the ecosystem. Net ecosystem production is the difference between gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration. In
6194-423: Is controlled by internal factors. Therefore, internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—they are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. The tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its resistance . The capacity of
6357-849: Is discharged, which is dependent upon season and rainfall. The greatest discharge is from first magnitude springs that emit at least 100 cubic feet (2.8 m ) of water per second. There are four first magnitude springs that feed the St. Johns River: Silver Springs in Marion County, emitting between 250 and 1,290 cubic feet (7.1 and 36.5 m )/second; Silver Glen Spring straddling Marion and Lake Counties, emitting between 38 and 245 cubic feet (1.1 and 6.9 m )/second; Alexander Springs in Lake County, emitting between 56 and 202 cubic feet (1.6 and 5.7 m )/second; and Blue Spring in Volusia County, emitting between 87 and 218 cubic feet (2.5 and 6.2 m )/second. The St. Johns River lies within
6520-569: Is followed by succession, a "directional change in ecosystem structure and functioning resulting from biotically driven changes in resource supply." The frequency and severity of disturbance determine the way it affects ecosystem function. A major disturbance like a volcanic eruption or glacial advance and retreat leave behind soils that lack plants, animals or organic matter. Ecosystems that experience such disturbances undergo primary succession . A less severe disturbance like forest fires, hurricanes or cultivation result in secondary succession and
6683-453: Is forbidden. Bordering to the north of Blue Spring State Park is Hontoon Island State Park , accessible only by boat. In 1955 an extremely rare Timucua totem representing an owl was found buried and preserved in the St. Johns muck off of Hontoon Island . The figure may signify that its creators were part of the owl clan. Representing different clans of the Timucua, two more totems—in all,
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6846-554: Is governed by three sets of factors—the physical environment (temperature, moisture, and soil properties), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and the nature of the microbial community itself. Temperature controls the rate of microbial respiration; the higher the temperature, the faster the microbial decomposition occurs. Temperature also affects soil moisture, which affects decomposition. Freeze-thaw cycles also affect decomposition—freezing temperatures kill soil microorganisms, which allows leaching to play
7009-553: Is heavy. Tides cause seawater to enter the mouth of the St. Johns River and can affect the river's level into the middle basin. As a result, much of the river in Jacksonville is part seawater, making it an estuarine ecosystem. The animals and plants in these systems can tolerate both fresh and salt water, and the fluctuations in saline content and temperatures associated with tidal surges and heavy rainfall discharge. Marine animals such as dolphins and sharks can be spotted at times in
7172-726: Is home to 183 species of fish, 55 of which appear in the main stem of the river. One, the southern tessellated darter ( Etheostoma olmstedi ) is found only in the Ocklawaha. Some are marine species that either migrate upriver to spawn or have found spring-fed habitats that are high in salinity, such as a colony of Atlantic stingrays ( Dasyatis sabina ) that live in Lake Washington in the upper basin. Ocean worms, snails, and white-fingered mud crabs ( Rhithropanopeus harrisii ) have also been found far upriver where tidal influences are rare. In contrast, American eels ( Anguilla rostrata ) live in
7335-567: Is less than 30 feet (9 m); like most Florida waterways, the St. Johns has a very slow flow speed of 0.3 mph (0.13 m/s), and is often described as "lazy". Numerous lakes are formed by the river or flow into it, but as a river its widest point is nearly 3 miles (5 km) across. The narrowest point is in the headwaters, an unnavigable marsh in Indian River County . The St. Johns drainage basin of 8,840 square miles (22,900 km ) includes some of Florida's major wetlands. It
7498-553: Is listed. Throughout the spring and summer of 1898, the men of the First Florida Volunteer Infantry complained about the state of their lodgings as well as the fact that they weren't being deployed to Cuba to fight. Their complaints, at least about deployment, would end up being valid as the unit was never dispatched overseas. Hostilities ended on August 12, 1898 and the Treaty of Paris was formally signed on December 10 of
7661-405: Is no clear distinction between biomes and ecosystems. Biomes are always defined at a very general level. Ecosystems can be described at levels that range from very general (in which case the names are sometimes the same as those of biomes) to very specific, such as "wet coastal needle-leafed forests". Biomes vary due to global variations in climate . Biomes are often defined by their structure: at
7824-516: Is no clear distinction between biomes and ecosystems. Ecosystem classifications are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of ecosystems : a biotic component, an abiotic complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy. Biotic factors of the ecosystem are living things; such as plants, animals, and bacteria, while abiotic are non-living components; such as water, soil and atmosphere. Plants allow energy to enter
7987-531: Is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal action. Fungal hyphae produce enzymes that can break through the tough outer structures surrounding dead plant material. They also produce enzymes that break down lignin , which allows them access to both cell contents and the nitrogen in the lignin. Fungi can transfer carbon and nitrogen through their hyphal networks and thus, unlike bacteria, are not dependent solely on locally available resources. Decomposition rates vary among ecosystems. The rate of decomposition
8150-446: Is rare. All plants in these basins must tolerate water fluctuation, both flooding and drought. Sweetbay ( Magnolia virginiana ), cypress ( Taxodium ), and swamp tupelo ( Nyssa biflora ) trees often find great success in this region on raised land called hammocks . Trees that live in water for long periods usually have buttressed trunks, tangled, braided roots, or protrusions like cypress knees to obtain oxygen when under water, but
8313-551: Is separated into three major basins and two associated watersheds for Lake George and the Ocklawaha River , all managed by the St. Johns River Water Management District . Although Florida was the location of the first permanent European settlement in what would become the United States, much of Florida remained an undeveloped frontier into the 20th century. With the growth of population, the St. Johns, like many Florida rivers,
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#17328380716108476-485: Is termed its resistance . The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its ecological resilience . Resilience thinking also includes humanity as an integral part of the biosphere where we are dependent on ecosystem services for our survival and must build and maintain their natural capacities to withstand shocks and disturbances. Time plays
