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103-413: At first, the site of Ishchali was confused with Tutub (now known to be at Khafajah ). Upon discovery of a date formula that read "year that king Ishme-Bali built the great wall of Nerebtum", that designation gained some support, although the temple dedicated to Inanna suggested Kiti as another possible toponym. Currently, scholarly opinion is split between Nerebtum and Kiti as the result of many tablets from

206-663: A winged sun symbol) and U'e ("sunrise"). The sun god was one of the principal deities of the Mesopotamian pantheon . In the Early Dynastic god list from Fara , he is the sixth among the deities listed, after Anu , Enlil , Inanna , Enki and Nanna . In later god lists, for example in An = Anum , he and his circle appears between Nanna (Sin) and Ishkur (Adad). The Old Babylonian Nippur god list instead places him between Ishkur and Ninurta . Despite Utu's typical high status, it

309-601: A ziggurat dedicated to the city's tutelary god also existed in Sippar. It was known as Ekunankuga (Siumerian: "house, pure stairway to heaven"). It was rebuilt by Samsu-iluna, Ammi-Saduqa, Neriglissar and Nabonidus. The position of Sippar and its tutelary god has been compared to that of Nippur and Enlil - while both of these gods were high-ranking members of the pantheon, and their cities were centers of religious and scholarly activity, they never constituted major political powers in their own right. It has been suggested that

412-454: A birth incantation erroneously identifies him as a moon god and Narundi as a sun deity, explaining their names as, respectively, Sin and Shamash. The main cult centers of the sun god were Larsa and Sippar , specifically Sippar-Ahrurum (Abu Habbah). The latter city was regarded as older in Mesopotamian tradition, and in lists of temples tends to be mentioned before Larsa. In both cities,

515-410: A connection with light. He is attested in multiple theophoric names, chiefly from Sippar. Some researchers, including Antoine Cavigneaux and Manfred Krebernik, consider the reading of the second element of his name to be uncertain due to variable orthography, and transcribe it as Nin-PIRIG. The pair Nigzida and Nigsisa, whose names mean "law" and "order," respectively, are identified as the "vizier of

618-559: A divine tribunal in which they both partake alongside Idlurugu ( ÍD), a river god also known for his association with justice and judgment who represented ordeal by water . A hymn to Utu states that Idlurugu cannot give judgment without his presence. As an extension of his role as a divine judge, Utu could be associated with the underworld, though this connection is not attested before the Old Babylonian period . In exorcisms, he could be implored to help with bringing restless ghosts to

721-408: A large saw ( šaššaru ) and rays of light emanating from his shoulders. The reasons behind associating him with the former are poorly understood, and various interpretations have been proposed, for example that it was a representation of the first ray of sunshine of the day, that it was associated with judgment, perhaps as a weapon used to behead criminals, or that the sun god used it to break through

824-460: A more recent publication that the logogram commonly designates Shamash in the middle Euphrates area, and syllabic writings of his name are uncommon there, though he also states that Shimige cannot be ruled out as a possible reading in some cases. In texts from Susa , Haft Tepe and Malamir in Elam the name of the sun god was usually written logographically as UTU and it is uncertain when it refers to

927-406: A number of them were daughters or sisters of kings. Both Zimri-Lim of Mari and Hammurabi of Babylon had nadītu of Shamash among their female family members. A ceremony called lubuštu was established in Sippar by Nabu-apla-iddina. It involved providing the statues of Shamash, Aya and Bunene with new garments at specific dates throughout the year. Records indicate it was still celebrated in

1030-533: A result of loan defaults. "17 shekel of silver for the redemption of Hlagalija, his father, Zagagum has received (as a loan). (But) he had no silver (with which to repay the loan), (so) he so[ld] himself to the enum-priest. [He (the seller) has transferred] the bukannum. [break of about three lines] Witnesses." The Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures (formerly the Oriental Institute of Chicago) holds 57 of

1133-500: A secondary hypostasis . Occasionally the sun deity's gender had to be indicated directly, and both UTU- munus (female) and UTU- nita (male) are attested. Joan Goodnick Westenholz proposed that Ninkar in Eblaite texts should be interpreted as Ninkarrak rather than the phonetically similar but more obscure Mesopotamian Ninkar. Occasional shortening of Ninkarrak's name to "Ninkar" is known from Mesopotamian sources as well. This theory

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1236-478: A symbol instead. The symbolic representation of Utu was the sun disc , typically represented as a four-pointed star with wavy lines placed between the points. It is attested as early as in the Sargonic period, and continued to be represented in art through the rest of history of ancient Mesopotamia. It is well known from kudurru (boundary stones), where it is typically depicted in the first row of symbols, next to

1339-403: A time. Bunene , also known under the name Papnunna, was considered his chariot driver. Frans Wiggermann notes that his name and character (as well as these of other well attested sukkals of major city gods: Ninshubur , Alammush , Nuska and Isimud ) do not appear to show direct connection with these of his master, which means that he cannot be considered the personification of the effect of

1442-447: A title of Aya). Craftsmen employed by the Eanna were also responsible for repairing the paraphernalia of the deities of Ebabbar. Such a situation is otherwise unknown, as each temple usually maintained its own workshop. A treasury of Shamash and Aya, distinct from that of the Eanna, is nonetheless attested. Ebabbar most likely remained under control of the temple administration from Uruk in

1545-450: A tradition in which he was the supreme god of the pantheon did exist, but never found official support and its spread was limited to the clergy in Sippar and to a smaller degree Larsa . Common epithets characterize Utu as a "youth" ( Sumerian šul , Akkadian eṭlu ) and "hero" (Sumerian ursaĝ , Akkadian qarrādu ). As a representation of the sun, he was believed to travel every day through

1648-526: A well known example of a female deity in what he deems the "cuneiform cultural sphere" is Shapash . At the same time, both the Amorites and the Arameans viewed the solar deity as male, like Sumerians and Akkadians. According to Manfred Krebernik, the name Amna, attested as a synonym of Utu in the god list An = Anum and used to refer to the sun god in an inscription of Nabonidus , might be either connected to

1751-583: A wife, the scribes interpreted the name of Aya, present in the Sumerian original, as an unconventional writing of Ea . Instead of the Hurrian spelling of Aya, the name Eyan corresponds to him in the Hurrian column and Ugaritic one lists the local craftsman god Kothar-wa-Khasis . The logogram UTU is well attested in Hittite texts. In addition to Utu himself and his Akkadian counterpart, the deities represented by it were

1854-406: Is Amna, whose origin is uncertain. The name Shamash is a cognate of Akkadian terms šamšu ("sun") and šamšatu (" solar disc "), as well as the words referring to sun in other Semitic languages , such as Arabic šams and Hebrew šemeš . The linguistic connection between the name of the god and the corresponding celestial body has been compared to that between Adad (and Syrian Hadad) and

1957-412: Is a function also well attested for other divine spouses, such as Ninmug and Shala. It has also been pointed out that in the case of Inanna, her sukkal Ninshubur fulfilled a similar role. In legal texts from Sippar, the sun god and his wife commonly appear as divine witnesses. The only other divine couple attested in this role in this city are Mamu and Bunene . Buduhudug, a mythical mountain where

2060-400: Is a symbolic representation of a conflict between day and night, or that the deities confronted by Utu and his allies are rebellious mountain gods. Wilfred G. Lambert suggested that in some cases figures from battle scenes with rays emanating from their shoulders might be representations of Enmesharra rather than the sun god, as in a tradition known from a late myth, Enmesharra's Defeat, he

2163-455: Is additionally equated with Lugalbanda in it, most likely because the Hurrian pantheon was smaller than that enumerated in Mesopotamian lists, creating the need to have a single Hurrian deity correspond to multiple Mesopotamian ones. The same list also attests the equivalence between Utu, Shimige and the Ugaritic sun goddess Shapash (Šapšu). Apparently to avoid the implications that Shapash had

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2266-481: Is agreed that the role of the sun and deities representing it in Mesopotamian religion was not comparable to that known from ancient Egyptian religion . Based on the attestations of theophoric names such as Shamash-bel-ili ( Akkadian : "Shamash is the lord of the gods"), Shamash-Enlil-ili ("Shamash is the Enlil of the gods") and Shamash-ashared-ili ("Shamash is the foremost of the gods"), Wilfred G. Lambert proposed that

2369-490: Is also accepted by Archi, who notes it makes the widespread worship of Ninkar easier to explain. The Hurrian sun god, Shimige , is already represented by the logogram UTU in an inscription of Atalshen, an early king of Urkesh . It is the oldest known reference to him. He is directly equated with Utu in the trilingual Sumero-Hurro- Ugaritic version of the Weidner god list from Ugarit . It has been argued that his character

2472-583: Is also attested in some theophoric names from the Early Dynastic period. However, no evidence exists that Marduk was ever viewed as a member of the family of any sun deity in Sippar, Larsa or any other location in Mesopotamia, which lead Wilfred G. Lambert to suggest this etymology is not plausible on theological grounds. Multiple deities who could be regarded as the sukkal (attendant deity) of Utu are known, and more than one could appear in this role at

2575-795: Is an archaeological site in Diyala Governorate , Iraq 7 miles (11 km) east of Baghdad . Khafajah lies on the Diyala River , a tributary of the Tigris . Occupied from the Uruk and Jemdet Nasr periods through the end of the Old Babylonian Empire , it was under the control of the Akkadian Empire and then the Third Dynasty of Ur in the 3rd millennium BC . It then became part of the empire of

2678-1058: Is known. He also controlled nearby Tutub . He was a contemporary of Sabium (c. 1844–1831 BC), early ruler of Babylon. A single year name of Iku(n)-pi-Sin is known from a text found at Khafajah reading "Year following (the year) when Iku(n)-pi-Sin cap[tured] Dini[ktum". Presumably it followed one reading "Year when Iku(n)-pi-Sin captured Diniktum". Other proposed rulers of Nērebtum are Išmeḫ-bala, Sumun-abi-yarim, Ḫammi-dušur, and Sîn-abušu. An oath text of Ibel-pi-El, ruler of Eshnunna mentions Ikūn-pî-Sîn and provides synchronism with several rulers: "... Should Sabum, king of Babylon, or Iku(n)-pi-Sin, (king of Nerebtum), write me for troops, I shall not give (either of) them troops; my troops shall not battle those of Sin-iddinam, king of Larsa, or of Sin-kašid, king of Uruk; I shall not perfidiously have my troops stand against them. Until Sin-iddinam and Sin-kašid make peace with Sabum and Iku(n)-pi-Sin, I shall never make peace (with them) ..." The site lies about 3 miles (4.8 km) south and 7 miles (11 km) east of

2781-495: Is particularly well attested in the Old Babylonian period, and it has been argued that the institution first developed around 1880 BCE, during the reign of Sumu-la-El of Babylon. Nadītu lived in a building referred to as gagûm , conventionally translated as " cloister ," and Tonia Sharlach notes they can be compared to medieval Christian nuns . They are sometimes described as "priestesses" in modern literature, but while it

2884-539: Is possible that these events took place during a border conflict between Umma and Lagash. Theophoric names invoking Utu are well attested in texts from this area. Examples include Shubur-Utu, Utu-amu and Utu-kiag. A temple of Utu, Ehili ("house of luxuriance") also existed in Ur. It was rebuilt by Enannatumma, the daughter of Ishme-Dagan , whose inscriptions refer to it as the god's "pure storeroom." A town located near this city, most likely somewhere between it and Larsa, bore

2987-459: Is shown handing them to human rulers. Utu was commonly depicted on cylinder seals as early as in the third millennium BCE. Multiple motifs recur on them, some not known from textual sources. On seals from the Sargonic period , he could be depicted climbing over two mountains, which has been interpreted as a representation of sunrise. He was also commonly depicted traveling in a boat. This motif

3090-430: Is the single best attested type of cylinder seal image from the third millennium BCE, with over fifty examples presently known. Another recurring image is a depiction of Utu, sometimes accompanied by another god, partaking in a battle between deities. The attendant deity is sometimes interpreted as Bunene . In some cases Inanna is shown watching the battle or partaking in it on Utu's side. It has been suggested that it

3193-505: Is uncertain if it was identical with Ebabbar of Assur mentioned in a later topographical text. Additionally, Ehulhuldirdirra ("house of surpassing joys"), while primarily dedicated to Sin , was also associated with Shamash, as attested in building inscriptions of Ashur-nirari I , Tukulti-Ninurta I and Ashurnasirpal II . A sanctuary in Nippur known in Akkadian as bīt dalīli , "house of fame,"

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3296-448: Is well attested that they were considered to be dedicated to a specific deity, there is little evidence for their involvement in religious activities other than personal prayer. It is not impossible they were understood as a fully separate social class. Family background of individual nadītu varied, though they came predominantly from the higher strata of society. While many came from families of craftsmen, scribes or military officials,

3399-454: The Epic of Gilgamesh . Manfred Krebernik argues that in early sources, his chariot was drawn by lions, but this has been questioned by Marco Bonechi. Nathan Wasserman in his translation of a fragment of a hymn to Utu mentioning the animals only refers to them as "beasts." Sunrise and sunset were described as the sun god passing through cosmic gates situated on twin mountains on the opposite ends of

3502-553: The galla demons tried to drag him to the underworld. In various versions of the Epic of Gilgamesh and in earlier Gilgamesh myths, he helps this hero defeat the monstrous Humbaba . In the myth Inanna and An , he helps his sister acquire the temple Eanna . In How Grain Came to Sumer , he is invoked to advise Ninazu and Ninmada . The two most common names of the sun god used in Mesopotamian texts are Sumerian Utu and Akkadian Shamash. A further relatively commonly attested name

3605-690: The Achaemenid period, during the reign of Darius I . The Ebabbar in Larsa is mentioned for the first time in a text from the reign Eannatum . It was rebuilt, expanded or repaired by Ur-Nammu of Ur , Zabaya , Sin-Iddinam , Hammurabi, one of the two rulers bearing the name Kadashman-Enlil ( Kadashman-Enlil I or Kadashman-Enlil II ), Burnaburiash I , Nebuchadnezzar II and Nabonidus. Other rulers who have patronized it at some point include Gungunum , Abisare , Sumuel , Nur-Adad , Sin-Iqisham , Kudur-Mabuk , Warad-Sin and Rim-Sîn I . Odette Boivin notes that

3708-528: The Akkadian period . The Middle Bronze can be subdivided into the earlier Isin-Larsa Period and later Old Babylonian Period . Excavated epigraphic evidence dates to the Old Babylonian period . While some tablets mention early local rulers, for most of the known history of Ishchali kings from Eshnunna held sway there, including Ipiq-Adad and Ibal-pi-El. During the time of Sabium, king of Babylon, Ibal-pi-El I of Ešnunna, Sîn-iddinam of Larsa and Sîn-kašid of Uruk

3811-497: The Early Dynastic god list from Fara . The relation between them could be illustrated by matching epithets, for example in the god list An = Anum Utu is the "small boat of heaven" (Mabanda-anna), while his father Nanna - the "great boat of heaven" (Magula-anna). Ningal was regarded as Utu's mother, and Inanna as his sister. Hymn to the Queen of Nippur refers to them as twins. Due to her identification with Ishtar (Inanna)

3914-558: The Eblaite sun deity was represented with the logogram UTU. Manfred Krebernik assumes that it should be read as Shamash, that the deity was male, and that the goddess Ninkar also attested in texts from Ebla was his spouse. Alfonso Archi instead concludes that the deity was primarily female based on lexical evidence, but points out that the Eblaites were definitely aware of the male eastern sun god, and seemingly adopted him into their pantheon as

