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39-467: The assembly was formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the liberation of Italy . On 2 June 1946 the first free election since 1924, was held in Italy. The vote was allowed to all over 21, females being allowed to vote for the first time. Voters received both a ballot for the choice between Republic or Monarchy, and one for

78-549: A group of people to change government policy or social values . Political movements are usually in opposition to an element of the status quo , and are often associated with a certain ideology . Some theories of political movements are the political opportunity theory , which states that political movements stem from mere circumstances, and the resource mobilization theory which states that political movements result from strategic organization and relevant resources. Political movements are also related to political parties in

117-668: A legalist and pacified strategy, members of the workers' movement who disagreed with this strategy formed Arditi del Popolo . The Italian General Confederation of Labour (CGL) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia and maintained a non-violent, legalist strategy, while the Communist Party of Italy (PCd'I) ordered its members to quit the organization. The PCd'I organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor. The Italian anarchist Severino Di Giovanni , who exiled himself to Argentina following

156-525: A political party, a political organization seeks to influence or control government policy through conventional methods, usually by nominating their candidates and seating candidates in politics and governmental offices. However, political parties and movements both aim to influence government in one way or another and both are often related to a certain ideology. Parties also participate in electoral campaigns and educational outreach or protest actions aiming to convince citizens or governments to take action on

195-545: Is a political movement in opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. Beginning in European countries in the 1920s, it was at its most significant shortly before and during World War II , where the Axis powers were opposed by many countries forming the Allies of World War II and dozens of resistance movements worldwide. Anti-fascism has been an element of movements across

234-652: The Corte di Cassazione proclaimed officially the victory of the Republic. The election of the Constituent Assembly was based on a proportional system, based on 32 electoral regions. 573 deputies were to be elected, although the elections could not be held in South Tyrol , Trieste , Gorizia , Pola , Fiume and Zara , which were then under Allied or Yugoslav military control. Thus, 556 deputies were elected. On 25 June 1946

273-753: The Italian Anarchist Union emerged between 1919 and 1921, to combat the nationalist and fascist surge of the post-World War I period. In the words of historian Eric Hobsbawm , as fascism developed and spread, a "nationalism of the left" developed in those nations threatened by Italian irredentism (e.g. in the Balkans , and Albania in particular). After the outbreak of World War II, the Albanian and Yugoslav resistances were instrumental in antifascist action and underground resistance. This combination of irreconcilable nationalisms and leftist partisans constitute

312-557: The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , the Communists pursued a Popular Front approach, of building broad-based coalitions with liberal and even conservative anti-fascists. As fascism consolidated its power, and especially during World War II , anti-fascism largely took the form of partisan or resistance movements. In Italy, Mussolini's Fascist regime used the term anti-fascist to describe its opponents. Mussolini's secret police

351-481: The Versailles Treaty was responsible for the rise of Nazism and instead viewed fascist dynamism as the cause of conflict. Unlike fascism, these two types of anti-fascism did not promise a quick victory but an extended struggle against a powerful enemy. During World War II, both anti-fascisms responded to fascist aggression by creating a cult of heroism which relegated victims to a secondary position. However, after

390-695: The animal rights movement , or the inclusive human rights movement. Some have represented class interests, such as the labour movement , socialism , and communism , while others have expressed national aspirations, including both anticolonialist movements, such as Rātana and Sinn Féin , as well as colonialist movements such as Manifest destiny . Political movements can also involve struggles to decentralize or centralize state control, as in anarchism , fascism , and Nazism . Famous recent social movements can be classified as political movements as they have influenced policy changes at all levels of government. Political movements that have recently emerged within

429-407: The ecology movement , alter-globalization and the anti-globalization movement . With globalization , global citizens movements may have also emerged. Many political movements have aimed to establish or broaden the rights of subordinate groups, such as abolitionism , the women's suffrage movement, the civil rights movement , feminism , gay rights movement , the disability rights movement ,

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468-568: The 1910s. Organization against fascism began around 1920. Fascism became the state ideology of Italy in 1922 and of Germany in 1933, spurring a large increase in anti-fascist action, including German resistance to Nazism and the Italian resistance movement . Anti-fascism was a major aspect of the Spanish Civil War , which foreshadowed World War II. Before World War II, the West had not taken seriously

507-536: The 1922 March on Rome , organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community. The Italian liberal anti-fascist Benedetto Croce wrote his Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals , which was published in 1925. Other notable Italian liberal anti-fascists around that time were Piero Gobetti and Carlo Rosselli . Political movement A political movement is a collective attempt by

546-771: The US are the Black Lives Matter Movement , and the Me Too Movement . While political movements that have happened in recent years within the Middle East is the Arab Spring . While in some cases these political movements remained movements, in others they escalated into revolutions and changed the state of government. Movements may also be named by outsiders, as with the Levellers political movement in 17th century England, which

