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111-705: The people who inhabited the Iron Gates area during this period of time have been surmised, through archaeological discoveries, to have lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, living off food they gather from land or from the Danube River. Varying burial practices have also been observed by these people. Major sites within this archaeological complex include Lepenski Vir . Despite a foraging economy, stages at this site dated at c. 6300–6000 BCE have been described as "the first city in Europe", due to its permanency, organisation, as well as

222-595: A commodity, a new way of life replaced the old social structure. Distinct characteristics of Lepenski Vir culture, such as its house architecture and piscine sculptures, gradually disappeared. Lepenski Vir III is representative of a Neolithic site and is more typical of other comparable sites across a much wider area. The exact mechanism of this transition remains unclear, but the evidence suggests development through evolution rather than invasion from without. A group of 80 institutes and 117 researchers, including archaeologists Andrej Starović and Dušan Borić from Serbia, published

333-454: A fireplace (hearth) in the form of an elongated rectangle situated on the long axis of the floor plan. These fireplaces were built from massive rectangular stone blocks. The fireplaces are further extended with stone blocks to create a kind of small shrine in the back of the house. These shrines were always decorated with sculptures carved from massive round river stones and represent perhaps river gods or ancestors. Another significant feature of

444-533: A large outer fireplace along with and an apparently not very practical internal one, prompted Pavlović to conclude that the small hole in the house floor actually served to hold and maintain the fire or ember, which developed over time into a ritual. He compared it to the way the Pythian priestesses kept the fire at Delphi . The remains of the settlements in Lepenski Vir abide by the universal rules of architecture, so

555-502: A long, intertwined arch-like wattle ("fish skeleton") while Živojin Andrejić opted for transversal arches. Diagonally crisscrossed arches, with one wide at the entrance to prevent a bottleneck, were proposed by Pavlović. Srejović originally distanced himself from any of the proposed reconstructions, considering all of them flawed in some way. In his 1969 book he did print the reconstruction of Đorđe Mitrović, however his text differed greatly from

666-561: A lot owned by a local farmer, Manojlo Milošević. Subsequently, after almost three years of inactivity, archaeological exploration of the region was organized by the Belgrade Institute for Archaeology. Construction of the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station , which would flood the bank regions with its artificial lake, was slated to begin, so archaeologists wanted to explore the area as much as possible before that happened. The head of

777-513: A majority of the Iron Gate burials consisted of the person being in a supine position, with their hands laying on their sides or on their chest. There are other cases in which various limbs are flexed while the body remains in the supine position and in extreme cases there have been burials discovered at Padina, Vlasac and Lepenski Vir with crossed legs, which suggests that the bodies were buried in graves too small for them. Secondary inhumations involves

888-575: A more complex variant of Petar Đorđević, who worked on the excavation on the Padina location. Bojana Mihajlović and Andrej Starović from the National Museum in Belgrade created a holographic animation of the house based on the "shallow" purlin and with animal hides on the roof instead of pieces of wood. In complete contrast was the holographic version of the house by Borić. In the later period of explorations on

999-585: A new population began to settle the Balkans and the Danube valley. Evidence shows that these Neolithic newcomers mixed with the indigenous population in Lepenski Vir. Arriving from Asia Minor , the Early European Farmers had a completely different lifestyle. They brought the first grain crops, knowledge of agriculture, and the husbandry of sheep, cattle, and goats. Based on their research, Starović concluded that

1110-441: A population of less than one hundred. The primary food source of the inhabitants was probably fishing . Fishing communities of this type are typical for the wider Danube valley region during this period. In later periods, the problems of overpopulation of the settlement became evident and led to important sociological changes. Archaeological findings in the surrounding area show evidence of temporary settlements, probably built for

1221-524: A settlement, so Kujović and Kostić surveyed it. They found so many ceramic fragments that it was like uncovering a ceramics workshop. Kujović recognized it as an important archaeological site, collected fragments, dated them as being part of the Starčevo culture and made a report for the Institute. Srejović, intrigued by the findings, contacted Kujović in 1961 for detailed information. Srejović managed to acquire

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1332-599: A small hole in the shell. Beads and pendants made from bone and antler have been found with buried skeletons, as well as pharyngeal teeth from fish and red-deer canines, which were sewn onto cloth and leather and thus worn. Technology in the Mesolithic era of the Iron Gates region consisted mostly of various tools and weapons made from bone, red-deer antlers and boar tusks. Tools dated to the Late Mesolithic included hoes, awls, arrowheads, and scrapers all of which were made from

1443-593: A small stone plate, which is pressed into the floor in House 40. The "legs" of the installation extend almost to the outside of the house. The round depression, which also can't be definitively explained (fireplace, ash hollow, etc.) is in this section, and is equally accessible from both the inside and outside as it is situated at the entrance to the house. In the literature, it is also referred to as "(slanted) stone doorsteps" or simply "entrance". Babović noticed that there are several variants of it, which prompted her to classify

1554-455: A two-way autosomal DNA admixture model two were Early European Farmers (with isotope analysis showing that they were migrants that did not grow at Lepenski Vir ), one of mixed Western Hunter-Gatherer -EEF and one of WHG-ancestry. Marchi et al. (2022) analysed two males samples, they had Y-DNA haplogroup C1a2b and G2a2b2a1a1c with mtDNA haplogroups K1a1 and H3v. Brami et al. (2022) re-examined and reviewed many male and females samples from

1665-588: Is an important archaeological site of the Lepenski Vir culture (also called as Lepenski Vir-Schela Cladovei culture ). It includes Mesolithic Iron Gates Hunter-Gatherers period and transition to Early Neolithic Early European Farmers period of the Balkans . The latest radiocarbon and AMS data suggests that the chronology of Lepenski Vir spans between 9500/7200 and 5500 BC, divided into Early–Middle Mesolithic, Late Mesolithic, Transition and Neolithic. There

1776-641: Is based Van Oven (2009). In June 2022, an alternative phylogeny for haplogroup L was suggested Macro-haplogroup L is the most basal of human mtDNA haplogroups, from which all other haplogroups descend (specifically, from haplogroup L3). It is found mostly in Africa. Macro-haplogroup M is found mostly in Asia and the Americas. Its descendants are haplogroup M , haplogroup C , haplogroup Z , haplogroup D , haplogroup E , haplogroup G and haplogroup Q . Macro-haplogroup N

1887-436: Is believed that, in order to render the trapezoid shape of both the plateau and the houses they must have used sticks, tightening of ropes, vertical rods, etc., or natural features, such as shadows. The history of architecture still provides no definite answer as to which is older: the house (as a habitat) or the temple (as a shrine). In Lepenski Vir, it appears that there was a process of gradual desacralization , meaning that

1998-655: Is found mostly in Australia, the Americas and parts of Asia. Its descendants are haplogroup N , haplogroup O , haplogroup A , haplogroup S , haplogroup I , haplogroup W , haplogroup X and haplogroup Y , as well as macro-haplogroup R. Macro-haplogroup R is found mostly in Europe, Northern Africa, the Pacific and parts of Asia and the Americas. Its descendants are haplogroup R , haplogroup B , haplogroup F , haplogroup H , haplogroup V , haplogroup J , haplogroup T , haplogroup U and haplogroup K A 2004 paper suggested that

2109-437: Is original and not recorded in any other locality. The material used for the floors is the local limestone clay, which, when mixed with animal dung and ash, hardens like concrete. As a result, the floors are in almost perfect condition. On the edges of the floors there are remnants of the stone reinforcements which served as supports for the upper construction elements, indicating that the houses were covered. The roofing material

2220-567: Is some disagreement about when the settlement and culture of Lepenski Vir began, but the latest data indicates that it was between 9500 and 7200 BC. The late Lepenski Vir (6300–6000 BC) architectural phase saw the development of unique trapezoidal buildings and monumental sculpture, related with the admixing of Iron Gates Hunter-Gatherers with newly arrived Early European Farmers . The Lepenski Vir site consists of one large settlement with around ten satellite villages. Numerous piscine sculptures and peculiar architectural remains have been found at

2331-675: The Mesolithic to the Neolithic period, when it was succeeded by the Neolithic Vinča culture and Starčevo culture , both upstream the Danube, 135 km (84 mi) and 139 km (86 mi) from Lepenski Vir, respectively. A number of satellite villages belonging to the same culture and time period were discovered in the surrounding area. These additional sites include Hajdučka Vodenica, Padina, Vlasac, Ikaona, Kladovska Skela, and others. Found artifacts include tools made from stone and bone,

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2442-560: The Miroč and Kučaj mountain massifs , with total area of 1,330 km (510 sq mi), and was the first such designation in Serbia. Lepenski Vir is located on the right bank of the Danube in eastern Serbia , within the Iron Gates gorge. It is situated in the village of Boljetin , near Donji Milanovac . The view above and across the Danube is wide open and the stable and enduring terrain on

2553-404: The fireplaces (hearths) of houses. The complex social structure was dominated by a religion which probably served as a binding force for the community and a means of coordination of activity for its members. Numerous sacral objects that were discovered in this layer support this theory. The most remarkable examples are piscine sculptures, unique to the Lepenski Vir culture, which represent one of

2664-449: The matrilineal inheritance of modern humans back to human origins in Africa and the subsequent spread around the globe. The letter names of the haplogroups (not just mitochondrial DNA haplogroups) run from A to Z. As haplogroups were named in the order of their discovery, the alphabetical ordering does not have any meaning in terms of actual genetic relationships. The hypothetical woman at

2775-459: The "prototype house", House 49. It also has been suggested that the furnace from Lepenski Vir was a prototype for building of other furnaces, due to the archetypical uniformity of bread ovens in the wider Balkan area, as well as the canonical repetition of the same shape from the Neolithic to the modern age. The outer fireplace was almost a continuation of the internal central installation. Placed at

2886-426: The Danube River. This almost coincides with the shift from Early to Middle Mesolithic, however some historians regard this event as the true beginning of the Mesolithic, and that beforehand was the ‘ Epipalaeolithic ’. This shift from a more nomadic lifestyle to a permanent settlement, caused the people of this area to depend more on the river for food, which can be seen through an increased amount of nitrogen isotopes in

2997-408: The Institute for the protection of the monuments, created a model based on the pronounced inclination of the purlin, removal of the central pillar and a change in the direction of the roof carrier. In this way, the concept of a slender, elongated construction was achieved, which allowed efficient conduction of smoke to the outside. It was based on an older version of the simple tripod by Velizar Ivić and

3108-497: The Iron Gates Mesolithic are hard to determine due to no observable characters on the surface, however some burials are below low stone mounds or encircled by large stones. The people of the Iron Gates have sometimes been found to have objects with them in their graves, including animal and human skulls, antlers, tools and body ornaments. However, some of the bone objects found in burials can't be considered burial goods, due to

3219-416: The Iron Gates Mesolithic people's often burying people in areas previously used for other burials and settlement. The most notable object found in burials are marine shells and carp pharyngeal teeth beads, which were worn on clothes. Various examples of architecture have been discovered in the Iron Gates Mesolithic sites, most notably various remains of houses and hearths . Buildings in Lepenski Vir, one of

3330-546: The Iron Gates people themselves. Relationships with these other communities weren't always peaceful, as bodies found in graves in some locations have been found to have died from arrow wounds and broken bones, such as skull fractures, which suggest that there was occasional violence in the area between different communities. Lepenski Vir Epipalaeolithic Near East Caucasus Zagros Lepenski Vir ( Serbian Cyrillic : Лепенски Вир , "Lepena Whirlpool"), located in Serbia ,

3441-421: The Iron Gates was the domestication of large amounts of dogs, which were eaten when food was low. This was seen by the many dog bones found with scorch marks and butchery marks on them. Several different types of burials have been seen at various sites in the Iron Gates including primary and secondary inhumation, collective burials, and cremation. In the case of primary inhumations, similar to modern-day burials,

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3552-658: The Lepenski Vir culture including from Hofmanová et al. (2017–2022), finding also Y-DNA haplogroups C2c and I2 , but mtDNA haplogroups initially predominantly were U5 and H but with Neolithic transition (~ 5900 BC) prevalent became mtDNA lineages J, X, T, N1a. Autosomally it is concluded that the "individuals from the Mesolithic or Proto-Lepenski Vir phase (~ 9500–7400 BC) at the eponymous site of Lepenski Vir are well modelled as 100% Iron Gates HGs , without Aegean ancestry , which arrives only after 6200 BC", and since then were admixed or 100% of Aegean-Early European Farmer ancestry. There are about 25 separate localities − including

3663-412: The Lepenski Vir site, with the remains of 136 residential and sacral buildings dating from 9500/7200 BC to 6000 BC. The layout of the houses, which are on an inclined promontory that opens to the river, is terrace-like and spread in a fan-shaped arrangement, allowing access to the river by people from houses further from the bank. As for the tools used for the construction works, not many have survived, or

3774-528: The Mesolithic period in the Iron Gates region last from approximately 13,000 cal BC to 6,000 cal BC. This is then split into three stages called the Early, Middle and Late Mesolithic. From the Mesolithic sites observed, it has been discerned that the hunter-gatherer sites show increasing sedentism , especially during the early Holocene period (around 7,600 cal BC) where the people living in caves and rock shelters, began to leave to settle in more permanent communities by

3885-404: The Padina location, attempted a reconstruction employing a basic "three-stick hut" arrangement. The "official", Mitrović's version, after many changes and adaptations became technically possible by the time of the opening of the visitor center in Lepenski Vir, in 2011. The main problem was the relation of the inclinations of the roof surface and the purlin . Marija Jovin and Siniša Temerinski, from

3996-654: The Southeastern European Hunter Gatherers, represented by the Iron Gates HGs, were separated from the Central and Western European HGs "since ~ 20 thousand years ago". The diet of the people of the Iron Gates Mesolithic relied heavily upon the Danube River, which was a key element of the life of these people. The regular findings of fish bones in the Iron Gates, combined with the increased nitrogen isotopes when compared to other communities in Europe, reveal

4107-524: The Vir I-e period, is overlaid with house XLIV from the Vir II, which covers 42 m (450 sq ft), making it the largest discovered house. It was obviously very important for the settlement, not just because of its size, but due to the location (it was nicknamed the "Central House") and the fact that its floor lapidarium yielded, depending on the source, 7-9 sculptures, more than any other house (17% out of

4218-505: The Vlasac locality, Borić constructed his version of a house on location, but it contains vertical walls which appeared much later in architecture. Some other proposed reconstructions were deemed even less possible as they included the orthogonal base or upper floor, based on the assumption that stony, garland-like reinforcements are actually remains of the former stone walls. Almost all proposed reconstructions, regardless of differences, belong to

4329-407: The architectural remains should be perceived and evaluated by those rules. However, the reconstruction of Lepenski Vir "resembles a gigantic, complex jigsaw puzzle , without an exemplar picture". Science still has no definitive answer as to what the houses looked like above ground and numerous ideas have been proposed by architects, urbanists, historians and anthropologists. Vojislav Dević suggested

4440-462: The area include various sites and towns, most notably Lepenski Vir, which is an Iron Gates settlement containing several trapezoidal building and has revealed a lot of information on the settlements in the area since the excavation of the town. The chronology of the Iron Gates Mesolithic is a bit contentious due to discrepancies in use of terminology and dates produced by carbon-dating and isotope analysis. However, based on more modern radiocarbon dates,

4551-407: The bay, they would have been able to maintain large fires outside the houses. A ritualistic significance for the outer fire's location has also been proposed (keeping the shadows inside the house, ritualistic bypassing of the fire when entering the house, fire as the entrance into the world of the spirits, etc.). Srejović pointed out that location of the outer fireplace was actually quite logical, given

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4662-488: The blending of the populations occurred almost immediately, during the first immigrant generation, which was unique, as in other parts of Europe two such different communities would initially live in proximity to each other. He believes that this melting pot was a keystone of human development in Europe. It produced the burgeoning of the Lepenski Vir culture, establishing the Balkan Neolithic, the most original occurrence in

4773-802: The bodies from this period as well as an increased representation of fish in art, sculptures and decorations. A 2017 doctoral thesis published by University of Mainz and 2018 study published in Nature included an analysis of a large number of individuals from the Iron Gates Mesolithic (from Lepenski Vir, Ajmana, Hajdučka Vodenica, Padina, Velešnica, Vlasac in Serbia and Cuina Turcului, Icoana, Ostrovul Corbului, Schela Cladovei in Romania) dating from 9500 BC to 5500 BC. They were most closely related to Western European hunter-gatherers , but with some additional affinity toward Eastern European hunter-gatherers and Anatolian Neolithic farmers . Their most common maternal haplogroup

4884-432: The burial of separate body parts prior to the body being decomposed. There were many examples of this technique in the Iron Gates, with the secondary burial of crania and jawbones being widespread. Instances of collective burial has been observed at some sites within this region as well as evidence of cremation, however there is only one site (Vlasac) in the Iron Gates that provides this evidence of cremation. Most burials in

4995-491: The central settlement and its satellite villages − in the Lepenski Vir-Kladovska Skela region. They were explored up until the 1980s, when the river valley was flooded after the construction of the Iron Gate I and Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Stations : Based on an amount of anthropological changes in the skeletons, a microevolution was attested, as Srejović estimated that at least 120 generations lived in

5106-477: The conditions were different. At Vlasac, for example, the natural, funnel-shaped gullies were adapted into the houses. House 49 is the smallest of all, and considered to be the most intriguing. The majority of researchers believe that this house was the prototype for the entire settlement. The hearth in this house is also the smallest, no larger than a shoe. Still, evidence shows that it was used for fire. The 30 m (320 sq ft) large house 57, from

5217-407: The dead buried under the floor, support for the construction of some larger stove-like object above the fireplace, symbols of light or fire, or simply vents for the heat from the fire. In all cases but one, the tips of the triangle are oriented towards the fireplace. The exception occurs in the locality of Kula. The prototype of the triangles appears to be the mandible of a female human, traversed with

5328-405: The dugout were plastered with mud which was then dried and hardened with fire. The clay was hardened to such an extent that architect Radmilo Petrović managed to remove the complete clay coverings intact, like giant clay bowls out of their mold. Another reason for digging the houses into the ground is the inclination of the terrain on which they were built, which is 11 degrees. In other localities,

5439-415: The end, quite rough and irregular stones, even though the geometry remained refined. It is suggested that the size of the fireplace is actually used as an etalon , a measurement module for the proportions of the house. Ristić said that the length of the fireplace is equal to the length of the spit, calculating that this length is the radius of the circumscribed circle which is the base of the house. Based on

5550-466: The entire prehistory in Europe. This was the foundation of the concepts of village, square, family - which then took hold across the continent. The modern Serbian population still incorporates some 10% of their genes from this original mix. In Mathieson et al. (2018) were analysed a male and three females from Lepenski Vir dated to 6000-5700 BC, the male carried Y-DNA haplogroup haplogroup R1b1a , while mtDNA haplogroups were HV, H13, H40, and J2b1. In

5661-400: The entrance, it also functioned as an obstacle ("fire serving as a door"). It probably served as protection against wild animals, but also for heating the house. The internal fireplace was too small for that purpose, and wood had to be cut and prepared for its small size. On the other hand, simply by bringing wood from the nearby abundant forests or utilizing large logs brought by the Danube into

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5772-402: The fireplace in an ellipsoid arrangement. They have been called simply triangles but also "triangular forms", "fireplace triangles" or "forks". Apart from Pešić's generally unsupported interpretation that they are a form of proto-writing, the triangles have been variously described as the "little houses for the dead", support for the spit's skewers , openings for the pouring of drinks and food for

5883-409: The fireplace the larger stones were placed, sometimes in two levels. They are variously called "stone tables", "sacrificial plates", " market stalls " or "hands". The stones were already embedded when the red plaster was poured. In the later period of the Lepenski Vir I phase, there are a smaller number of stones around the hole, or they disappear altogether. In their place triangles appear which encircle

5994-414: The first examples of monumental sacral art on European soil. Lepenski Vir gives us a rare opportunity to observe the gradual transition from the hunter-gatherer lifeways of early humans to the agricultural economy of the Neolithic. An increasingly complex social structure influenced the development of the planning and self-discipline necessary for agricultural production. Once agricultural products became

6105-435: The floor of the house. Babović described the floors as a "border between day and night". The central piece of the central section, the "body", was a hearth which has been the subject of scientific controversy. It was definitely used for fire, as evidence of burning and ash is found. It was elongated, in the proportion of 1:3 or 1:4, and surrounded by stones. In the older periods, thin stones were used, later thicker ones and in

6216-461: The genetics of the people who resided in the Iron Gates Mesolithic. An example of which is the use of isotopic analysis of nitrogen and sulphur to determine the diets of the people in comparison to other parts of Europe. Many special artefacts have been found in this area. These include decorated objects, such as tools made from stone, bone and antlers with decorations and stone artefacts (ornamental boulders, altars and sculptures). Major discoveries of

6327-478: The geometrical center of the house and part of the floor installation representing the "head" of the perceived figure, is also variously explained. As it has a dent in it, it was suggested that it served as a primitive lamp, the so-called "Magdalene lamp", a rushlight with a wick made of moss . The dent was conceivably made so that grease or tallow could be placed in it. Ristić opposed the theory saying that no evidence of fat or burning have been discovered in any of

6438-456: The houses (or shrines, as she called them) into 4 categories. The categories are: In the Neolithic, or Starčevo phase of Lepenski Vir, the Lepenians began building dome-shaped furnaces in the houses. They were built on the floor and made from compacted earth, with the horseshoe-shaped foundations made of crushed stone. The calotte, or the dome of the furnace was made of baked earth. The hut which

6549-399: The houses is a shallow circular depression in the ground located precisely in middle of the floor. This may represent some type of altar . The sculptures, fireplaces, altars, tables, arranged square stones, round depressions and intriguing triangles were all built ("concreted") into the hardened porphyritic floors. In all the houses they are in almost the same basic layout, which resembles

6660-451: The human figure. Scientists still disagree on the purpose of the artifacts, except that the fireplaces were indeed used for the fire. Still, the actual function is not clear. Archaeologist Milutin Garašanin  [ sr ] described them as a "cult pit" or eventually a "ritual fireplace". In 1968, architect Peđa Ristić expressed doubt that this was a simple fireplace. He asserted that

6771-481: The illustration. The concept was judged by some as clumsy, primitive, technically impossible and, simply, wrong. Even so, the drawings became internationally known. Srejović again distanced himself saying that such roof construction was too primitive for the perfectly shaped base, adding that we should allow for additional, still unknown elements which may have enabled a completely different construction. In 1973 he also rejected Ristić's reconstruction, claiming that none of

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6882-431: The immediate hinterland, there is a slope known as Košo Brdo . Embedded into it is the natural stone niche or rock shelter ( abij ), called Lepenska Potkapina , which was explored by archaeologist Branko Gavela  [ sr ] . Downstream from Lepenski Vir, in the direction of Vlasac, and half-way to the mouth of the small Boljetinka or Lepena river, the vertical 40 m (130 ft) high Lepena Rock rises over

6993-988: The largest Mesolithic towns in the Iron Gates, were of a trapezoidal shape and had floors of plaster, which were also seen in other Mesolithic towns such as Schela Cladovei and Vlasac. The houses discovered at these sites were generally small pit houses . The hearths discovered at these locations generally consisted of a rectangular frame and a border made from large stones, however not all hearths had this border. Some of these hearths were found surrounded by traces of floors and thus some hearths in these towns were inside houses while some were outside. The Iron Gates Mesolithic excavations have revealed several examples of ornamental boulders, sculptures and altars. The Lepenski Vir site shows many of these examples, with these artworks made from course grained sandstone pebbles and rocks, revealing carvings of heads, shells and several recurring motifs such as meanders , fishbone and plaits. The most prominent carvings on these ornamental sculptures and alters,

7104-473: The largest one covers 30 m (320 sq ft). Pit-houses appear in the early periods Vir III-a and III-b, which already corresponds to the Starčevo culture, though some can also be found in the oldest period, Proto-Vir. By digging to the level of the frost line, which is in this area no more than 80 cm (31 in) deep, the natural, constant temperature of the ground can be utilized. The walls of

7215-487: The layout of the Lepenski Vir Ia-e settlement. The village was well planned. All houses were built according to a single complex geometric pattern. The remains of these houses constitute the distinct Lepenski Vir architecture. The main layout of the village is clearly visible. The dead were buried outside the village in an elaborate cemetery . The only exceptions were apparently a few notable elders who were buried behind

7326-567: The layout within the house represents the human figure, but she believed that the figure is actually an anthropomorphized representation of the Sun, with added hands. She asserted that every house was actually a small Sun shrine and that plan of the settlement represents the astronomical movement of the Sun. She referred to the round stones as "ash holes", because ash was discovered in the round depressions. Philologist Petar Milosavljević  [ sr ] originally concluded that this ash hole, cornered by

7437-476: The likely outlook of the inhabitants at that time. "The only building materials the Lepenians had was being used to replicate life in a cave...so their houses had a cave-like atmosphere". Cave dwellers also light fires at the entrances to the caves; otherwise they would be asphyxiated. The memory of cave dwelling was probably still vivid at the time, as there were contemporaneous humans in other parts of Europe still living in caves or natural shelters. The existence of

7548-410: The low plateau dates back to 9500–7200 BC, a time when the climate became significantly warmer. Trescovăț , a bare porphyritic cliff (679 m (2,228 ft) high) rises on the left bank of the Danube opposite Lepenski Vir like a giant sentinel of the prehistoric settlement. Trescovăț may have been important to the inhabitants of Lepenski Vir as a solar observatory. The development of the settlement

7659-496: The materials mentioned above. Bones and antlers would be shaped, carved and rounded into points for various weapons and tools. Evidence from burials and artefacts have revealed that the people inhabiting the Iron Gates Mesolithic did have contact with other groups. Evidence of trade or some sort of exchange is seen through the presence of marine shells which are found in the Adriatic or Aegean seas, which most likely wasn't gathered by

7770-458: The measurements in 51 houses, it was established that the average fire cavity is 78 cm (31 in) long and 24 cm (9.4 in) wide, which gives the ratio 1:3.25. Average width is another reason why some archaeologists believe that this wasn't a proper fireplace, it being too narrow and impractical. The depth of the hole varies from 15 to 25 cm (5.9 to 9.8 in), but at least one quarter of those have sloping bottoms. In these cases,

7881-460: The millennia which separate then from now, the architectural plan of the settlement seems contemporary and fully recognizable to us today, while architect Bogdan Bogdanović has said that "everything, absolutely everything, to the smallest detail" about the Lepenski Vir, has enormous importance. The houses are completely standardized in design, but vary widely in size. The smallest of the houses have an area of 1.5 m (16 sq ft) while

7992-412: The necessary funding and on 6 August 1965 began exploration of the site with Zagorka Letica, which continued with excavations through 1966 and 1967. Probing of the terrain in 1965 grew into protective excavations in 1966 and developed into fully systematic excavations in 1967 as they dug deeper. The cultural-archaeological layer starts below the surface layer of humus, 50 cm (20 in) thick. It

8103-471: The ones that have are not recognized as such. Apart from the human instinct for best use of space and for a "pleasing to the eye" sense in architecture, it is quite possible that Lepenians possessed certain forms of knowledge in this area that we would not usually attribute to or expect from people of that era. Such knowledge may have atrophied over time as their society didn't survive and left no written documents. Mostly burned deer antlers were discovered, but it

8214-458: The outer one, vatrište . Excavations on the locality Vlasac point to the gradual transformation from vatrište to ognjište , or bringing the fire inside the houses. Regardless of which of the depressions are the proper fireplace, it is evident that the human-like floor installation comprises several elements, which are connected by some, still undeciphered, functional relationships, as well as by visual and artistic ones. A pebble stone, placed in

8325-424: The people's dependence on the marine life for food. The Danube River contained many different fish during this Mesolithic period, including sturgeon, however the most common fish consumed were Cyprinus carpio (carp) and Silurus glanis (catfish), due to their year-round presence in the river compared to other seasonal fish. Despite this, a wide variety of animals were also consumed, deduced by animal remains in

8436-401: The project at the time was Dušanka Vučković-Todorović, a fellow at the Institute. The area to be investigated was between the villages of Prahovo and Golubac . Archaeologist Obrad Kujović explored the Lepenski Vir section with his assistant Ivica Kostić, following the work of previous visitors and archaeologists such as Felix Philipp Kanitz and Nikola Vulić . The location appeared ideal for

8547-489: The proposed solutions so far seemed definitive and that every idea had some incorrect details. He asserted that any final solution would not do justice to the imagination of the creators, and that it would take generations to resolve the problem. Later, in 1980, Ristić received his PhD from the University of Graz on the subject "Reconstructions of the prehistoric architecture in Lepenski Vir". Borislav Jovanović, who explored

8658-434: The purpose of hunting and gathering of food or raw materials. This suggests a complex semi- nomadic economy with managed exploitation of resources in the area not immediately surrounding the village, something remarkable in terms of the traditional view of Mesolithic people of Europe. More complexity in an economy leads to occupational specialization and thus to social differentiation. These developments are clearly evident in

8769-453: The pyramidal or tent-like type (even though they are shaped like frustums ). Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup In human genetics , a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup is a haplogroup defined by differences in human mitochondrial DNA . Haplogroups are used to represent the major branch points on the mitochondrial phylogenetic tree. Understanding the evolutionary path of the female lineage has helped population geneticists trace

8880-402: The rectangular shape of the fireplace is impractical, with a poor capability of conducting the smoke away. However, when he was working on the reconstruction of the houses, Ristić concluded that probably every house had a spit , which explains the elongated shape of the fireplace pit. Radivoje Pešić  [ sr ] also was skeptical about the purpose of the fireplace. He focused rather on

8991-411: The rectangular stones, was the fireplace, following Pešić's idea, but later changed his opinion, accepting the general consensus that the rectangular depression in the center is the proper fireplace. Archaeologist Đorđe Janković  [ sr ] wrote of the "unusual stone fireplaces for complex ritual purposes". Srejović also made the semantic distinction between the inner fireplace, ognjište , and

9102-453: The red loam , which is also used by the local swallows to harden their nests. As for the structures which covered the houses, their appearance is not known. They may have resembled the modern brandy cauldron − wood covered with red clay − or they have used wattle instead of proper wood. According to Srejović, the planned design of the settlement, with its functionality and proportionality, shows an almost modern architectural sense. Despite

9213-479: The remains of houses, and numerous sacral objects including unique stone sculptures. It is assumed that the people of Lepenski Vir culture represent the descendants of the early European population of the Brno - Předmostí ( Czech Republic ) hunter gatherer culture from the end of the last ice age . Archeological evidence of human habitation of the surrounding caves dates back to around 20,000 BC. The first settlement on

9324-601: The results of their archaeogenetic - genomic research in Nature magazine in February 2018 (as Mathieson et al.). Genomes of 235 ancient inhabitants were studied. In terms of the area surrounding Lepenski Vir (localities of Starčevo, Saraorci-Jezava, Lepenski Vir, Padina, and Vlasac), it was established that the region's original population, the Hunter-Gatherers , inhabited the area for an extended time. Then, starting from c.7500 BC,

9435-401: The river's bank resists the intensely erosive effects of the Danube. Stability is secured by two or three boulders at the top of the plaz , a rocky cape jutting deeply into the river. The boulders acted as a natural anchor for the terrain on which the settlement developed. Long habitation on the site was also enabled by the proximity of the great river, the natural richness of the hinterland, and

9546-402: The river, which was the obvious focus of life for its inhabitants. The basic layout of the settlement consists of two separate wings and a wide empty central space which served as a village square or meeting place. The settlement is radially divided with numerous pathways leading to the edge of the river. The outer edges of the village are parallel to the surrounding cliffs. Domestic objects mark

9657-566: The river. At the foot of the rock, the Romans built a road that is today submerged at a depth of 13.5 m (44 ft) under the waters of Lake Đerdap, together with a road plaque commemorating Emperor Tiberius . The slope above the Danube between the Lepena Rock and the mouth of the Lepena river is also called Lepena, as is the bight where the slope ends. The site was discovered on 30 August 1960, on

9768-426: The root of all these groups (meaning just the mitochondrial DNA haplogroups) is the matrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) for all currently living humans . She is commonly called Mitochondrial Eve . The rate at which mitochondrial DNA mutates is known as the mitochondrial molecular clock . It is an area of ongoing research with one study reporting one mutation per 8000 years. This phylogenetic tree

9879-452: The second (Iron Gates II) between 1977 and 1984. Archaeological survey during this period led to the discovery of over 50 caves and other sites in this area, which together with more excavations lead to many discoveries of ancient artefacts, burial sites and art. The study of these findings, through scientific methods such as carbon dating and isotope analysis, revealed that they date back to the Mesolithic and Early Neolithic periods. Most of

9990-445: The section closer to the entrance of the house is 10 to 15 cm (3.9 to 5.9 in) lower. The overall size of the fireplaces varies, depending on the size of the house, but it appears to be more balanced than the sizes of the houses. The smallest fireplace is 13 to 26 cm (5.1 to 10.2 in), while the largest are in House 54 (32 to 111 cm (13 to 44 in)) and House 37 31.5 to 105 cm (12.4 to 41.3 in). Around

10101-435: The settlement (2,000 years) while Hungarian anthropologist János Nemeskéri  [ hu ] estimated that during the entire human habitation in Lepenski Vir, there were 240 to 280 generations, or almost 5,000 years of continual habitation. They made the distinction between the Lepenski Vir culture (1,500–2,000 years) and simple occupation of the same habitat (5,000 years). Seven successive settlements were discovered on

10212-462: The settlement was permanent and planned, with an organized societal life, architect Hristivoje Pavlović labeled Lepenski Vir as "the first city in Europe". The Đerdap national park , which includes Lepenski Vir, was established in 1974. On 10 July 2020, the park's wider area was designated a UNESCO global geopark . Apart from the Iron Gates gorge, the Đerdap UNESCO Global Geopark includes parts of

10323-454: The shrines were converted into houses over time. The houses from the Vir I period are marked with Arabic numerals, while those from the Vir II with Roman numerals. For example, houses 61 and 65, from Vir I were superimposed by houses XXXIV and XXXV, from Vir II. All the settlements follow the shape of the underlying terrain, a horseshoe-shaped area of land. Settlements always face in the direction of

10434-411: The site. Archaeologist Dragoslav Srejović , who first explored the site, said that such large sculptures so early in human history, and the original architectural solutions, define Lepenski Vir as a specific and very early phase in the development of European prehistoric culture. The site was notable for its outstanding level of preservation and the overall exceptional quality of its artifacts. Because

10545-582: The sites discovered during the time the dams were being built are now submerged underwater due to those respective dams, however since the 90s new excavations have been recommenced. Improvements in archaeological techniques have led to increasingly accurate findings and more information of the location and people who inhabited the Iron Gates during the Mesolithic period. Methods such as carbon dating and stable isotope analysis from soil samples and human remains from burial sites, have led archaeologists to more accurately find what time period these people lived in and

10656-485: The sophistication of its architecture and construction techniques. Lepenski Vir consists of one large settlement with around 10 satellite villages. Numerous piscine sculptures and peculiar architecture have been found at the site. During the 1960s to the 1980s the Yugoslav and Romanian governments constructed two hydroelectric dams along the Danube River. The first dam (Iron Gates I) was constructed between 1964 and 1971, and

10767-409: The stones. He called the stones upretnik ("resistance stone") and believed their function was to serve as the foundation for the sticks or pillars, which held the covering construction of the house. During his reconstruction of the house, he used it for exactly that purpose. Another idea is that it was used as a pouring vessel (for honey, etc.) which was used during rituals. One proposed theory that it

10878-409: The swirling waters are more oxygenated, richer in algae and thus abundant in fish. The whirling current makes fishing easier than in the waters which rush through the gorge. Also, the swirling water actually deposited materials on the downstream side of the plaz , known today as Katarinine Livadice , making it stronger and more stable instead of allowing the fast and strong river current to erode it. In

10989-406: The thermic benefits of the accumulated limestone cliffs (considering the ice age which had just ended). Additionally, long-term habitation was facilitated by the presumed knowledge of some birth control practices, given the limited area on which the settlement could grow, even though it is believed that parts of the settlement remain undiscovered. