122-494: Jack Allan Abramoff ( / ˈ eɪ b r əm ɒ f / ; born February 28, 1959) is an American lobbyist , businessman, film producer, and writer. He was at the center of an extensive corruption investigation led by Earl Devaney that resulted in his conviction and 21 other people either pleading guilty or being found guilty, including White House officials J. Steven Griles and David Safavian , U.S. Representative Bob Ney , and nine other lobbyists and congressional aides. Abramoff
244-629: A B.A. in English . He earned his Juris Doctor from the Georgetown University Law Center in 1986. According to Nina Easton , Abramoff gained much of his credibility in the conservative movement through his father, Franklin Abramoff. As president of Diners Club International , Abramoff's father worked closely with Alfred S. Bloomingdale , a personal friend of Reagan. After graduating from Brandeis, Abramoff ran for election as chairman of
366-471: A Bachelor of Science (BS) has a greater focus on science, math, and engineering. The Bachelor of Arts degree is a type of baccalaureate degree . A Bachelor of Arts degree is usually completed in four years: that is, it requires four years of full-time coursework during term time. However, just as with other degrees, some may require a longer time period. This is due to factors such as the student's ability, motivation, and access to financial assistance to earn
488-508: A Hochschule , which is the generic term in Germany for all institutions awarding academic degrees. Fachhochschule is often translated as "University of Applied Sciences". Universitäten place greater emphasis on fundamental science and background in theory, while Fachhochschulen are generally designed with a focus on teaching professional skills. Degrees earned at Universitäten and Fachhochschulen are legally equivalent. In Germany,
610-495: A Russian energy company, funneled almost $ 3.4 million to Abramoff and DeLay advisor Ed Buckham between 1997 and 2005. About $ 60,000 was spent on a trip to Russia in 1997 for Tom DeLay, Buckham, and Abramoff. In 1998, $ 1 million was sent to Buckham via his organization U.S. Family Network to "influence DeLay's vote in 1998 on legislation that helped make it possible for the International Monetary Fund to bail out
732-630: A Washington, D.C. dinner shortly after the Republican takeover of Congress in 1994. Lapin later claimed that he did not recall making the introduction. In December 1994, Abramoff was hired as a lobbyist at Preston Gates Ellis & Rouvelas Meeds LLP , the lobbying arm of the law firm Preston Gates & Ellis LLP, based in Seattle . According to The Seattle Times , following the Republican takeover of Congress in 1995, partner Emanuel Rouvelas determined that
854-456: A BA or BSc degree. However, some older or ancient universities , such as Oxford , Cambridge , and Trinity College Dublin traditionally award BAs to undergraduates having completed the final examinations, e.g., Part II Tripos (Cambridge), Final Honour Schools (Oxford), Moderator-ship (Dublin), in most subjects including the sciences. Some new plate glass universities established in the 1960s, such as York and Lancaster , originally followed
976-408: A big donor. — Lobbyist Jack Abramoff in 2011 Lobbyists often assist congresspersons with campaign finance by arranging fundraisers, assembling PACs, and seeking donations from other clients. Many lobbyists become campaign treasurers and fundraisers for congresspersons. This helps incumbent members cope with the substantial amounts of time required to raise money for reelection bids; one estimate
1098-562: A certain action and having a big-picture view of the possible sequence of desired actions. Strategic lobbying tries to estimate the possible responses of different groups to a possible lobby approach; one study suggested that the "expectations of opposition from other interests" was a key factor helping to determine how a lobby should operate. Increasingly, lobbyists seek to put together coalitions and use outside lobbying by swaying public opinion. Bigger, more diverse and deep pocketed coalitions tend to be more effective in outside lobbying, and
1220-409: A client hires them to push a specific issue or agenda, they usually form coalitions to exert political pressure. Lobbying, as a result, depends on trying to be flexible to new opportunities, but at the same time, to act as an agent for a client. As one lobbyist put it: It's my job to advance the interests of my association or client. Period. — comment by a lobbyist Access is important and often means
1342-453: A diverse coalition of organizations and people, sometimes including lawmakers and corporations, and the whole effort may be considered to be a lobby ; for example, in the abortion issue, there is a "pro-choice lobby" and a “pro-life lobby". Most federal lobbyists are based in Washington, DC ; an estimate from 2018 suggested that the count of registered lobbyists who actually lobbied that year
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#17328513314971464-485: A faction as "a number of citizens, whether amounting to a minority or majority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community", and Madison argued in Federalist No. 10 that there was less risk of injury by a narrowly focused faction in a large republic if any negative influence
1586-402: A favorite bit, he would mimic an ice-cold Michael Corleone facing down a crooked U.S. Senator 's demand for a cut of Mafia gambling profits: 'Senator, you can have my answer now if you like. My offer is this: nothing. ' " Salon.com political writer Thomas Frank considers Abramoff to have acted as a con man . Alex Gibney , director and writer of the 2010 documentary film Casino Jack and
1708-566: A former president of the University of Georgia College Republicans chapter, as an unpaid intern. According to Reed's book Active Faith , Reed introduced Abramoff to Pamela Clarke Alexander, and they later married. As chair of the CRNC, Abramoff addressed the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas . At the CRNC, Abramoff developed political alliances with College Republican chapter presidents across
1830-611: A guilty plea in the Jack Abramoff Native American lobbying scandal and his dealings with SunCruz Casinos in January 2006, he was sentenced to six years in federal prison for mail fraud , conspiracy to bribe public officials, and tax evasion . He served 43 months before being released on December 3, 2010. After his release from prison, he wrote the autobiographical book Capitol Punishment: The Hard Truth About Washington Corruption From America's Most Notorious Lobbyist which
1952-405: A high-paying job after they decided to leave public office. When such a promise of future employment was accepted, according to Abramoff, "we owned them". This helped the lobbying firm exert influence on that particular congressperson by going through the staff member or aide. At the same time, it is hard for outside observers to argue that a particular decision, such as hiring a former staffer into
2074-433: A letter to a congressperson, or even questions a candidate at a political meeting, could be construed as being a lobbyist . The term "lobbying" generally means a paid activity with the purpose of attempting to "influence or sway" a public official – including bureaucrats and elected officials – towards a desired specific action often relating to specific legislation. If advocacy is disseminating information, then lobbying