8639-422: Is the "best" classification. Ecosystem classifications are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of ecosystems : a biotic component, an abiotic complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy. Different approaches to ecological classifications have been developed in terrestrial, freshwater and marine disciplines, and
8802-623: Is the winter home for West Indian manatees ( Trichechus manatus latirostris ), and they are protected within Blue Spring State Park . Manatees are large, slow-moving herbivorous aquatic mammals whose primary threats are human development and collisions with swiftly moving watercraft. Many parts of the St. Johns and its tributaries are no-wake zones to protect manatees from being critically or fatally injured by boat propellers. Human interaction with manatees in Blue Spring State Park
8965-494: Is today Jacksonville and another on Drayton Island at the north end of Lake George. Kingsley later married three other freed women in a polygamous relationship; Spanish-controlled Florida allowed interracial marriages, and white landowners such as James Erwin, George Clarke, Francisco Sánchez, John Fraser, and Francis Richard Jr.—early settlers along the river—all were married to or in extramarital relationships with African women. The first years following Florida's annexation to
9128-470: Is today. Three years later, Kingsley took a trip to Cuba and purchased a 13-year-old Wolof girl named Anna Madgigine Jai . She became his common-law wife, and managed Laurel Grove while Kingsley traveled and conducted business. The plantation grew citrus and sea island cotton ( Gossypium barbadense ). In 1814, they moved to a larger plantation on Fort George Island , where they lived for 25 years, and owned several other plantations and homesteads in what
9291-499: The Caloosahatchee River , and later to drain lands in the central part of the state for agriculture. Disston was furthermore persuaded to purchase 4,000,000 acres (16,000 km ) of land in central Florida for $ 1 million, which at the time was reported to be the largest purchase of land in human history. Disston was ultimately unsuccessful in his drainage attempts, but his investment sparked the tourist industry and made possible
9454-695: The Ocklawaha River called the Ocklawaha Rangers in the American Civil War . Prior to the civil war, Pearson ran a successful health resort in Orange Springs . After the civil war Pearson's Orange Springs resort declined in popularity due to the increasing attention to nearby Silver Springs —the source of the Silver River—at the turn of the 20th century, popularizing the Ocklawaha. Georgia-born poet Sidney Lanier called it "the sweetest waterlane in
9617-469: The Silver River in the 1930s, or to lend an air of authenticity to "jungle cruises" provided by an enterprising boat operator around the same time. Of most vital importance to marshes are invertebrate animals, the foundation of food webs . Amphibious invertebrates such as apple snails ( Pomacea paludosa ), crayfish , and grass shrimp consume plant material, hastening its decomposition and acting as
9780-555: The resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading. Other factors like disturbance, succession or the types of species present are also internal factors. Primary production is the production of organic matter from inorganic carbon sources. This mainly occurs through photosynthesis . The energy incorporated through this process supports life on earth, while
9943-435: The "tangible, material products" of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and medicinal plants . They also include less tangible items like tourism and recreation, and genes from wild plants and animals that can be used to improve domestic species. Ecosystem services , on the other hand, are generally "improvements in the condition or location of things of value". These include things like
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#173283807161010106-444: The 1860s, weekly trips between Jacksonville, Charleston , and Savannah were made to transport tourists, lumber, cotton, and citrus. The soil along the St. Johns was considered especially successful for producing sweeter oranges. Florida's involvement in the U.S. Civil War was limited compared to other Confederate states because it had a fraction of the populations of states that had been developed. Florida provided materials to
10269-722: The Confederacy by way of steamboats on the St. Johns, although the river and the Atlantic coasts were blockaded by the U.S. Navy. One action in Florida's role in the Civil War was the sinking of the USS ; Columbine , a Union paddle steamer used for patrolling the St. Johns to keep materials from reaching the Confederate Army. In 1864, near Palatka, Confederate forces under the command of Capt. John Jackson Dickison captured, burned, and sank
10432-587: The Econlockhatchee River, and the Wekiva River causes the average discharge to increase by 940 cubic feet (27 m ) per second between Lake Harney and DeLand, representing the greatest annual average increase of streamflow along the St. Johns. As distance between the mouth of the St. Johns and the middle and upper basins increases, the salinity in the river gradually decreases. Marine water measures at 35 parts per thousand (ppt) or more while fresh water measures below 2 ppt. What ranges in between
10595-556: The Harbor), the mission established at the river's mouth following the demise of the French fort. The name first appeared on a Spanish map created between 1680 and 1700. The Timucua, as other groups of indigenous people in Florida, began to lose cohesion and numbers by the 18th century. A tribe located in modern-day Georgia and Alabama called the Creeks assisted with this; in 1702, they joined with
10758-457: The Jacksonville Light Infantry was mustered in as Company A of the regiment on August 10, 1861. The women of Jacksonville gifted the company a silk battle flag bearing the slogan "Let us Alone" in 1860 and a Confederate flag the following year. Their uniform consisted of a blue coat with "three rows of brass buttons in the front, and high caps with black pompons," as well as either white pants, in warm weather, or else blue cloth pants. Even before
10921-534: The Lake George watershed, with slash pines ( Pinus elliottii ), saw palmetto ( Serenoa repens ), and over 100 species of groundcover or herbal plants that grow in poor, sandy soil. Flatwoods pine forests stay relatively dry, but can withstand short periods of flooding. Larger land animals such as wild turkeys ( Meleagris gallopavo ), sandhill cranes ( Grus canadensis ), and the largest population of southern bald eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus ) in
11084-510: The Seminole name may derive from walaka (from wi-alaka , "water" and "coming"), perhaps a reference to the river's slow discharge and the tidal effects on it. The name is sometimes rendered as "Chain of Lakes" in English. Though the first European contact in Florida came in 1513 when Juan Ponce de León arrived near Cape Canaveral , not until 1562 did Europeans settle the north Atlantic coast of