4017-521: The Hellenistic period , though known names of the city's inhabitants from this period are predominantly Greek, rather than Mesopotamian. Utu was among the deities worshiped in the territory of Lagash in the Early Dynastic period . A dais dedicated to him existed in Namnuda-kigarra. It was originally erected by Eannatum, then destroyed by Ur-Lumma of Umma , and finally rebuilt by Entemena . It

4120-485: The Hurrian and Elamite goddess Pinikir is referred to as a twin sister of Shamash and daughter of Sin (Nanna) and Ningal in a text written in Akkadian but found in a corpus of Hurro - Hittite rituals. In a single Maqlû incantation, the rainbow goddess Manzat is referred to as Shamash's sister and as a daughter of Sin and Ningal. The sun god's wife was invariably the goddess of dawn and light, usually known under

4223-590: The Kassite period , Uruk most likely gained influence over it, and in the Neo-Babylonian period , the Ebabbar was functionally a subordinate temple of Eanna . Multiple letters attest that the latter was responsible for providing commodities required for the performance of various rites in the former, for example sacrificial animals or wool for garments of divine statues of Shamash and Belet Larsa ("Lady of Larsa," most likely

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4326-664: The Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology at Berkeley, the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire in Geneva, Iraq Museum, Oriental Institute, and the Free Library of Philadelphia . The archive of the chief administrator of the Kititum temple is represented by 155 purchased Free Library tablets and 55 excavated Oriental Institute tablets. Khafajah Khafajah or Khafaje ( Arabic : خفاجة ), ancient Tutub ,

4429-474: The Sargonic period . Evidence for the worship of Shamash in the third millennium BCE is available from the entire Akkadian-speaking area, from Mari and western Mesopotamian cities like Sippar, through Agade , to the Diyala area. Celebrations related to the sun god took place on the eighth, fifteenth, twentieth and possibly first day of each month. In the Early Dynastic period kings of Mari most likely visited

4532-515: The Sun goddess of Arinna ( UTU Arinna ), the Sun goddess of the Earth ( taknaš UTU), the male Sun god of Heaven ( nepišaš UTU, UTU AN , UTU ŠAME), as well as Luwian Tiwat , Palaic Tiyaz and Hurrian Shimige. Gary Beckman notes that the Hittite conception of solar deities does not show any Indo-European influence, and instead was largely similar to that known from Mesopotamia. He points out even

4635-515: The Temple of Sin . "T[o] the god S[in], RI[mus], ki[ng of] the wo[rld], wh[en he conquered Elam and Parahsum], [dedicated (this bowl) from the booty of Elam]" Some point after the fall of the Akkadian Empire, "Awal, Kismar, Maskan-sarrum, the [la]nd of Esnunna, the [la]nd of Tutub, the [lan]d of Simudar, the [lan]d of Akkad" briefly came under the control of Puzur-Inshushinak of Elam as

4738-624: The Ebabbar in Sippar served as a treasury housing particularly rare objects, as excavations of the Neo-Babylonian level of the structure revealed a number of vases from the Early Dynastic and Sargonic periods, some with signs of repair, as well as the votive statue of Ikun-Shamash, a fragment of a monolith of Manishtushu, a macehead of Shar-Kali-Sharri , a whetstone of Tukulti-Mer of Hana , and other objects from earlier periods of Mesopotamian history. A special group connected to Shamash in Sippar were women referred to as nadītu . Their existence

4841-707: The Ebabbar in Sippar to pay homage to its deity. In later periods, it was renovated by multiple rulers, including Naram-Sin of Akkad (who installed his daughter Šumšani as ēntum-priestess), Sabium of Babylon , Samsu-iluna of Babylon, who called himself "beloved of Shamash and Aya," one of the Kassite rulers bearing the name Kurigalzu ( Kurigalzu I or Kurigalzu II ), Ashurbanipal , Shamash-shum-ukin , Nebuchadnezzar II and Nabonidus . Many other kings are known to have patronized or visited it at some point, including Manishtushu , Apil-Sin , Hammurabi , Abi-Eshuh , Ammi-Ditana , Ammi-Saduqa , Samsu-Ditana , Simbar-shipak and Nabu-apla-iddina . In addition to Ebabbar,

4944-451: The Mesopotamian deity, and when to local Nahhunte . It is possible that in legal texts, when UTU occurs next to Elamite deities Inshushinak , Ruhurater or Simut , the latter option is correct. While the god list An=Anum does mention Nahhunte, he is not explicitly labeled as a counterpart of Utu, and only appears as a member of a group called the "Divine Seven of Elam," associated with the goddess Narundi . A Mesopotamian commentary on

5047-613: The Old Babylonian period were found and later published. For a few tablets the provenance is in dispute between Ishcali and Khafajah . Excavations only reached the Isin-Larsa level before excavations ended. Of the 280 tablets excavated, 138 went to the Oriental Institute with the remaining 142 assigned to the Iraq Museum . Among them was a fragment of the Epic of Gilgamesh . The tablets illegally excavated from Ishchali are in many locations including