2196-424: A lobbying position, was purely as a reward for some past political decision, since staffers often have valuable connections and policy experience needed by lobbying firms. Research economist Mirko Draca suggested that hiring a staffer was an ideal way for a lobbying firm to try to sway their old bosses—a congressperson—in the future. In a one-on-one meeting with a lobbyist, it helps to understand precisely what goal
2318-411: A lobbyist commenting on access When getting access is difficult, there are ways to wear down the walls surrounding a legislator. Jack Abramoff explained: Access is vital in lobbying. If you can't get in your door, you can't make your case. Here we had a hostile senator, whose staff was hostile, and we had to get in. So that's the lobbyist safe-cracker method: throw fundraisers, raise money, and become
2440-488: A lobbyist did actual work; that much of what happens regarding interpersonal relations is obscure despite rather strict disclosure and transparency requirements; that there are sizable monies involved—factors such as these almost guarantee that there will be future scandals involving fraudulent lobbying activity, according to one assessment. A fraud similar to Abramoff's was perpetrated in Maryland by lobbyist Gerard E. Evans, who
2562-486: A lobbyist). Abramoff "changed the direction of the [college] committee and made it more activist and conservative than ever before", notes the CRNC. "It is not our job to seek peaceful coexistence with the Left ", Abramoff was quoted as saying in the group's 1983 annual report. "Our job is to remove them from power permanently." Norquist served as executive director of the committee under Abramoff. He later recruited Ralph Reed ,
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#17328513314972684-409: A long time to build the network of relationships within the lobbying industry, ethical interpersonal dealings are important. A maxim in the industry is for lobbyists to be truthful with people they are trying to persuade; one lobbyist described it this way: "what you've basically got is your word and reputation". An untruth, a lie is too risky to the successful development of a long-term relationship and
2806-711: A master's degree. Along with the Bachelor of Science (B.S.), the Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) is the most commonly granted degree in the US. A B.A. degree is earned after the completion of four years of undergraduate college level study. The Bachelor of Science is abbreviated with periods i.e., B.S., and the Bachelor of Arts is abbreviated as B.A. Most US colleges and universities offer undergraduate programs. In colleges and universities in Australia, Nepal, New Zealand, India and South Africa,
2928-488: A narrow party-line vote, and the lobbying effort achieved its result. In 2017, credit reporting agency Equifax lobbied Congress extensively, spending $ 1.1 million in 2016 and $ 500,000 in 2017, seeking rules to limit damage from lawsuits and less regulatory oversight; in August 2017, Equifax's databases were breached and the confidential data of millions of Americans was stolen by hackers and identity thieves, potentially opening up
3050-515: A one-on-one meeting with a legislator. Getting access can sometimes be difficult, but there are various avenues: email, personal letters, phone calls, face-to-face meetings, meals, get-togethers, and even chasing after congresspersons in the Capitol building: My style of lobbying is not to have big formal meetings, but to catch members on the fly as they're walking between the House and the office buildings. —
3172-443: A one-year period required by city ethics rules to abstain from lobbying. While the bulk of lobbying happens by business and professional interests who hire paid professionals, some lobbyists represent non-profits pro-bono for issues in which they are personally interested. Pro bono publico clients offer activities to meet and socialize with local legislators at events like fundraisers and awards ceremonies. Lobbies which push for
3294-615: A particular cause, in the hope that favors will be returned at a later date. Lobbyist Gerald Cassidy encouraged other clients to give for causes dear to a particular client engaged in a current lobbying effort. Some lobbyists give their own money: Cassidy reportedly donated a million dollars on one project, according to one report, which noted that Cassidy's firm received "many times that much in fees from their clients" paid in monthly retainers. And their clients, in turn, had received "hundreds of millions in earmarked appropriations" and benefits worth "hundreds of millions more". The dynamics of
3416-401: A particular set of issues, although one study suggested that of two competing criteria for lobbyists—expertise or access—that access was far more important. Lobby groups and their members sometimes also write legislation and whip bills, and in these instances, it is helpful to have lawyers skilled in writing legislation to assist with these efforts. Lobbyists may write the actual text of
3538-401: A political and legal sensibility. Like lawmakers, many lobbyists are lawyers, and the persons they are trying to influence have the duty of writing laws. That the disciplines of law and lobbying are intertwined could be seen in the case of a Texas lawyer who had been seeking compensation for his unfairly imprisoned client; since his exonerated-prisoner client had trouble paying the legal expenses,
3660-656: A possible new tax provision that might have cost it $ 4 billion overall. So the firm hired Jack Abramoff and paid him a retainer of $ 100,000 a month. He assembled dozens of lobbyists with connections to key congressional committees with the ultimate objective being to influence powerful Senator Charles Grassley . Abramoff began with a fundraising effort to round up "every check" possible. He sought funds from his other lobbying clients: I had my clients understand that just as other clients who had nothing to do with them, would step up and give contributions to congressmen they needed to have some sway with, so similarly they needed to do
3782-468: A possible online sales tax as well as rules about data protection and privacy. Corporations which sell substantially to the government tend to be active lobbiers. For example, aircraft manufacturer Boeing , which has sizeable defense contracts, pours "millions into lobbying": Boeing Co. is one of the most influential companies in airline manufacturing and has continually shown its influence in lobbying Congress ... Between January and September, Boeing spent
Jack Abramoff - Misplaced Pages Continue
3904-704: A pro-Reagan group that helped Oliver North build support for the Nicaraguan Contras . Citizens for America staged an unprecedented meeting of anti-Communist rebel leaders known as the Democratic International in Jamba, Angola . This conference included leaders of the Mujahedeen from Afghanistan , UNITA from Angola , the Contras, and opposition groups from Laos . Out of this largely ceremonial conference came