11247-560: The Seminoles gradually moved into Florida and began to break ties with the Creeks to become a cohesive tribe of their own. The St. Johns provided a natural boundary to separate European colonies on the east bank and indigenous lands west of the river. After Florida came under the Kingdom of Great Britain 's jurisdiction in 1763, Quaker father and son naturalists John and William Bartram explored
11410-423: The Seminoles who called him "Puc Puggy" (flower hunter). William's visit took him as far south as Blue Spring, where he remarked on the crystal clear views offered by the spring water: "The water is perfectly diaphanous, and here are continually a prodigious number and variety of fish; they appear as plain as though lying on a table before your eyes, although many feet deep in the water." Bartram's journals attracted
11573-532: The Spanish to maintain control of the river. The French and Spanish continued to spar over who would control the natural resources and native peoples of the territory. The Timucua, who had initially befriended the French, were not encouraged to make the Spanish allies because of colonial governor Pedro Menéndez de Avilés ' abhorrence of French Protestantism and his view that the Timucuan beliefs were "Satanic". By 1573,
11736-592: The St. Johns and Ocklawaha and spawn in the Sargasso Sea in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. After a year living in the ocean, many of them find their way back to the St. Johns to live, then, prompted by the phases of the moon, make the return journey to spawn and die. From the intersection of the Ocklawaha River, 101 miles (163 km) to the Atlantic Ocean, the St. Johns lies within the lower basin, draining
11899-458: The St. Johns at Jacksonville as can manatees. Fish such as mullet ( Mullidae ), flounder ( Paralichthys lethostigma ), shad ( Alosa sapidissima ), and blue crabs ( Callinectes sapidus ) migrate from the ocean to freshwater springs upriver to spawn. Although freshwater invertebrates inhabiting and comprising algae and periphyton make the foundation of food webs in the middle and lower basin, zooplankton and phytoplankton take that role in
12062-638: The St. Johns is black, owing to the tannins in leaf litter and decaying aquatic plants. Spring fed streams, on the other hand, are remarkably clear and visibility is very high, even when the river bottom is dozens of feet below. Humans arrived on the Florida Peninsula about 12,000 years ago when the ocean was about 350 feet (110 m) lower than today, and the peninsula was double its current size. These earliest people are called Paleo-Indians . They were primarily hunter–gatherers who followed large game, such as mastodons , horses, camels, and bison. Much of
12225-417: The St. Johns or its tributaries reported at or below these minimums in the 1990s, including the mouth of the Wekiva River, the St. Johns at the town of Christmas , and in the early 2000s at Blue Spring and Blackwater Creek. Sustained low levels of dissolved oxygen may create algal blooms, which may also cause a further decrease in dissolved oxygen. Like all blackwater streams in Florida, the color of most of
12388-768: The St. Johns was significantly lowered in the 1920s with the establishment of the Melbourne Tillman drainage project. This drained the St. Johns' headwaters eastward to the Indian River through canals dug across the Ten-Mile Ridge near Palm Bay . As of 2015, these past diversions are being partially reversed through the first phase of the Canal 1 Rediversion project. The river is at its narrowest and most unpredictable in this basin. Channel flows are not apparent and are usually unmarked. The most efficient way to travel on this part of
12551-470: The St. Johns, were created by past beach ridges which were often divided by swales . As ocean water retreated, lagoons formed in the swales, which were further eroded by acidic water. Barrier islands , furthermore, formed along the Atlantic Coast, surrounding the lagoon with land and forming a freshwater river. From its origins to approximately the area of Sanford, the St. Johns flows north. It takes
12714-444: The Timucua were in outright rebellion, testing the governor's patience and forcing Spanish settlers to abandon farms and garrisons in more interior parts of Florida; the Spanish could not persuade the Timucua to keep from attacking them. Over a hundred years later, missionaries had more success, setting up posts along the river. Spanish Franciscan missionaries gave the river its current name based on San Juan del Puerto (St. John of
12877-586: The USS Columbine , making her perhaps the only ship commandeered by the Confederacy. The same year and farther downriver, Confederates again sank a Union boat, the Maple Leaf , which struck a floating keg filled with explosives and settled into the muck near Julington Creek , south of Jacksonville. Part of the shipwreck was recovered in 1994, when it was discovered that many Civil War-era artifacts, including daguerreotypes and wooden matches, had been preserved in
13040-483: The United States in 1821 were marked with violent conflicts between white settlers and Seminoles, whose bands often included runaway African slaves. The clashes between American and Seminole forces during the establishment of the Florida territory are reflected in the towns and landmarks along the St. Johns named for those who were directly involved. Even before Florida was under U.S. jurisdiction, Major General Andrew Jackson
13203-584: The Yamasee and attacked some of the Timucua, forcing them to seek protection from the Spanish who forced them into slavery. The Creeks began assimilating other people and spread farther south until they were known by 1765 as Seminoles by the British, a term adapted from cimarrones that meant "runaways" or "wild ones". The Seminoles employed a variety of languages from the peoples the Creeks had assimilated: Hitchiti , Muskogee , as well as Timucua. Between 1716 and 1767,
13366-481: The absence of disturbance, net ecosystem production is equivalent to the net carbon accumulation in the ecosystem. Energy can also be released from an ecosystem through disturbances such as wildfire or transferred to other ecosystems (e.g., from a forest to a stream to a lake) by erosion . In aquatic systems , the proportion of plant biomass that gets consumed by herbivores is much higher than in terrestrial systems. In trophic systems, photosynthetic organisms are
13529-402: The amount of energy available to the ecosystem. Parent material determines the nature of the soil in an ecosystem, and influences the supply of mineral nutrients. Topography also controls ecosystem processes by affecting things like microclimate , soil development and the movement of water through a system. For example, ecosystems can be quite different if situated in a small depression on
13692-504: The amount of light available, the amount of leaf area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis), the rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the chloroplasts to support photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis. Energy and carbon enter ecosystems through photosynthesis, are incorporated into living tissue, transferred to other organisms that feed on