5150-504: The Sasanian period". The site consists of four mounds, labeled A through D. Khafajah was occupied beginning in the Jemdet Nasr period and Early Dynastic Period . Naram-Sin of Akkad named his son Nabi-Ulmash governor of Tutub. A fragment of a statue of the Akkadian ruler Manishtushu was found there. Two stone bowl fragments with the name of the Akkadian ruler Rimush were found near

5253-479: The assumption that the name Shamash was ever understood as referring to a female deity in Akkadian-speaking areas. Christopher Woods argues that the only available evidence are early ambiguous theophoric names, which according to him do not necessarily point at the existence of female Shamash, and might omit prepositions necessary to identify the gender of the deity invoked in them. Manfred Krebernik notes that

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5356-608: The banks of the canal (called) 'Turran (Diyala)'". The history of Khafajah is known in somewhat more detail for a period of several decades as a result of the discovery of 112 clay tablets (one now lost) in a temple of Sin. The recovered portion of the temple archive dates from roughly 1820 BC to about 1780 BC (based on rulers named) when Tutub was for the most part controlled by Eshnunna. The tablets constitute part of an official archive and include mostly loan (generally of barley or silver) and legal documents. The temple also purchased slaves, including self slaves and sales of children, as

5459-498: The city-state of Eshnunna lying 12 miles (19 km) southwest of that city, about 5 miles (8.0 km) from the ancient city of Shaduppum , and near Tell Ishchali , both which Eshnunna also controlled. It then fell to Babylonia before falling into disuse. Khafajah was excavated for 7 seasons between 1930 and 1937 by an Oriental Institute of Chicago team led by Henri Frankfort with Thorkild Jacobsen , Conrad Preusser and Pinhas Delougaz. For two seasons, in 1937 and 1938,

5562-429: The corresponding major deity's actions (unlike such deities as Nabium, deified flame and sukkal of the fire god Girra or Nimgir, deified lightning and sukkal of the weather god Ishkur ) or a divine personifications of specific commands (unlike such deities as Eturammi, "do not slacken," the sukkal of Birtum ). Ninpirig was referred to as Utu's sukkalmah ("great sukkal"). It has been proposed that his name might hint at

5665-466: The cult site of Inanna of Kititum, is as yet unknown, though it has been suggested that it was an earlier name for Tell Ishchali. She was worshiped in the Diyala region including at the capital city of Eshnunna where this oracular inscription was found: "O king Ibalpiel, thus says Kititum:/The secrets of the gods are placed before me./Because you constantly pronounce my name with your mouth, I keep disclosing

5768-491: The deified concept of truth , according to Jacob Klein regarded as his principal daughter, and Ishum . In myths both about himself and about Lugalbanda , the legendary king Enmerkar was referred to as a son of Utu. However, in the Sumerian King List Utu is instead his grandfather, and his father is a human ruler, Meškiağašer . Unlike other legendary kings of Uruk, namely Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh , Enmerkar

5871-516: The deities of Larsa were apparently well represented in the pantheon of the First Sealand dynasty . She suggests that those kings might have associated their position both with Larsa and with its tutelary god. The Larsean form of the sun god was also worshiped in Uruk and a close connection between these two cities is well documented. At an unknown point in time after Larsa's loss of status, possibly in

5974-510: The earliest Sumerian sources Ishkur, who was analogous to Adad, was not associated with divination, it is possible that it was based on the association between Hadad and the solar deity in Ebla and possibly elsewhere in Syria and Upper Mesopotamia . According to a late ritual text, Shamash and Adad were responsible for teaching divination to the mythical king Enmeduranki . Subsequently, he taught it to

6077-605: The eight-pointed star representing Inanna (Ishtar) and the crescent representing Nanna (Sin). Additionally the symbol of a winged sun came to be associated with the sun god in Assyria in the first millennium BCE. Some depictions of it add a bird tail as well. It only arrived in Babylonia during the reign of Nabonidus . The sun god was traditionally viewed as a son of the moon god in Mesopotamian religion, both in Sumerian and Akkadian texts. They are already attested as father and son in

6180-644: The fact that the Sun god of Heaven was believed to travel in a quadriga drawn by horses, similar to Greek Helios , is not necessarily an example of the former, as deities traveling in chariots are already depicted on Mesopotamian seals from the Sargonic period. The logogram UTU also designated the sun deity or deities in Emar in the late Bronze Age . According to Gary Beckman, the Mesopotamian, West Semitic, Hurrian and Hittite sun deities might all be potentially represented by it in texts from this city. Eduardo Torrecilla notes in

6283-513: The first Third Dynasty ruler, Ur-Nammu , reports liberating those cities. The site was also reported to be captured by ruler Shulgi (c. 2094 – 2046 BC) of the Third Dynasty in his 30th year. It then came under the control of Eshnunna in the Isin-Larsa period . The fifth year name for Eshnunna ruler Nūraḫum was "Year Tutub was seized". This was considered a significant event as the following year

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6386-586: The first millennium BCE, the so-called Sun God Tablet . It is commonly discussed in scholarship, and has been described as "one of the masterpieces of ancient Near Eastern art." It was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in December 1880 during his excavations in Abu Habbah in modern Iraq . Its discovery subsequently made it possible to identify this site with Sippar. It dates to the Neo-Babylonian period, but its style has been described as "archaizing," and most likely

6489-644: The joy of heaven and the underworld"), built by Yahdun-Lim . An inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II might indicate that the sun god's manifestation from Larsa was also worshiped in Ekarra ("house of the quay"), a temple located in Dilmun , on the Failaka Island , which was dedicated to the local deities Inzak and Meskilak . The Canonical Temple List , which dates to the Kassite period, mentions further temples, whose location

6592-496: The king of Nerebtum was Iku(n)-pi-Si. Inanna Temple . The most notable feature of Ishchali is the main temple. It was that of Inanna-Kititum , or Inanna of Kiti (occasionally called Ištar-Kititum). It is one of the largest temples ever found in the ancient Near East at 100 meters by 65 meters. Rebuilt several times, always following the original plan, the monumental building consisted of one large upper temple and two smaller areas which are thought to be shrines (the westernmost shrine

6695-419: The land of the dead. In this capacity he could be associated with the deified legendary king Gilgamesh , commonly portrayed in a similar role. Shamash and Adad were jointly regarded as gods of divination , especially extispicy . The connection between the sun god and the weather god is well attested in Mesopotamian sources and goes back to the Old Babylonian period. Its origin is uncertain, but since in

6798-399: The left" and "vizier of the right" in the god list An = Anum . Nigsisa alone is mentioned by Ninsun as Shamash's sukkal in the Epic of Gilgamesh . Nigzida could be equated with Niggina, another goddess regarded as the sun god's sukkal, though the latter deity's role varies between that of a servant and oldest daughter in known copies of the god list An = Anum . Her Akkadian counterpart

6901-531: The main temple dedicated to Utu and his spouse Aya was known as Ebabbar. Less important temples dedicated to him, located in Girsu and Assur , bore the same name. It means "shining white house "in Sumerian . The oldest attested votive objects dedicated to Utu (or Shamash) are a mace head from Ur offered by a king named Anbu or Anunbu, and a statuette from Sippar from the reign of Ikun-Shamash of Mari . Both predate

7004-418: The modern city of Baghdad and 15 miles (24 km) southeast of Eshnunna on the Diyala River , a tributary of the Tigris . The main tell at Ishchali measures roughly 600 by 300 metres (1,970 ft × 980 ft). There are also small mounds to the north and south of it. The entire site covers around 23 hectares (57 acres). Surface finds indicate that Ishchali may have been occupied as far back as

7107-416: The mountains during his daily journey. Christopher Woods points out that both in Sumerian and Akkadian, judgments had to be "cut" ( kud / parāsum ), and therefore considers the association with judgment to be most likely. The saw's presence is often used to identify depictions of gods as Utu. He could also be depicted holding the rod-and-ring symbol , commonly associated with major deities. In some cases he

7210-470: The name Aya , though the forms Ninkar, Sudaĝ, Sherida and Sudgan are also well attested. Typically they were worshiped together, though sometimes Shamash shared his temples with other gods instead. Utu/Shamash and Aya are the single most common divine couple in cylinder seal inscriptions from Sippar , with only the number of dedications to Ishkur and Shala being comparably high. Aya was believed to intercede with her husband on behalf of worshipers, which

7313-465: The name Kar-Shamash, KAR. UTU . Most likely a temple dedicated to the eponymous god existed there as well. In Babylon, Shamash was worshiped in the temple Edikukalamma ("house of the judge of the land"), first attested in the Old Babylonian period and still mentioned in inscriptions from the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II. He was also one of the many gods worshiped in the Esagil temple complex, where his seat

7416-406: The numeral 20, which was associated with him. Dozens of other variant names, epithets or possibly minor deities who came to be seen as synonymous with Utu are attested in god lists. Examples include Karkara (possibly related to Ninkar, one of the names of his wife Aya ), Nimindu (possibly related to the name of the goddess Nimintabba ), Si'e ("who shines forth"), Ṣalam (possibly a name referring to

7519-538: The open market, including many clay tablets . Brick robbing by locals was also occurring. To pre-empt this activity, the Iraq expedition of the Oriental Institute of Chicago conducted two seasons of excavations there between 1934 and 1936. The expedition was led by Henri Frankfort and the work at Ishchali was handled by Thorkild Jacobsen and Harold Hill, all of the Oriental Institute. A number of cuneiform tablets from

7622-399: The people of Sippar, Nippur and Babylon . Whether referred to as Utu or Shamash, the sun god had identical iconography. Due to distinct attributes, he is considered one of the few Mesopotamian deities who can be identified in art with certainty. Depictions of him are known from many sites, for example Eshnunna, Tell al-Rimah , Sippar , Ur and Susa . His best attested attributes are

7725-414: The primary god of justice, presumably because due to traveling through the sky every day he was believed to see everything that happened in the world. He could be assisted in this role by his father Nanna , his sister Inanna , and various minor judge deities. At least in the third millennium BCE, Ishtaran was regarded as a divine judge equal in rank to Utu, and a fragment of a myth from Ebla mentions

7828-534: The protective spirit for you.May your [e]ar be attentive to me!" Shamash/Sin Temple . Aside from the temple of Inanna-Kititum a temple of Shamash (or possibly Sin ) was also found. The excavators referred to the building as the Shamash Temple in all documents but also noted that evidence was mixed and that it could instead be a temple of Sin. In the 1920s, items from illegal excavations at Ishchali began appearing on

7931-573: The reign of Rim-Sîn I , a king of Larsa well known for his devotion to Ninshubur. Many deities belonging to the court of Utu were regarded as divine judges. They could be grouped together, and collective labels such as "Eleven Standing Gods of Ebabbar" or "Six Judges of Shamash" are known from various sources. One well known example of such a deity is Ishmekarab , who could also be associated with Inshushinak and Lagamal . Kusarikku (bull-men, or, as argued by Frans Wiggermann, bison -men ) were frequently associated with Utu, and especially through

8034-462: The second millennium BCE were commonly depicted as members of his court, for example as standard bearers. Similarly, the human-headed bull ( alima ) could accompany the solar disc in art, and a reference to its head serving as an emblem of Utu is known. It is possible that the association between bison-like mythical beings and the sun god was based on their shared connection to eastern mountains. A further type of apotropaic creature associated with Utu

8137-424: The secrets of the gods for you./On the advice of the gods and by the command of Anu, the country is given you to rule./You will ransom the upper and lower country,/you will amass the riches of the upper and lower country./Your commerce will not diminish, there will be a perm[anent] food of peace [for] any country that your hand keeps hold of./I, Kititum, will strengthen the foundations of your throne,/I have established

8240-597: The site was worked by a joint team of the American Schools of Oriental Research and the University of Pennsylvania led by Delougaz. They worked primarily in the Nintu temple on mound A (along with the cemetery to the east and northeast of the temple) and with soundings on mound B. Among the small finds at the site was an Akkadian period die . and a terracotta incantation bowl written in "typical Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of

8343-464: The sky from east to west, and at night in the opposite direction through AN.ŠAG 4 , a "nether sky" located directly above the underworld , though the notion of a night journey only developed later, and in sources from the third millennium BCE Utu usually rests at night. A reference to the latter tradition is also known from the "Standard Babylonian" version of the Epic of Gilgamesh , where Shamash meets with his wife Aya after sunset. Utu's vehicle

8446-419: The sun god, and that the former functioned as his sukkal during his nightly journey through the underworld, while the latter fulfilled the same role during the day. Lugal-namtarra is otherwise sparsely attested and might be analogous to Namtar . Boivin speculates that SUKKAL developed from the male version of Ninshubur, and assumes it is plausible a connection between the latter and the sun god developed during

8549-417: The sun was believed to set, was regarded as "the entrance of Shamash to Aya" ( nēreb Šamaš <ana> Aya ), the place where they were able to reunite each day after he finished his journey through the sky. The deities counted among Utu's children include the dream goddess Mamu (as well as two other, male, dream deities, Sisig and Zaqar ), Šumugan , a god associated with animals, Niggina ( Kittum ),

8652-600: The sun was believed to set. Among their children were Kittum , the personification of truth, dream deities such as Mamu , as well as the god Ishum . Utu's name could be used to write the names of many foreign solar deities logographically. The connection between him and the Hurrian solar god Shimige is particularly well attested, and the latter could be associated with Aya as well. While no myths focusing on Utu are known, he often appears as an ally of other figures in both Sumerian and Akkadian compositions. According to narratives about Dumuzi 's death, he helped protect him when

8755-525: The tablets with the remainder being in the Iraq Museum . The Iraq Museum's Sumerian Gallery displays several Sumerian statues from the Temple of Sin and the Temple of Nintu (V and VI), including part of a hoard found at the Nintu Temple. Some finds are also housed at the Sulaymaniyah Museum . Shamash Shamash ( Akkadian : šamaš ), also known as Utu ( Sumerian : utu 𒀭𒌓 " Sun " )

8858-549: The temple of Inanna of Kiti being analyzed. The name of Sadlas was also proposed, though an agreement between the rulers of Nērebtum and Šadlaš on the disposition of prisoners of war is now known. A number of bricks of Ipiq-Adad II were found in the Kitium temple inscribed with: "To Inanna Kititum did Ipiq-Adad, the mighty king, the king who enlarged Eshnunna, shepherd of the dark headed (people), beloved of Tispak, son of Ibal-pi-el, grant Neribtum" One ruler of Nērebtum, Ikūn-pî-Sîn,

8961-479: The toponym Sippar-Amnanum or to a root attested in Northwest Semitic languages , ' -m-n , which can be translated as "to be reliable" or "to be firm." The most common writing of the sun god's name was the logogram UTU, which could be read as Utu, Shamash, or, as attested in the god list An = Anum , as Amna. Syllabic spellings of all three of these names are also known. A further logographic spelling used

9064-461: The word addu , "storm." The Amorite form of the name is Samsu, as attested for example in the theophoric name Samsu-iluna ("Samsu is our god"). The ancient Aramaic form of the name was most likely Śameš, though many variant syllabic spellings are attested. Additionally, the name for the sun in Mandaean cosmology , Shamish ( Mandaic language : ࡔࡀࡌࡉࡔ ), is derived from Akkadian Shamash. Utu

9167-403: The world. It was believed that his daily journey let him see everything happening on earth. He was also responsible for protection of travelers. Formulas common in both prayers and literary compositions indicate that he was likely often invoked outside temples, presumably as an astral body. Early morning was likely regarded as the most appropriate time for imploring him for help. Utu was also

9270-443: Was Kittum, whose name has the same meaning, "truth." In An = Anum Kittum is instead male and a brother of Niggina. She had a sukkal of her own, Iqbi-damiq . None of Utu's sukkals known from other sources are present in documents from the archive of the First Sealand dynasty . Odette Boivin proposes that in local tradition, this role was instead fulfilled by the deities Lugal-namtarra and SUKKAL, who frequently appear alongside

9373-522: Was a solar chariot , which was pulled by four animals bearing the Sumerian names Uhegalanna ("the abundant light of heaven"), Uhushgalanna ("the terrifying great light of heaven"), Usurmurgalanna ("the dreadful great light of heaven") and Unirgalanna ("the noble light of heaven"). Their species is not entirely consistent, though in most cases the sun chariot is apparently associated with equids : "choice steeds" ( niskum ) in an inscription of Gudea , horses in various prayers and incantations, and mules in

9476-505: Was influenced at least in part by his Mesopotamian counterpart. Gary Beckman goes as far as suggesting that at least in Hittite texts, he "cannot (yet?) be distinguished sufficiently" from the latter. Due to this association, Aya was regarded as his spouse in Hurrian tradition, as attested in sources from Hattusa and Ugarit. In the trilingual god list, Bunene (transcribed as wu-u-un-ni-nu-wa-an ) appears in association with Shimige. Shimige

9579-457: Was inspired by motifs found in presentation scenes from the Ur III period . It shows three individuals, an intercessory minor goddess ( lamma ) and two men, possibly the king Nabu-apla-iddina and the priest Nabu-nadin-shumi, facing Shamash. While other anthropomorphic depictions of the sun god are known from Assyria from the same period, in Babylonia he came to be usually portrayed in the form of

9682-445: Was jointly dedicated to Nisaba , Kusu , Ningal , Shamash and Bēl-āliya. In the Old Babylonian period, Shamash was worshiped in Susa in Elam , where the local pantheon consisted out of both Elamite deities, such as Inshushinak and Simut , and Mesopotamian ones. He appears in oath formulas and theophoric names. In Mari, Shamash was worshiped in a temple named Egirzalanki ("house of

9785-401: Was named "Year after the year Tutub was seized". A later ruler of Eshnunna, Warassa, had the cryptic year name "Year Tutub was restored". Later, after Eshnunna was captured by Babylon, a fort was built at the site by Samsu-iluna in his 24th year of rule (c. 1726 BC) of the Old Babylonian Empire and named Dur-Samsuiluna, his year name saying "he erected Dur-Samsu-iluna in the land of Warum on

9888-457: Was not deified, despite the existence of a tradition attributing divine ancestry to him. In various sources, Utu seems to serve as a special protector to several of Uruk's other kings. AMAR.UD, an early writing of Marduk 's name, can be translated as "bull calf of Utu," as long as it is assumed that the sign UD should be understood as a writing of Utu's name without the divine determinative (a cuneiform sign preceding names of deities), which

9991-406: Was particularly venerated in Sippar and Larsa . The moon god Nanna (Sin) and his wife Ningal were regarded as his parents, while his twin sister was Inanna (Ishtar). Occasionally other goddesses, such as Manzat and Pinikir , could be regarded as his sisters too. The dawn goddess Aya (Sherida) was his wife, and multiple texts describe their daily reunions taking place on a mountain where

10094-415: Was the ancient Mesopotamian sun god . He was believed to see everything that happened in the world every day, and was therefore responsible for justice and protection of travelers. As a divine judge, he could be associated with the underworld . Additionally, he could serve as the god of divination , typically alongside the weather god Adad . While he was universally regarded as one of the primary gods, he

10197-527: Was the girtablullu ("scorpion man"). In the Standard Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh , a scorpion man and a scorpion woman guard the mountain of sunrise. According to Christopher Woods, it is possible that in a single case the minor serpentine god Nirah is attested as a member of the court of Shamash. He proposes that it was a result of the well attested association between the sun god and Ishtaran , whose servant Nirah usually was. The name of

10300-557: Was the E-ešbaranki ("house of decisions of heaven and the underworld"). A socle dedicated to him called Edikugal ("house of the great judge") was also present in Erabriri, most likely the temple bearing this name located in Babylon which was dedicated to Mandanu . In Assur, a temple of Shamash was refounded by king Arik-den-ili , though as no name is given in sources mentioning this event it

10403-426: Was their original owner. In the second millennium BCE, Utu was typically portrayed in front of worshipers, either standing or seated on a throne. One well known example of such an image is a stele of Hammurabi of Babylon , inscribed with his legal code . Anna Kurmangaliev points out that only a single depiction of the sun god in anthropomorphic form has been identified among works of art from Babylonia from

10506-469: Was understood as a masculine deity. According to Manfred Krebernik, this most likely also resulted in his Akkadian counterpart being viewed as such, even though in the majority of Semitic languages both the word referring to the sun itself and names of solar deities are grammatically feminine . Julia M. Asher-Greve considers this the oldest attested example of a Mesopotamian deity's gender being impacted by syncretism . However, not all researchers agree with

10609-521: Was used for domestic type activities in the later periods). The many tablets found there give an excellent picture of temple life. A number of cylinder seals dating from the Early Dynastic to the Larsa period were also found there, assumed to be relic donations to the temple. Cylinder seals, from the Isin-Larsa and Old Babylon periods, were also found at the Shamash temple and in private homes. The location of Kiti,

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