4026-412: A public relations puppet of the apartheid -led South African Defence Force , writing: The IFF was a conservative group which I headed. It was vigorously anti-Communist , but it was also actively anti-apartheid. In 1987, it was one of the first conservative groups to call for the release of Nelson Mandela , a position for which it was roundly criticized by other conservatives at the time. While I headed
4148-531: A single issue have grown in importance during the past twenty years. Corporations generally would be considered as single issue lobbies. If a corporation wishes to change public policy, or to influence legislation which impacts its success as a business, it may use lobbying as a "primary avenue" for this purpose. Lobbies which represent groups such as labor unions , business organizations, and trade associations may be considered multiple issue lobbies , and be willing to accept compromise. Taxpayer-funded lobbying
4270-472: A strong influence on the political system ; for example, a study in 2014 suggested that special interest lobbying enhanced the power of elite groups and was a factor shifting the nation's political structure toward an oligarchy in which average citizens have "little or no independent influence". The number of lobbyists in Washington is estimated to be over 12,000, but most lobbying (in terms of expenditures),
4392-400: A third class honours degree (for example, BA with distinction, merit or pass). A Bachelor of Arts is entitled to the post-nominal letters BA for an ordinary or pass degree and BA (Hons) for an honours degree. (However, graduates entitled to use the "Hons" post-nominal very rarely do so in practice.) The academic dress worn by honours and non-honours graduates is identical. An honours degree
4514-478: A time when the country's government was under worldwide criticism for its apartheid regime. In 1984, Abramoff and other College Republicans formed the "USA Foundation", a non-partisan tax-exempt organization which held two days of rallies on college campuses around the United States celebrating the first anniversary of the invasion of Grenada . In a letter to campus Republican leaders, Abramoff claimed: While
4636-584: A total of $ 12 million lobbying according to research by OpenSecrets . Additionally, Boeing has its own political action committee, which donated more than $ 2.2 million to federal candidates during the 2010 election cycle. Of that sum, 53 percent went to Democrats. ...Through September, Boeing's PAC has donated $ 748,000 to federal politicians. In the spring of 2017, there was a fierce lobbying effort by Internet service providers (ISPs) such as Comcast and AT&T, and tech firms such as Google and Facebook, to undo regulations protecting consumer privacy. Rules passed by
4758-471: A valuable resource for the news media or voters, the information helped lobbyists monitor congressional voting patterns. As a general rule, lawmakers must vote as a particular interest group wishes them to vote, or risk losing support. Strategy usually dictates targeting specific office holders. On the state level, one study suggested that much of the lobbying activity targeted the offices of governors as well as state-level executive bureaucrats; state lobbying
4880-515: A variety of interest group leaders to unite behind a hopefully simple easy-to-grasp and persuasive message. It is important for lobbyists to follow rules governing lobbying behavior. These can be difficult and complex, take time to learn, require full disclosure, and mistakes can land a lobbyist in serious legal trouble. Gifts for congresspersons and staffers can be problematic, since anything of sizeable value must be disclosed and generally such gifts are illegal. Failure to observe gift restrictions
5002-499: A way to ratchet up their fears of adverse legislation as well as stoke possible future contributions; the lobbyists committed other violations such as grossly overbilling their clients as well as violating rules about giving gifts to congresspersons. Numerous persons went to jail after the scandal. The following are factors which can make fraud a fairly easy-to-do activity: that lobbyists are paid only to try to influence decision-makers, and may or may not succeed, making it hard to tell if
Jack Abramoff - Misplaced Pages Continue
5124-431: Is always awarded in one of four classes, depending upon the marks gained in the final assessments and examinations. The top students are awarded a first-class degree, followed by an upper second-class degree (usually referred to as a 2:1), a lower second-class degree (usually referred to as a 2:2), and those who pass with the lowest marks gain a third-class degree. An ordinary, pass or unclassified degree (which does not give
5246-401: Is anecdotal evidence that a business firm seeking to profitably influence legislation has to pay particular attention to which lobbyist it hires. Strategic considerations for lobbyists, trying to influence legislation, include "locating a power base" or a constituency logically predisposed to support a given policy. Timing, as well, is usually important, in the sense of knowing when to propose
5368-642: Is focused on only a few sets of issues, according to one report. It is possible for one level of government to lobby another level; for example, the District of Columbia has been lobbying Congress and the President for greater power, including possible statehood or voting representation in Congress; one assessment in 2011 suggested that the district needed to rethink its lobbying strategy, since its past efforts have only had "mixed results". Many executive branch agencies have
5490-476: Is handled by fewer than 300 firms. A report in The Nation in 2014 suggested that while the number of registered lobbyists in 2013 (12,281) decreased compared to 2002, lobbying activity was increasing and "going underground" as lobbyists use "increasingly sophisticated strategies" to obscure their activity. Analyst James A. Thurber estimated that the actual number of working lobbyists was close to 100,000 and that
5612-485: Is public support behind an issue to policymakers and (2) increase public support for the issue among constituents. Kollman suggested outside lobbying was a "powerful tool" for interest group leaders. In a sense, using these criteria, one could consider James Madison as having engaged in outside lobbying , since after the Constitution was proposed, he wrote many of the 85 newspaper editorials arguing for people to support
5734-728: Is subject to complex rules which, if not followed, can lead to penalties including jail. Lobbying has been interpreted by court rulings as free speech protected by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution . Since the 1970s, the numbers of lobbyists and the size of lobbying budgets has grown and become the focus of criticism of American governance. Lobbying takes place at every level of government: federal, state, county, municipal, and local governments. In Washington, D.C. , lobbyists usually target members of Congress , although there have been efforts to influence executive agency officials as well as Supreme Court appointees. Lobbying can have