13855-527: The atmosphere and from aquatic plant photosynthesis, and is affected by water pressure and temperature. Rapid decomposition of organic materials will decrease the amount of dissolved oxygen in the river, as will nutrients added to the water artificially by wastewater treatment runoff or drainage from fertilized agricultural fields. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the State of Florida recommend no less than 5 mg of oxygen per liter. Several locations on
14018-623: The attention of such prominent Americans as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton . The success of these journals inspired other naturalists such as André Michaux to further explore the St. Johns, as he did in 1788, sailing from Palatka south to Lake Monroe, and gave names to some of the plants described by the Bartrams' journals. Michaux was followed by William Baldwin between 1811 and 1817. Subsequent explorers, including John James Audubon , have carried William's Travels Through North & South Carolina, Georgia, East & West Florida with them as
14181-408: The carbon makes up much of the organic matter in living and dead biomass, soil carbon and fossil fuels . It also drives the carbon cycle , which influences global climate via the greenhouse effect . Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture energy from light and use it to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen . The photosynthesis carried out by all
14344-408: The central part of the state north, along the Atlantic Coast lived people in the St. Johns culture , named for the most significant nearby natural formation. Around 750 CE , the St. Johns culture learned to cultivate corn, adding to their diet of fish, game, and gourds. Archeologists and anthropologists date this agricultural advancement to coincide with a spread of archeological sites, suggesting that
14507-410: The city of Sanford . It is at this point that the St. Johns' navigable waterway, dredged and maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers with channel markers maintained by the U.S. Coast Guard , begins. Lake Monroe, a large lake at 15 square miles (39 km ) with an average depth of 8 feet (2.4 m), drains a surrounding watershed of 2,420 square miles (6,300 km ). Sanford has adapted to
14670-427: The city. Mayport is home to approximately 20 shrimping vessels that use the mouth of the St. Johns to access the Atlantic Ocean. Lying within a coastal plain , the St. Johns River passes through an area that was at one time barrier islands, coastal dunes, and estuary marshes. The Florida Peninsula was created primarily by forces and minerals from the ocean. It lies so low that minor fluctuations in sea levels can have
14833-432: The combustion of fossil fuels, ammonia gas which evaporates from agricultural fields which have had fertilizers applied to them, and dust. Anthropogenic nitrogen inputs account for about 80% of all nitrogen fluxes in ecosystems. When plant tissues are shed or are eaten, the nitrogen in those tissues becomes available to animals and microbes. Microbial decomposition releases nitrogen compounds from dead organic matter in
14996-418: The concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. He later refined the term, describing it as "The whole system, ... including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment". Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as "mental isolates". Tansley later defined
15159-465: The confining layer is fractured to allow breaches of water to percolate down to recharge the layer below. The Floridan Aquifer , underneath the confining layer, underlies the entire state and portions of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and South Carolina. It is particularly accessible in the northern part of Florida, serving as the fresh water source of metropolitan areas from St. Petersburg north to Jacksonville and Tallahassee . Acidic rainwater erodes
15322-415: The contiguous U.S., find it easier to live in the flatwoods. Typical mammals that live in these ecosystems, such as raccoons ( Procyon lotor ), opossums ( Didelphis virginiana ), bobcats ( Lynx rufus ), and white tailed-deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ), are ones that prefer dry, flat areas with good ground cover and available nesting sites. The Ocklawaha River flows north and joins the St. Johns as
15485-475: The counties of Indian River north to Duval produces rain that is drained by the St. Johns River. Tropical Storm Fay in 2008 deposited 16 inches (410 mm) of rain in a 5-day period, most of it located near Melbourne . The St. Johns near Geneva in Seminole County rose 7 feet (2.1 m) in four days, setting a record. The river near Sanford rose 3 feet (1 m) in 36 hours. Fay caused severe flooding in
15648-403: The dead organic matter would accumulate in an ecosystem, and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. Decomposition processes can be separated into three categories— leaching , fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. As water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water-soluble components. These are then taken up by organisms in
15811-513: The early 19th century, frustrated when trying to navigate through floating islands of macrophytes , or muck and weeds, as the islands changed location with the creeping flow. Lakes Washington , Winder , and Poinsett are located further along this stretch of the river. The northernmost points of the upper basin contain the Tosohatchee Wildlife Management Area , created in 1977 to assist with filtration of waters flowing into
15974-643: The ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of abiotic conditions of the ecosystem. Once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered "collapsed ". Ecosystem restoration can contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals . An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the abiotic pools (or physical environment) with which they interact. The biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. "Ecosystem processes" are
16137-684: The efforts of railroad magnates Henry Flagler and Henry Plant to construct rail lines down the east coast of Florida, including a rail link between Sanford and Tampa. Disston was responsible for creating the towns of Kissimmee , St. Cloud , and several others on the west coast of Florida. Ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system ) is a system that environments and their organisms form through their interaction. The biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal factors . External factors such as climate , parent material which forms
16300-483: The estuarine habitat. Mollusks gather at the St. Johns estuary in large numbers, feeding on the bottom of the river and ocean floors. The abundance and importance of oysters ( Crassostrea virginica ) is apparent in the many middens left by the Timucua in mounds many feet high. Oysters and other mollusks serve as the primary food source of shorebirds. The large trees that line the river from its source to south of Jacksonville begin to transition into salt marshes east of
16463-485: The evaporation of water called evaporites . What covers the peninsula is the result of simultaneous processes of deposits of sands, shells, and coral, and erosion from water and weather. As ocean water has retreated and progressed, the peninsula has been covered with sea water at least seven times. Waves compressed sands, calcium carbonate, and shells into limestone ; at the ocean's edge, beach ridges were created by this depositional forming. North–south axis rivers, such as
16626-461: The few things that had survived the Great Fire of 1901 . St. Johns River The St. Johns River ( Spanish : Río San Juan ) is the longest river in the U.S. state of Florida and it is the most significant one for commercial and recreational use. At 310 miles (500 km) long, it flows north and winds through or borders twelve counties. The drop in elevation from headwaters to mouth
16789-421: The flow of energy through a lake was the primary driver of the ecosystem. Hutchinson's students, brothers Howard T. Odum and Eugene P. Odum , further developed a "systems approach" to the study of ecosystems. This allowed them to study the flow of energy and material through ecological systems. Ecosystems are controlled by both external and internal factors. External factors, also called state factors, control
16952-452: The forests of eastern North America still show legacies of cultivation which ceased in 1850 when large areas were reverted to forests. Another example is the methane production in eastern Siberian lakes that is controlled by organic matter which accumulated during the Pleistocene . Ecosystems continually exchange energy and carbon with the wider environment . Mineral nutrients, on
17115-585: The formation of the First Florida, the men were sent from the camp at Fort Brooke to a new camp at nearby Palmetto Beach. From May through the summer of 1898, the unit was deployed to different camps throughout the state until they ended up at a camp in Huntsville, Alabama . It was in Huntsville where the Jacksonville Light Infantry company suffered their only casualty, a man named Frank E. Willard. No cause of death
17278-798: The human tissue. Further climate change between 5,000 and 3,000 years ago led to the Middle Archaic period; evidence suggests that human habitation near the St. Johns River first occurred during this era. Populations of indigenous people increased significantly at this time, and numerous settlements near the St. Johns have been recorded from this era; the banks of the St. Johns and its arteries are dotted with middens filled with thousands of shells, primarily those of Viviparus georgianus —a freshwater snail—and oysters. The advent of regional types of pottery and stone tools made of flint or limestone marked further advancements around 500 BCE . The Archaic people transitioned into settled groups around Florida. From
17441-429: The lake by building some of its downtown area on the waterfront; citizens use boat transportation and Sanford's public dock to commute into town. Optimally an 8-foot (2.4 m) deep channel about 100 yards (91 m) wide after leaving Lake Monroe, the St. Johns meets its most significant tributary in the middle basin, the spring-fed Wekiva River , discharging approximately 42,000,000 US gallons (160,000,000 L)
17604-509: The land was far from water—most fresh water was contained in glaciers and polar ice caps. As a result, Florida was an arid landscape with few trees, dominated by grasslands and scrub vegetation. Around 9,000 years ago, the climate warmed, melting much of the polar ice caps and many glaciers, creating a wetter environment and submerging half the peninsular shelf. As Paleo-Indians now did not have to travel as far to find water, their camps became more permanent, turning into villages. With evidence of
17767-691: The landscape, versus one present on an adjacent steep hillside. Other external factors that play an important role in ecosystem functioning include time and potential biota , the organisms that are present in a region and could potentially occupy a particular site. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can end up doing things very differently simply because they have different pools of species present. The introduction of non-native species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Unlike external factors, internal factors in ecosystems not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them. While
17930-455: The larger St. Johns. Wetlands in the upper and middle basin are fed by rainwater, trapped by the structure of the surrounding land. It is an oxygen- and nutrient-poor environment; what grows usually does so in peat which is created by centuries of decaying plant material. Water levels fluctuate with the subtropical wet and dry seasons. Rain in central and north Florida occurs seasonally during summer and winter, but farther south rain in winter
18093-501: The largest tributary, and one of significant historical importance. The Ocklawaha (also printed as Oklawaha) drainage basin expands through Orange, Lake, Marion, and Alachua Counties, comprising a total of 2,769 square miles (7,170 km ). Ocala , Gainesville , and the northern suburbs of the Orlando metropolitan area are included in this basin. There are two headwaters for the Ocklawaha:
18256-560: The length of the river while visiting the southeastern United States from 1765 to 1766. They published journals describing their experiences and the plants and animals they observed. They were charged by King George III to find the source of the river they called the Picolata or San Juan, and measured its widths and depths, taking soil samples as they traveled southward. William returned to Florida from 1773 to 1777 and wrote another journal about his travels, while he collected plants and befriended
18419-501: The limestone and can form caverns. When the overlay of these caverns is particularly thin—less than 100 feet (30 m)— sinkholes can form. Where the limestone or sand/clay overlay dissolves over the aquifer and the pressure of the water pushes out, springs form. The upper and middle basins of the St. Johns River are located in a portion of the peninsula where the aquifer system is thinly confined, meaning springs and sinkholes are abundant. Springs are measured in magnitude of how much water
18582-423: The living and dead plant matter, and eventually released through respiration. The carbon and energy incorporated into plant tissues (net primary production) is either consumed by animals while the plant is alive, or it remains uneaten when the plant tissue dies and becomes detritus . In terrestrial ecosystems , the vast majority of the net primary production ends up being broken down by decomposers . The remainder
18745-474: The local Timucua and Mocamas were friendly. The colony was unable to support itself; some of the French deserted. Those who remained were killed in 1565 by the Spanish, led by Pedro Menéndez, when they marched north from St. Augustine and captured Fort Caroline. The river was renamed San Mateo by the Spanish in honor of the Apostle Matthew, whose feast was the following day. Capturing Fort Caroline allowed
18908-572: The local economy and supports 10,000 jobs. The U.S. Navy has two bases in the Jacksonville area: Naval Station Mayport , at the mouth of the river, serves as the second largest Atlantic Fleet operation and home port in the country. Naval Air Station Jacksonville is one of the service's largest air installations, home to two air wings and over 150 fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft, and the host for one of only two full-fledged Naval Hospitals remaining in Florida. If I could have, to hold forever, one brief place and time of beauty, I think I might choose
19071-471: The maintenance of hydrological cycles , cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop pollination and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research. Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as soil loss , air and water pollution , habitat fragmentation , water diversion , fire suppression , and introduced species and invasive species . These threats can lead to abrupt transformation of
19234-408: The maintenance of hydrological cycles, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop pollination and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research. While material from the ecosystem had traditionally been recognized as being the basis for things of economic value, ecosystem services tend to be taken for granted. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
19397-534: The majority of plant life is aquatic. Wetland staples include the American white waterlily ( Nymphaea odorata ), pitcher plants , and Virginia iris ( Iris virginica ). In the southernmost points of the river, Cladium , or sawgrass, grows in vast swaths of wet prairie that at one time extended into the Everglades . These wetland flora are remarkably successful in filtering pollutants that otherwise find their way into
19560-415: The middle basin due not only to the deluge but the flat slopes of the river. Typically, however, the St. Johns basin receives between 50 and 54 inches (1,300 and 1,400 mm) of rain annually, half of it in summer months. The rate of evapotranspiration corresponds to rainfall, ranging between 27 and 57 inches (690 and 1,450 mm) a year, most of it occurring in the summer. The entire river lies within
19723-448: The mouth at Mayport averages 15,000 cubic feet (420 m ) per second, but with tides it exceeds 50,000 cubic feet (1,400 m ) per second, and following heavy rains combined with tides can top 150,000 cubic feet (4,200 m ) per second. Farther upriver, the discharge rate ranges from 1,030 cubic feet (29 m ) per second near Lake Poinsett to 2,850 cubic feet (81 m ) per second near DeLand. The confluence of numerous springs,
19886-505: The nearly flat Pamlico terrace, giving it an overall gradient of 0.8 inches (2.0 cm) per mile (km); it is one of the flattest major rivers on the continent. Its proximity to the ocean in the lower basin affects its rise and fall with tides and salinity. Tides regularly affect water levels as far south as Lake George; when combined with extreme winds, the river's tidal effects can extend to Lake Monroe 161 miles (259 km) away and have on occasion reached Lake Harney. Tides typically raise
20049-469: The next or through drought and flood cycles. Of vertebrates, numerous species of frog, salamander, snake, turtle, and alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis ) proliferate in marsh waters. Most of these animals are active at night. Frog choruses are overwhelming; during alligator mating season the grunts of bulls join in. The marshes around the St. Johns River upper basin teem with birds. A recent study counted 60,000 birds in one month, nesting or feeding in
20212-514: The night on that high lonely bank above the St. Johns River — Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings in Cross Creek Using an unofficial nickname of "The River City", Jacksonville has a culture centered on the St. Johns. An annual footrace named the Gate River Run accepts 18,000 participants who travel a course along and over the river twice. The largest kingfishing tournament in the U.S. is held on
20375-579: The official outbreak of the Spanish American War , Floridians were enthusiastic and started to recruit, drill, and parade, including members of the Jacksonville Light Infantry. During this deployment, the unit was commanded by Captain John Maxwell. On May 23, 1898, Governor Bloxham announced that 12 companies in Florida would form to create the First Florida Volunteer Infantry. The Jacksonville Light Infantry were among these dozen companies. Following
20538-430: The offset. Although seismic activity in Florida is mostly insignificant, several minor earthquakes have occurred near the St. Johns River, caused by the trough created by Pangaean rifting . All of Florida's abundant fresh water is the result of precipitation that returns to the atmosphere in a process called evapotranspiration that involves evaporation and transpiration of moisture from plants. As rains fall, most of
20701-572: The only totems in North America to have been found outside of the Pacific Northwest—shaped like a pelican and otter were found in 1978 after being snagged by a barge at the bottom of the river. River otters ( Lutra canadensis ) can be found through the length of the St. Johns and its tributaries, living in burrows or in the roots of trees bordering waterways. They eat crayfish, turtles, and small fish, and are active usually at night, playful but shy of human contact. The St. Johns creeps into
20864-537: The other hand, are mostly cycled back and forth between plants, animals, microbes and the soil. Most nitrogen enters ecosystems through biological nitrogen fixation , is deposited through precipitation, dust, gases or is applied as fertilizer . Most terrestrial ecosystems are nitrogen-limited in the short term making nitrogen cycling an important control on ecosystem production. Over the long term, phosphorus availability can also be critical. Macronutrients which are required by all plants in large quantities include
21027-509: The other. Despite this, the cumulative effect of additional species in an ecosystem is not linear: additional species may enhance nitrogen retention, for example. However, beyond some level of species richness, additional species may have little additive effect unless they differ substantially from species already present. This is the case for example for exotic species . The addition (or loss) of species that are ecologically similar to those already present in an ecosystem tends to only have
21190-403: The overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. On broad geographic scales, climate is the factor that "most strongly determines ecosystem processes and structure". Climate determines the biome in which the ecosystem is embedded. Rainfall patterns and seasonal temperatures influence photosynthesis and thereby determine
21353-424: The peninsula. Early Spanish explorers named the river Rio de Corientes (River of Currents). The St. Johns River became the first place colonized in the region and its first battleground: when French explorer Jean Ribault erected a monument south of the river's mouth to make the French presence known, it alarmed the Spanish who had been exploring the southern and western coast of the peninsula for decades. Ribault
21516-405: The plants in an ecosystem is called the gross primary production (GPP). About half of the gross GPP is respired by plants in order to provide the energy that supports their growth and maintenance. The remainder, that portion of GPP that is not used up by respiration, is known as the net primary production (NPP). Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These include
21679-585: The primary nutrients (which are most limiting as they are used in largest amounts): Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium. Secondary major nutrients (less often limiting) include: Calcium, magnesium, sulfur. Micronutrients required by all plants in small quantities include boron, chloride, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc. Finally, there are also beneficial nutrients which may be required by certain plants or by plants under specific environmental conditions: aluminum, cobalt, iodine, nickel, selenium, silicon, sodium, vanadium. Until modern times, nitrogen fixation
21842-413: The primary producers. The organisms that consume their tissues are called primary consumers or secondary producers — herbivores . Organisms which feed on microbes ( bacteria and fungi ) are termed microbivores . Animals that feed on primary consumers— carnivores —are secondary consumers. Each of these constitutes a trophic level. The sequence of consumption—from plant to herbivore, to carnivore—forms
22005-541: The river and broad, shallow lakes. Two of the largest lakes in the middle basin are created by the river: Lake Harney and Lake Monroe. The shallow 9-square-mile (23 km ) Lake Harney is fed by the long narrow Puzzle Lake ; immediately north is the Econlockhatchee River , which joins to increase the volume of the St. Johns to where navigation becomes easier for larger boats. The river veers west, touching on Lake Jesup before it empties into Lake Monroe , passing
22168-462: The river has a long backwater . It ebbs and flows with tides that pass through the barrier islands and up the channel. Uniquely, it shares the same regional terrain as the parallel Kissimmee River , although the Kissimmee flows south. The St. Johns River is separated into three basins and two associated watersheds managed by the St. Johns River Water Management District . Because the river flows in
22331-478: The river is by airboat . Approximately 3,500 lakes lie within the overall St. Johns watershed; all are shallow, with maximum depths between 3 and 10 feet (1 and 3 m). The river flows into many of the lakes, which further confuses navigation. Eight larger lakes and five smaller ones lie in the upper basin; one of the first is named Lake Hell 'n Blazes (sometimes polished to read as Lake Helen or Hellen Blazes), referencing oaths yelled by boatmen and fishermen in
22494-452: The river is the most navigable and shipping is its primary use. The Army Corps of Engineers maintains shipping channels at least 12 feet (3.7 m) deep and 100 feet (30 m) wide. North of Jacksonville, the channels are expanded to 40 feet (12 m) deep and between 400 and 900 feet (120 and 270 m) wide. The towns and cities along the lower basin of the river are some of the oldest in Florida, and their histories have centered on
22657-508: The river level about 1.2 feet (0.37 m) at Jacksonville, decreasing some to 0.7 feet (0.21 m) at Orange Park where the river widens, and increasing back to 1.2 feet (0.37 m) at Palatka as it narrows. As a result of tidal effects, discharge measurements in the lower basin are often inaccurate. However, the estimated rate of discharge between the Ocklawaha River and the center of Jacksonville ranges from 4,000 to 8,300 cubic feet (110 to 240 m ) per second. The nontidal discharge at
22820-492: The river muck. Although the Spanish had colonized Florida for two centuries, the state remained the last part of the east coast of the United States to be developed and explored. Following the Civil War, the State of Florida was too far in debt to build roads and rail lines to further its progress. Florida Governor William Bloxham in 1881 appealed directly to a Pennsylvania-based industrialist named Hamilton Disston , initially to build canals to improve steamboat passage through
22983-436: The river's course runs through Jacksonville with a population of more than a million. Much of the economic base of Jacksonville depends on the river: 18,000,000 short tons (16,000,000 t) of goods are shipped in and out of Jacksonville annually. Exports include paper, phosphate, fertilizers, and citrus, while major imports include oil, coffee, limestone, cars, and lumber. The Port of Jacksonville produces $ 1.38 billion in
23146-450: The river. For 37 miles (60 km) the river passes through a 1,200-square-mile (3,100 km ) basin fed primarily by springs and stormwater runoff. This basin, spreading throughout Orange, Lake , Volusia , and Seminole Counties, is home to the greater Orlando metropolitan area, where two million people live and major tourist attractions are located. The topography of the middle basin varies between clearly distinguishable banks along
23309-404: The river. Both Palatka and Green Cove Springs have been popular tourist destinations in the past. Several smaller locations along the river sprang up around ferry landings, but when rail lines and then Interstate highways were constructed closer to the Atlantic Coast, many of the towns experienced significant economic decline, and ferry landings were forgotten. The final 35 miles (56 km) of
23472-586: The same year. The unit offered their services through Governor Bloxham to go to China to fight in the Boxer Rebellion in the summer of 1900. While the unit was not deployed, several U.S. marine units were sent over to fight against the anti-European Chinese "Boxers." In June 2020, a statue honoring the unit was removed from James Weldon Johnson Park in downtown Jacksonville amid the George Floyd protests . The statue had been erected in 1898 and had been one of
23635-493: The sandy soil and collects in a slight valley. The upper basin measures approximately 2,000 square miles (5,200 km ); the St. Johns transforms into a navigable waterway in Brevard County . The river touches on the borders of Osceola and Orange Counties , and flows through the southeast tip of Seminole County , transitioning into its middle basin a dozen miles (19 km) or so north of Titusville . The upper basin of
23798-409: The soil and topography , control the overall structure of an ecosystem but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. Internal factors are controlled, for example, by decomposition , root competition, shading, disturbance, succession, and the types of species present. While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem
23961-611: The soil, react with mineral soil, or are transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem (and are considered lost to it). Newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of water-soluble components and include sugars , amino acids and mineral nutrients. Leaching is more important in wet environments and less important in dry ones. Fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for colonization by microbes. Freshly shed leaf litter may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of cuticle or bark , and cell contents are protected by
24124-511: The soil, where plants, fungi, and bacteria compete for it. Some soil bacteria use organic nitrogen-containing compounds as a source of carbon, and release ammonium ions into the soil. This process is known as nitrogen mineralization . Others convert ammonium to nitrite and nitrate ions, a process known as nitrification . Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide are also produced during nitrification. Under nitrogen-rich and oxygen-poor conditions, nitrates and nitrites are converted to nitrogen gas ,
24287-566: The southern tip of Lake George , the second largest lake in Florida at 72 square miles (190 km ), 6 miles (9.7 km) wide and 12 miles (19 km) long. The watershed surrounding Lake George expands through 3,590 square miles (9,300 km ), lying within Ocala National Forest and Lake George State Forest , that protect an ecosystem dominated by pine and scrub more than 380,000 acres (1,500 km ) and 21,000 acres (85 km ) in size, respectively. Flatwoods forests dominate
24450-483: The spatial extent of ecosystems using the term " ecotope ". G. Evelyn Hutchinson , a limnologist who was a contemporary of Tansley's, combined Charles Elton 's ideas about trophic ecology with those of Russian geochemist Vladimir Vernadsky . As a result, he suggested that mineral nutrient availability in a lake limited algal production . This would, in turn, limit the abundance of animals that feed on algae. Raymond Lindeman took these ideas further to suggest that
24613-445: The summer months. Where the river widens between Palatka and Jacksonville, wind becomes a significant factor in navigation, and both whitecap waves and calm surface waters are common. Rain occurs more frequently in late summer and early fall. Tropical storms and nor'easters are common occurrences along the Atlantic coast of Florida; the St. Johns River lies between 10 and 30 miles (16 and 48 km) inland, so any storm striking
24776-454: The system through photosynthesis , building up plant tissue. Animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system, by feeding on plants and on one another. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter , decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to
24939-463: The town's newspapers, the Jacksonville Standard. Among the unit's ranks, according to one historian, were many of the town's wealthiest and most successful businessmen as well as the sons of some of the most prominent families in Jacksonville. To start, the unit served as a garrison force at a battery at the mouth of the St. John's River . Once the 3rd Florida Infantry Regiment was formed,
25102-421: The transfers of energy and materials from one pool to another. Ecosystem processes are known to "take place at a wide range of scales". Therefore, the correct scale of study depends on the question asked. The term "ecosystem" was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley . The term was coined by Arthur Roy Clapham , who came up with the word at Tansley's request. Tansley devised
25265-492: The upper basin. Wading and water birds like the white ibis ( Eudocimus albus ), wood stork ( Mycteria americana ), and purple gallinule ( Porphyrio martinicus ) depend on the water for raising their young: they prey upon small fish and tadpoles in shallow water and puddles in the dry season. In successful seasons, their colonies can number in the thousands, creating a cacophony of calls and fertilizing trees with their droppings. The river turns north again as it rolls through
25428-428: The water is directed to lakes, streams, and rivers. However, a significant amount of fresh water is held underground but close to the surface in aquifers . A surficial aquifer consisting mostly of clay, shells, and sand is over a confining layer of denser materials. Wells are drilled in the surficial aquifer, which supplies better quality water in areas where the deepest aquifer has a high mineral content. Occasionally
25591-433: The world" in a travel guide he published in 1876. The river gave Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings access to the St. Johns from her homestead at Orange Lake . The region served as a major fishing attraction until a decline in water quality occurred in the 1940s, and since then further degradation of the river and its sources have occurred. In particular, Lake Apopka earned the designation of Florida's most polluted lake following
25754-517: The year 2000, 3.5 million people lived within the various watersheds that feed into the St. Johns River. Starting in Brevard County and meeting the Atlantic Ocean at Duval County , the St. Johns is Florida's primary commercial and recreational waterway. It flows north from its headwaters, originating in the direction of the Lake Wales Ridge , which is only slightly elevated at 30 feet (9.1 m) above sea level. Because of this low elevation drop,
25917-419: Was altered to make way for agricultural and residential centers, suffering severe pollution and redirection that has diminished its ecosystem . The St. Johns, named one of 14 American Heritage Rivers in 1998, was number 6 on a list of America's Ten Most Endangered Rivers in 2008. Restoration efforts are underway for the basins around the St. Johns as Florida's population continues to increase. Historically,
26080-446: Was detained after he returned to Europe. In 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière arrived to build Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St. Johns River; they called the river Rivière de Mai because they settled it on May 1. An artist named Jacques LeMoyne documented what he saw among the Timucuan people in 1564, portraying them as physically powerful and not lacking for provisions. Fort Caroline did not last long, though relations with
26243-629: Was responsible for removing the Alachua Seminoles west of the Suwannee River , either killing them or forcing them farther south towards Lake County, in 1818. Jackson's efforts became the First Seminole War , and were rewarded by the naming of a cattle crossing across a wide portion of the St. Johns near the Georgia border—previously named Cowford—to Jacksonville. The result of Jackson's offensive
26406-679: Was the major source of nitrogen for ecosystems. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria either live symbiotically with plants or live freely in the soil. The energetic cost is high for plants that support nitrogen-fixing symbionts—as much as 25% of gross primary production when measured in controlled conditions. Many members of the legume plant family support nitrogen-fixing symbionts. Some cyanobacteria are also capable of nitrogen fixation. These are phototrophs , which carry out photosynthesis. Like other nitrogen-fixing bacteria, they can either be free-living or have symbiotic relationships with plants. Other sources of nitrogen include acid deposition produced through
26569-474: Was the transfer of Florida to the U.S. Following the Seminole Wars, a gradual increase in commerce and population occurred on the St. Johns, made possible by steamship travel. Steamboats heralded a heyday for the river, and before the advent of local railroads, they were the only way to reach interior portions of the state. They also afforded the citizens of Jacksonville a pastime to watch competing races. By
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