585-678: The age of 92. Anti-fascist This is an accepted version of this page Central Europe Germany Italy Spain ( Spanish Civil War ) Albania Austria Baltic states Belgium Bulgaria Burma Czechia Denmark France Germany Greece Italy Japan Jewish Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Romania Slovakia Spain Soviet Union Yugoslavia Germany Italy Netherlands Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom United States Anti-fascism

624-778: The assembly was established, with Giuseppe Saragat (future president of the Republic) as president. Its first act, on 28 June, was the election of Enrico De Nicola as the Italian Republic's provisional president. On 504 voters, De Nicola (a member of the Italian Liberal Party ) obtained 396 votes, followed by Cipriano Facchinetti ( Italian Republican Party ) with 40, Ottavia Penna Buscemi ( Common Man's Front ) with 32, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (liberal) with 12, Carlo Sforza (PRI) with 2, Alcide De Gasperi and Alfredo Proja (both from Christian Democracy , or DC) with 2. Aside from

663-767: The creation of mass movements as a means to overthrow a government and create their own government, the mass movement then being used afterwards to protect the government from being overthrown itself; whereas liberals seek mass participation in the system of representative democracy. The social scientific study of mass movements focuses on such elements as charisma, leadership, active minorities, cults and sects, followers, mass man and mass society, alienation, brainwashing and indoctrination, authoritarianism and totalitarianism. The field emerged from crowd or mass psychology (Le Bon, Tarde a.o.), which had gradually widened its scope from mobs to social movements and opinion currents, and then to mass and media society. One influential early text

702-433: The creation of the new constitution, the assembly was entrusted the approval of governments and of their budgets , and the ratification of the international treaties. The legislative function was formally assigned to the government, but, in virtue of the pre-Fascist tradition, the latter often assigned the emission of laws to the assembly. The assembly elected among its members a Constitutional Commission of 75 deputies, with

741-571: The earliest roots of European anti-fascism. Less militant forms of anti-fascism arose later. During the 1930s in Britain, "Christians – especially the Church of England – provided both a language of opposition to fascism and inspired anti-fascist action". French philosopher Georges Bataille believed that Friedrich Nietzsche was a forerunner of anti-fascism due to his derision for nationalism and racism. Michael Seidman argues that traditionally anti-fascism

780-537: The early period, Communist, socialist, anarchist and Christian workers and intellectuals were involved. Until 1928, the period of the United front , there was significant collaboration between the Communists and non-Communist anti-fascists. In 1928, the Comintern instituted its ultra-left Third Period policies, ending co-operation with other left groups, and denouncing social democrats as " social fascists ". From 1934 until

819-404: The election of the deputies of the new Constituent Assembly; the latter would have the task to write a new constitutional chart, as established by a decree of 16 March 1946. The referendum was won by a move to a Republic with some 12.7 million votes, against 10.7 million favouring to continue being a monarchy. Umberto II , the last king of the country, left Italy on 13 June 1946. On 18 June 1946

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858-710: The established parties may have neglected this issue in the past. Political scientists Santos and Mercea argue that, in recent years, "the rise of movement parties across Europe has disrupted traditional notions of party politics and opened up new avenues for citizen engagement and political mobilisation. Movement parties are the reflection of a wider socio-political transformation of increasing interconnection between electoral and non-electoral politics". They identify four types of movement parties: green / left-libertarian , far-right , eclectic , and centrist . For groups seeking to influence policy, social movements can provide an alternative to formal electoral politics. For example,

897-447: The establishment in order to fully develop. Thus, at the beginning and core of a political movement there lies a strategic mobilization of individuals. Political movements are different from political parties since movements are usually focused on a single issue and they have no interest in attaining office in government. A political movement is generally an informal organization and uses unconventional methods to achieve their goals. In

936-571: The ideological spectrum. The defeat of the Axis powers generally ended fascism as a state ideology. After World War II, the anti-fascist movement continued to be active in places where organized fascism continued or re-emerged. There was a resurgence of antifa in Germany in the 1980s, as a response to the invasion of the punk scene by neo-Nazis . This influenced the antifa movement in the United States in

975-619: The issues and concerns which are the focus of the movement. Some political movements have turned into or launched political parties. For example, the 15-M Movement against austerity in Spain led to the creation of the populist party Podemos and the labor movements in Brazil helped form the Brazilian Workers' Party . These types of movement parties serve to raise awareness on the main issue of their initial political movement in government, since

1014-548: The late 1980s and 1990s, which was similarly carried by punks. In the 21st century, this greatly increased in prominence as a response to the resurgence of the radical right , especially after the election of Donald Trump . With the development and spread of Italian Fascism , i.e. the original fascism, the National Fascist Party 's ideology was met with increasingly militant opposition by Italian communists and socialists. Organizations such as Arditi del Popolo and

1053-419: The political scientist S. Laurel Weldon has shown that women's movements and women's policy agencies have tended to be more effective in reducing violence against women than the presence of women in the legislatures. High barriers to entry to the political competition can disenfranchise political movements. Some political movements have aimed to change government policy, such as the anti-war movement ,

1092-518: The political spectrum and holding many different political positions such as anarchism , communism , pacifism , republicanism , social democracy , socialism and syndicalism as well as centrist , conservative , liberal and nationalist viewpoints. Fascism, a far-right ultra-nationalistic ideology best known for its use by the Italian Fascists and the Nazis , became prominent beginning in

1131-416: The political system, structure or by other developments in the political sphere and they are the driving force for political movements to be established. The resource mobilization theory states that political movements are the result of careful planning, organizing and fundraising rather than spontaneous uprisings or societal grievances . This theory postulates that movements rely on resources and contact to

1170-444: The sense that they both aim to make an impact on the government and that several political parties have emerged from initial political movements. While political parties are engaged with a multitude of issues, political movements tend to focus on only one major issue. An organization in a political movement that is led by a communist party is termed a mass organization by the party and a "Communist front" by detractors. Some of

1209-465: The task to write down the constitution's general layout. The commission was further divided into three sub-commissions: A more restricted committee (informally known as "Committee of the Eighteen") had the task to write the constitution in accordance with the work of the three sub-commissions. The Constitutional Commission ended its work on 12 January 1947 and on 4 March the assembly started its debate about

Constituent Assembly of Italy - Misplaced Pages Continue

1248-472: The text. The final text of the Constitution of Italy was approved on 22 December 1947. The Assembly was dissolved on 31 January 1948, replaced by the new Italian Parliament . After the death of Emilio Colombo on 24 June 2013 at the age of 93, there are no surviving members of the Constituent Assembly. Teresa Mattei , the last surviving female member of the Constituent Assembly, died on 12 March 2013 at

1287-444: The theories behind social movements have also been applied to the emergence of political movements in specific, like the political opportunity theory and the resource mobilization theory. The political opportunity theory asserts that political movements occur through chance or certain opportunities and have little to do with resources, connections or grievances in society. Political opportunities can be created by possible changes in

1326-540: The threat of fascism, and anti-fascism was sometimes associated with communism. However, the outbreak of World War II greatly changed Western perceptions, and fascism was seen as an existential threat by not only the communist Soviet Union but also by the liberal-democratic United States and United Kingdom. The Axis Powers of World War II were generally fascist, and the fight against them was characterized in anti-fascist terms. Resistance during World War II to fascism occurred in every occupied country, and came from across

1365-652: The war, conflict arose between the revolutionary and counterrevolutionary anti-fascisms; the victory of the Western Allies allowed them to restore the old regimes of liberal democracy in Western Europe, while Soviet victory in Eastern Europe allowed for the establishment of new revolutionary anti-fascist regimes there. Anti-fascist movements emerged first in Italy during the rise of Benito Mussolini , but they soon spread to other European countries and then globally. In

1404-477: Was named so as a term of disparagement . Yet admirers of the movement and its aims later came to use the term, and it is this term by which they are most known to history. A mass movement denotes a political party or movement which is supported by large segments of a population. Political movements that typically advocate the creation of a mass movement include the ideologies of communism , fascism , and liberalism . Both communists and fascists typically support

1443-614: Was officially known as the Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism . During the 1920s in the Kingdom of Italy , anti-fascists, many of them from the labor movement , fought against the violent Blackshirts and against the rise of the fascist leader Benito Mussolini. After the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) signed a pacification pact with Mussolini and his Fasces of Combat on 3 August 1921, and trade unions adopted

1482-426: Was seen as the purview of the political left but that in recent years this has been questioned. Seidman identifies two types of anti-fascism, namely revolutionary and counterrevolutionary: Seidman argues that despite the differences between these two strands of anti-fascism, there were similarities. They would both come to regard violent expansion as intrinsic to the fascist project. They both rejected any claim that

1521-580: Was the double essay on the herd instinct (1908) by British surgeon Wilfred Trotter. It also influenced the key concepts of the superego and identification in Massenpsychologie (1921) by Sigmund Freud, misleadingly translated as Group psychology. They are linked to ideas on sexual repression leading to rigid personalities, in the original Mass psychology of fascism (1933) by Freudo-Marxist Wilhelm Reich (not to be confused with its totally revised 1946 American version). This then rejoined ideas formulated by

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