5856-451: Is that unsubstantiated claims are bad business. Even worse is planting an informant in an opponent's camp, since if this subterfuge is ever discovered, it will boomerang negatively in a hundred ways, and credibility will drop to zero. The importance of personal relationships in lobbying can be seen in the state of Illinois , in which father-son ties helped push a smart-grid energy bill, although there were accusations of favoritism. And there
5978-402: Is the holder of a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate program in the liberal arts , or, in some cases, other disciplines. A Bachelor of Arts degree course is generally completed in three or four years, depending on the country and institution. The Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree is an undergraduate postsecondary degree that puts a focus on liberal arts and studies. In comparison,
6100-496: Is wanted. A lobbyist wants action on a bill; a legislator wants to be re-elected. The idea is to persuade a legislator that what the lobbyist wants is good public policy. Lobbyists often urge lawmakers to try to persuade other lawmakers to approve a bill. Still, persuasion is a subtle business. In one instance of a public relations reversal, a lobbying initiative by the Cassidy firm which targeted Senator Robert C. Byrd blew up when
6222-526: Is when one taxpayer-funded entity lobbies another taxpayer-funded entity, usually for more taxpayer-funds. In the United States this typically takes place in the form of State-level agencies or municipalities devoting part of their budget to lobby the State government for a larger budget. The Constitution was crafted in part to solve the problem of special interests, today usually represented by lobbies, by having these factions compete. James Madison identified
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#17328513314976344-445: Is when this activity becomes focused on specific legislation, either in support or in opposition. Lobbyists are intermediaries between client organizations and lawmakers: they explain to legislators what their organizations want, and they explain to their clients what obstacles elected officials face. Some lobbyists work for advocacy groups , trade associations , companies, and state and local governments. A lobbyist may put together
6466-642: The Los Angeles Times , who attended Beverly Hills High School at the same time, recounted an incident in which Abramoff pushed him and his cello down a flight of stairs. The incident was reported in The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles under the heading, "Jack Abramoff the bully". Abramoff attended Brandeis University , where he was elected treasurer of the Brandeis College Republicans. In an April 1980 meeting at Brandeis, Abramoff
6588-657: The American Bankers Association spent $ 4.6 million on lobbying; an organization representing 100 of the nation's largest financial firms called the Financial Services Roundtable spent heavily as well. A trade group representing Hedge Funds spent more than $ 1 million in one quarter trying to influence the government about financial regulations, including an effort to try to change a rule that might demand greater disclosure requirements for funds. Amazon.com spent $ 450,000 in one quarter lobbying about
6710-545: The College Republican National Committee (CRNC). After a campaign which cost over $ 11,000 and was managed by Grover Norquist , Abramoff won the election. His chief competitor, Amy Moritz was persuaded to drop out (later, as Amy Ridenour, she became a founding director of the National Center for Public Policy Research . She was treated to several trips funded by Jack Abramoff when he was working as
6832-637: The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) from 1995 to 2001. It made manufactured goods labeled with " Made in the USA ", but it was not subject to U.S. labor and minimum wage laws. After Abramoff paid for DeLay and his staffers to go on trips to the CNMI, they crafted policy that extended exemptions from federal immigration and labor laws to the islands' industries. Abramoff also negotiated with
6954-632: The FDA began considering a cheaper generic version of the costly anti-clotting drug Lovenox , the French pharmaceutical firm Sanofi "sprang into action to try and slow the process." Lobbyists are often assembled in anticipation of a potential takeover bid, particularly when there are large high-profile companies, or a large foreign company involved, and substantial concern that the takeover may be blocked by regulatory authorities. An example may illustrate. The company Tyco had learned that there had been discussion about
7076-529: The Internet Gambling Prohibition Act , which he did by enlisting Ralph Reed , Norquist, and Tom DeLay's former chief of staff, Tony Rudy . Emails from 2000 indicate that Susan Ralston helped Abramoff pass checks from eLottery to Lou Sheldon 's Traditional Values Coalition (TVC) and Norquist's Americans for Tax Reform (ATR), en route to Ralph Reed 's company, Century Strategies . On January 8, 2001, Abramoff left Preston Gates to join
7198-652: The Obama administration in 2016 required ISPs to get "explicit consent" from consumers before gathering browsing histories, locations of businesses visited and applications used, but trade groups wanted to be able to sell this information for profit without consent. Lobbyists connected with Republican senator Jeff Flake and Republican representative Marsha Blackburn to sponsor legislation to dismantle Internet privacy rules; Flake received $ 22,700 in donations and Blackburn received $ 20,500 in donations from these trade groups. On March 23, 2017, abolition of privacy restrictions passed on
7320-601: The Treasury Department and the Securities and Exchange Commission , the Supreme Court, and state governments (including governors). Federal agencies are targeted by lobbyists because they write industry-specific rules; accordingly, interest groups spend "massive sums of money" trying to persuade them to make so-called "carve-outs" or try to block specific provisions from being enacted. A large fraction of overall lobbying
7442-819: The United Food & Commercial Workers International Union spent $ 80,000 lobbying the federal government on issues relating to "the tax code, food safety, immigration reform and other issues." Other possible players in the lobbying arena are those who might influence legislation: House & Senate colleagues, public opinion in the district, the White House, party leaders, union leaders, and other influential persons and groups. Interest groups are often thought of as "nonparty organizations" which regularly try to change or influence government decision-making. Lobbying has much in common with highly people-intensive businesses such as management consulting and public relations , but with
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#17328513314977564-561: The Virgin Islands , and eight staffers. Documentation indicates that Abramoff's lobbying team helped prepare Rep. Ralph Hall 's (R-TX) statements on the House floor in which he attacked the credibility of escaped teenaged sex worker "Katrina", in an attempt to discredit her testimony regarding the state of the sex slave industry in the Marianas. Ms. magazine reported Abramoff's dealings in
7686-574: The "strength in numbers" principle often applies. Interest groups try to build "sustainable coalitions of similarly situated individual organizations in pursuit of like-minded goals". According to one study, it is often difficult for a lobbyist to influence a staff member in Congress directly, since staffers tend to be well-informed and subject to views from competing interests. As an indirect tactic, lobbyists can try to manipulate public opinion which, in turn, can sometimes exert pressure on congresspersons. Activities for these purposes include trying to use
7808-706: The 1989 film Red Scorpion . The film ultimately cost $ 16 million, exceeding its $ 8 million initial budget. It starred Dolph Lundgren , who played the Spetsnaz Soviet commando Nikolai, sent by the USSR to assassinate an African revolutionary in a country similar to Angola . Nikolai sees the evil of the Soviets and changes sides, becoming a freedom fighter for the African side. Abramoff also executive-produced its 1994 sequel Red Scorpion 2 . The South African government financed
7930-548: The BA course normally lasts between three and three and a half years—six or seven semesters—and the degree is awarded after the student earns between 180 and 210 ECTS . In the Netherlands, the BA and Master of Arts (MA) degrees were introduced in 2002. Until then, a single program led to the doctorandus degree (abbreviated drs.), which comprised the same course load as the bachelor's and master's programs combined. The title doctorandus
8052-399: The BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Students must pursue at least one major area of study and units from that subject are usually studied in each year, though sometimes students may choose to complete upper-level classes in the same year and as a result, can leave space for elective subjects from a different field. At some universities, students may choose to pursue
8174-518: The BA degree has been consistent in its history. The Bachelor of Arts degree was formed out of the study of liberal arts . Liberal art is a term that was applied to the study of many branches of learning such as grammar , logic , rhetoric , arithmetic , geometry , astronomy , and music . The study of liberal arts started during the Middle Ages . During the Renaissance , the term liberal art
8296-692: The CNMI and the plight of garment workers like Katrina in a major article published in their spring 2006 issue. Abramoff arranged for mailings from a Ralph Reed marketing company to Christian conservative voters. He bribed Roger Stillwell, a high-ranking political appointee at the Department of the Interior who was responsible for some Native American gaming policy; Stillwell pleaded guilty in 2006 to accepting gifts from Abramoff. All government officials and employees are prohibited from accepting gifts from consultants, businesses and lobbyists. Executives of Naftasib,
8418-458: The CRNC's bylaws to consolidate their control over the organization. According to Easton's Gang of Five , Reed was the "hatchet man" and "carried out Abramoff-Norquist orders with ruthless efficiency, not bothering to hide his fingerprints". In 1983, the CRNC passed a resolution condemning "deliberate planted propaganda by the KGB and Soviet proxy forces" against the government of South Africa , at
8540-520: The Cassidy-Byrd connection was published in The Washington Post ; this resulted in a furious Byrd reversing his previous pro-Cassidy position and throwing a "theatrical temper tantrum" regarding an $ 18 million facility. Byrd denounced "lobbyists who collect exorbitant fees to create projects and have them earmarked in appropriation bills... for the benefit of their clients." Since it often takes
8662-614: The Constitution, and these writings later became the Federalist Papers . As a result of this "lobbying" effort, the Constitution was ratified, although there were narrow margins of victory in four of the state legislatures. Lobbying today generally requires mounting a coordinated campaign, using targeted blitzes of telephone calls, letters, emails to congressional lawmakers, marches down the National Mall , bus caravans, and such, and these are often put together by lobbyists who coordinate
8784-588: The IFF, we accepted funding only from private individuals and corporations and would have absolutely rejected any offer of South African military funding, or any other kind of funding from any government – good or evil. During this period in South Africa , Abramoff met South African-born rabbi David Lapin , who later became his religious advisor. He also met Lapin's brother and fellow rabbi Daniel Lapin , who allegedly introduced Abramoff to Congressman Tom DeLay (R- TX ) at
8906-714: The International Freedom Foundation. Abramoff helped to organize, and also attended the conference. Abramoff's membership ended on a sour note when Citizens for America's sponsor Lewis Lehrman , a former New York gubernatorial candidate, concluded that Abramoff had spent his money carelessly. In 1986, Reagan appointed Abramoff as a member of the United States Holocaust Memorial Council. Abramoff spent ten years in Hollywood , where he developed, wrote, and produced, with his brother Robert,
9028-640: The Marianas Islands account. At Greenberg Traurig, Abramoff recruited a team of lobbyists known familiarly as "Team Abramoff". The team included many of his former employees from Preston Gates and former senior staffers of members of Congress. Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana Mashpee Wampanoag people of Massachusetts Mississippi Band of Choctaw Native Americans Pueblo of Sandia Pueblo of Santa Clara Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe Tigua Native American Reservation Lobbying in
9150-546: The Marianas for a $ 1.2 million no-bid contract for "promoting ethics in government" to be awarded to David Lapin, brother of his associate Daniel Lapin. Abramoff secretly funded a trip to the Marianas for Congressmen James E. Clyburn (D- SC ) and Bennie Thompson (D- MS ). In 1999, Congressman Dana Rohrabacher (R- CA ) went on an Abramoff-funded trip to the Marshall Islands with John Doolittle (R-CA) and Ken Calvert (R-CA), delegates of Guam , American Samoa , and
9272-597: The Republican House Majority Leader. The Seattle Times reported in February 2006 that Abramoff used Preston Gates & Ellis to access a higher pedigree of clientele. In 1995, Abramoff began representing Native American tribes with gambling interests. He became involved with the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians , a federally recognized tribe. One of Abramoff's first acts as a tribal gaming lobbyist
9394-725: The Student Liberation Day Coalition is nonpartisan and intended only for educational purposes, I don't need to tell you how important this project is to our efforts as [College Republicans]. I am confident that an impartial study of the contrasts between the Carter/Mondale failure in Iran and the Reagan victory in Grenada will be most enlightening to voters 12 days before the general election. In 1985, Abramoff joined Citizens for America ,
9516-506: The U.S. government, or to impose sanctions on their rivals. Lobbyists represent their clients' or organizations' interests in state capitols. An example is a former school superintendent who has been lobbying state legislatures in California, Michigan and Nevada to overhaul teacher evaluations, and trying to end the "Last In, First Out" teacher hiring process. State governments can be lobbied by groups which represent other governments within
9638-613: The United States Lobbying in the United States is paid activity in which special interest groups hire well-connected professional advocates, often lawyers, to argue for specific legislation in decision-making bodies such as the United States Congress . It is often perceived negatively by journalists and the American public; critics consider it to be a form of bribery , influence peddling , and/or extortion . Lobbying
9760-499: The United States of Money , described Abramoff's criminal modus operandi , saying, "one of his (Abramoff's) great gifts was being able to tell people what they wanted to hear, and this was how he was able to sell things and get them into trouble." He was interviewed with former U.S. Representative Bob Ney and former Greenberg Traurig lobbyist Neil Volz on Kojo Nnamdi's National Public Radio affiliate WAMU-FM radio show. Abramoff and his law firm were paid at least $ 6.7 million by
9882-449: The White House at 1401 Pennsylvania Avenue, claims the term originated there: "It was in the Willard lobby that Ulysses S. Grant popularized the term “lobbyist.” Often bothered by self-promoters as he sat in the lobby and enjoyed his cigar and brandy, he referred to these individuals as "lobbyists." The term lobbying suggests advocacy, advertising, or promoting a cause. A person who writes
10004-458: The actual number of firms which do lobbying regularly is fewer than 300, and that the percent of firms engaged in lobbying was 10% from 1998 to 2006, and that they were "mainly large, rich firms getting in on the fun." These firms hired lobbyists year after year, and there was not much evidence of other large firms taking much interest in lobbying. Corporations considering lobbying run into substantial barriers to entry: corporations have to research
10126-1050: The degree. Just like other baccalaureate degrees, a Bachelor of Arts is historically offered only at public and private universities and colleges. A Bachelor of Arts, just like other bachelor's degrees, is an admission requirement for graduate and professional school. Beginning in the 1990s, junior colleges started to confer their own baccalaureate degrees. In addition to the standard BA degrees, there are career-specific Bachelor of Arts degrees, including Bachelor of Arts in Functional English , Bachelor of Arts in Administration , Bachelor of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies , and Regents Bachelor of Arts . The Bachelor of Arts degree has been prominent in academics for centuries. It influenced universities to begin focusing on broad topics such as algebra , psychology , biology , art , history , and philosophy . This aspect of
10248-643: The faltering Russian economy". DeLay voted for the legislation. The money was funneled through the Dutch company Voor Huisen, the Bahamas company Chelsea Enterprises, and the London law firm James & Sarch Co. The executives involved, who met DeLay during the 1997 trip, were Marina Nevskaya and Alexander Koulakovsky. Nevskaya was also involved in Abramoff's support of an Israeli military academy, according to an email sent to Abramoff. In 1999, eLottery hired Abramoff to block
10370-607: The film through the International Freedom Foundation , a front group chaired by Abramoff, as part of its efforts to undermine international support for the African National Congress . The filming location was in South-West Africa , now Namibia . On April 27, 1998, Abramoff wrote a letter to the editor of The Seattle Times rebutting an article critical of him and his alleged role as effectively
10492-579: The final secondary school exams in France and Spain (and of the International Baccalaureate ) come from this: le Baccalauréat and el Bachillerato , respectively. The ancient universities of Scotland award a Master of Arts degree to humanities or arts graduates, but a BSc to science graduates. This course takes four years for an honours degree and three for an ordinary. In Scotland, one can opt to take an ordinary degree, which ranks below
10614-462: The firm "didn't have a conservative, Christian Coalition Republican with strong ties to the new Republican leadership". The traditionally Democratic -leaning firm hired Abramoff for the specific purpose of attaining these wanted ties. Abramoff was described in a press release as having close ties to Newt Gingrich and Dick Armey , the former the Republican Speaker of the House and the latter
10736-542: The firm to numerous class action lawsuits . Major American corporations spent $ 345 million lobbying for just three pro-immigration bills between 2006 and 2008. Internet service providers in the United States have spent more than $ 1.2 billion on lobbying since 1998, and 2018 was the biggest year so far with a total spend of more than $ 80 million. From a review in 2020, major food and beverage corporations spent $ 38.2 million on lobbying to strengthen and maintain big food influence in Washington, D.C. One report suggested
10858-413: The government relations division of Greenberg Traurig in Washington, D.C. The firm described Abramoff as "directly involved in the Republican party and conservative movement leadership structures" and "one of the leading fund raisers for the party and its congressional candidates". With the move to Greenberg Traurig, Abramoff took as much as $ 6 million worth of client business from his old firm, including
10980-454: The graduate the right to add '(Hons)') may be awarded if a student has completed (i) followed a non-honours program, or (b) attempted an honours course but marginally failed to achieve third-class standard. Education in Canada is controlled by the provinces and can be very different depending on the province. While all Canadian universities offer four-year degrees, it is not uncommon, depending on
11102-452: The healthcare industry, compared with every elected politician, was six to one, according to one account. Nevertheless, the numbers of lobbyists actively engaged in lobbying is considerably less, and the ones occupied with lobbying full-time and making significant money is even less. Corporations which lobby actively tend to be few in number, large, and often sell to the government. Most corporations do not hire lobbyists. One study found that
11224-741: The industry brings in $ 9 billion annually, mostly from corporations. Wall Street spent a record $ 2 billion trying to influence the 2016 United States presidential election . Political scientist Thomas R. Dye said that politics is about battling over scarce governmental resources: who gets them, where, when, why and how. Since government makes the rules in a complex economy such as the United States , various organizations, businesses, individuals, nonprofits, trade groups, religions, charities and others—which are affected by these rules—will exert as much influence as they can to have rulings favorable to their cause. The term lobby has etymological roots in
11346-487: The inside cover is inscribed with the congressperson's name and the name of one's organization. Gifts under $ 5 are allowed. Another exception is awards, so it is permitted to give a congressperson a plaque thanking him or her for support on a given issue. Cash gifts payable by check can only be made to campaign committees, not to a candidate personally or to staff; it is not permitted to give cash or stock. Wealthy lobbyists often encourage other lobbying clients to donate to
11468-790: The lawyer lobbied the Texas state legislature to raise the state's payment for unfairly imprisoned prisoners from $ 50,000 per year to $ 80,000 per year; it succeeded, making it possible for his newly freed client to pay the lawyer's fees. Well-connected lobbyists work in Washington for years, know the issues, are highly skilled advocates, and have cultivated close connections with members of Congress, regulators, specialists, and others. They understand strategy and have excellent communication skills; many are well suited to be able to choose which clients they would like to represent. Lobbyists patiently cultivate networks of powerful people, over many years, trying to build trust and maintain confidence and friendships. When
11590-523: The lobbying world make it fairly easy for a semi-skilled operator to defraud a client. This is essentially what happened in the Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal . There was a concerned client—in this case, an Indian casino —worried about possible ill-effects of legislation on its gambling business; and there were lobbyists such as Jack Abramoff who knew how to exploit these fears. The lobbyists actively lobbied against their own casino-client as
11712-496: The mass media, cultivating contacts with reporters and editors, encouraging them to write editorials and cover stories to influence public opinion, which may have the secondary effect of influencing Congress. According to analyst Ken Kollman, it is easier to sway public opinion than a congressional staff member since it is possible to bombard the public with "half-truths, distortion, scare tactics, and misinformation." Kollman suggests there should be two goals: (1) communicate that there
11834-541: The master's degree (post-nominal letters) in accordance with the new standard. When attaining a master level/graduate degree, it is still customary to use either drs. pre-nominally or MA/MSc post-nominally at the discretion of the holder. In the United Kingdom (excluding Scotland) and Ireland, the first degree course normally lasts three years, but nomenclature varies: 19th-century and later universities usually distinguish between arts and sciences subjects by awarding either
11956-413: The nation. Many would later hold key roles in state and national politics and business, and some would later interact with Abramoff in his role as a lobbyist. Some of those relationships were at the core of the federal investigation. At the CRNC, Abramoff, Norquist and Reed formed what was known as the "Abramoff-Norquist-Reed triumvirate". After Abramoff's election, the trio purged "dissidents" and re-wrote
12078-550: The physical structure of the British Parliament, in which there was an intermediary covered room outside the main hall. People pushing an agenda would try to meet with members of Parliament in this room, and they came to be known, by metonymy , as lobbyists , although one account in 1890 suggested that the application of the word "lobby" is American and that the term is not used as much in Britain . The Willard Hotel, 2 blocks from
12200-427: The potential gain is not worth the risk. One report suggested that below-the-belt tactics generally do not work. One account suggest that groping for "personal dirt" on opponents was counterproductive since it would undermine respect for the lobbyist and their clients. And, by reverse logic, if an untruth is told by an opponent or opposing lobby, then it makes sense to publicize it. But the general code among lobbyists
12322-601: The power to write specific rules and are a target of lobbying. Federal agencies such as the State Department make rules such as giving aid money to countries such as Egypt , and in one example, an Egyptian-American businessman named Kais Menoufy organized a lobby to try to halt U.S. aid to Egypt. In recent years there has been an increase in sanctions related lobbying, according to The Washington Post . In these lobbying efforts, foreign entities or governments lobby either to roll back sanctions that have been imposed on them by
12444-446: The practice of Oxford and Cambridge by awarding BAs in all subjects, but have since changed to awarding BSc degrees in science subjects. At Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin the degree of MA can be claimed, usually twenty-one terms after matriculation , without any further study. For many centuries, the bachelor's degree was an intermediate step and was awarded for much of the work carried out in later times at secondary schools. The names of
12566-501: The proposed law, and hire lawyers to "get the language down pat"—an omission in wording or an unclear phrase may open up a loophole for opponents to wrangle over for years. Lobbyists can often advise a lawmaker on how to navigate the approval process. Bachelor of Arts A Bachelor of Arts (abbreviated B.A. , BA , A.B. or AB ; from the Latin baccalaureus artium , baccalaureus in artibus , or artium baccalaureus )
12688-404: The province and the university for a three-year general degree to also be offered as an option. In many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as BA or as honours BA degrees. Honours programs require more education than non-honours programs, typically a specialization beyond the requirements of a BA, and can often be used as a gateway to a PhD program, bypassing
12810-420: The relevant laws about lobbying, hire lobbying firms, and cultivate influential people and make connections. When an issue regarding a change in immigration policy arose, large corporations currently lobbying switched focus somewhat to take account of the new regulatory world, but new corporations—even ones likely to be affected by any possible rulings on immigration—stayed out of the lobbying fray, according to
12932-565: The same. I went to every client I could, and rounded up every check we could for him. "Government has grown so complex that it is a virtual certainty that more than one agency would be affected by any piece of legislation," according to one view. Lobbyists, therefore, spend considerable time learning the ins and outs of issues, and can use their expertise to educate lawmakers and help them cope with difficult issues. Lobbyists' knowledge has been considered to be an intellectual subsidy for lawmakers. Some lobbyists become specialists with expertise in
13054-457: The state, such as a city authority; for example, the cities of Tallahassee and St. Petersburg lobbied the Florida legislature using paid lobbyists to represent the city's interests. There is lobbying activity at the county and municipal levels, especially in larger cities and populous counties. For example, some Chicago aldermen became lobbyists after serving in municipal government, following
13176-855: The study. Still, of all the entities doing lobbying in Washington, the biggest overall spenders are, in fact, corporations. In the first decade of the 2000s, the most lucrative clients for Gerald Cassidy 's lobbying firm were corporations, displacing fees from the appropriations business. Wall Street lobbyists and the financial industry spent upwards of $ 100 million in one year to "court regulators and lawmakers", particularly since they were "finalizing new regulations for lending, trading and debit card fees." One academic analysis in 1987 found that firms were more likely to spend on lobbying if they were both large and concerned about "adverse financial statement consequences" if they did not lobby. Big banks were "prolific spenders" on lobbying; JPMorgan Chase has an in-house team of lobbyists who spent $ 3.3 million in 2010;
13298-544: The twentieth century. The last few decades have been marked by an exponential increase in lobbying activity and expenditures. The number of registered Washington lobbyists is substantial. In 2009, The Washington Post estimated that there were 13,700 registered lobbyists, describing the nation's Capitol as "teeming with lobbyists.". In 2011, The Guardian estimated that in addition to the approximately 13,000 registered lobbyists, thousands more unregistered lobbyists could exist in Washington. The ratio of lobbyists employed by
13420-454: Was College Republican National Committee National Chairman from 1981 to 1985, a founding member of the International Freedom Foundation , allegedly financed by apartheid South Africa , and served on the board of directors of the National Center for Public Policy Research , a conservative think tank . From 1994 to 2001 he was a top lobbyist for the firm of Preston Gates & Ellis , and then for Greenberg Traurig until March 2004. After
13542-478: Was 11,656. The Washington D.C. lobbying industry is an exclusive one, with serious barriers to entry, since it requires them to have been "roaming the halls of Congress for years and years." It is possible for foreign nations to influence the foreign policy of the United States through lobbying or by supporting lobbying organizations directly or indirectly. Generally, lobbyists focus on trying to persuade decision-makers: Congress, executive branch agencies such as
13664-581: Was an "intensely personal game" with face-to-face contact being required for important decisions. Lobbying can be a counteractive response to the lobbying efforts of others. One study suggested this was particularly true for battles surrounding possible decisions by the Supreme Court which is considered as a "battleground for public policy" in which differing groups try to "etch their policy preferences into law". Sometimes there are lobbying efforts to slow or derail other legislative processes; for example, when
13786-489: Was convicted of mail and wire fraud in 2000 in a case involving falsely creating a "fictitious legislative threat" against a client, and then billing the client to work against this supposed threat. Lobbyists routinely monitor how congressional officials vote, sometimes checking the past voting records of congresspersons. One report suggested that reforms requiring "publicly recorded committee votes" led to more information about how congresspersons voted, but instead of becoming
13908-409: Was counteracted by other factions. In addition, the Constitution protected free speech , including the right to petition the government, and these rights have been used by lobbying interests throughout the nation's history. There has been lobbying at every level of government, particularly in state governments during the nineteenth century, but increasingly directed towards the federal government in
14030-642: Was elected chairman of the Massachusetts Alliance of College Republicans, an organization of student volunteers working for Ronald Reagan 's 1980 presidential campaign . Abramoff cited the Massachusetts College Republicans' role in Reagan's close victory in the state as a "major factor", claiming that "Reagan spent only $ 25,000 in the state and won by a mere 3000 votes. Five thousand (members of the) College Republicans produced thousands of votes for him". In 1981, Abramoff graduated with
14152-442: Was meant to describe general studies more broadly. This definition of liberal studies remains to this day. In Japan and the United States, Bachelor of Arts degrees were historically given only by public or private institutions and colleges. In Germany, university-level education usually happens in either a Universität (plural: Universitäten ) or a Fachhochschule (plural: Fachhochschulen ); both can be referred to as
14274-425: Was one factor which caused lobbyist Jack Abramoff to eventually plead guilty to a "raft of federal corruption charges" and led to convictions for 20 lobbyists and public officials, including congressperson Bob Ney and Bush deputy interior secretary Stephen Griles . Generally gifts to congresspersons or their staffs or federal officials are not allowed, but with a few exceptions: books are permitted, provided that
14396-533: Was president of the franchises unit of Diners Club credit card company. Abramoff is Jewish . In 1969, when Abramoff was ten years old, his family moved to Beverly Hills, California . After seeing the film version of Fiddler on the Roof at age twelve, Abramoff decided to practice Orthodox Judaism . Abramoff attended Beverly Hills High School , where he played football and was a weightlifting champion. In 2007, Pulitzer Prize -winning food critic Jonathan Gold of
14518-660: Was published in November 2011. Abramoff's lobbying and the surrounding scandals and investigation are the subject of two 2010 films: the documentary Casino Jack and the United States of Money , released in May 2010, and the feature film Casino Jack , released on December 17, 2010, starring Kevin Spacey as Abramoff. Abramoff was born February 28, 1959, in Atlantic City, New Jersey . His parents were Jane (née Divac) and Franklin Abramoff, who
14640-414: Was that congresspersons had to spend a third of their working hours on fundraising activity. PACs are fairly easy to set up; it requires a lawyer and about $ 300, roughly. An even steeper possible reward which can be used in exchange for favors is the lure of a high-paying job as a lobbyist; according to Jack Abramoff, one of the best ways to "get what he wanted" was to offer a high-ranking congressional aide
14762-596: Was to defeat a Congressional bill to tax Native American casinos, sponsored by Bill Archer (R-TX) and Ernest Istook (R- OK ). According to Washington Business Forward , a lobbying trade magazine, "Tom DeLay was a major factor in those victories, and the fight helped cement the alliance between the two men". DeLay has called Abramoff "one of (his) closest and dearest friends". On December 29, 2005, The Washington Post reported: "Jack Abramoff liked to slip into dialogue from The Godfather as he led his lobbying colleagues in planning their next conquest on Capitol Hill . In
14884-437: Was used in almost all fields of study; other titles were used for legal studies ( meester , Dutch for master, abbreviated Mr. ) and engineering ( ingenieur , abbreviated Ir. for academic masters level or ING. for higher vocational bachelor's level). Those who had already started the doctorandus program could, on completing it, opt for the doctorandus degree (entitling them to use "drs." in front of their name) or could use
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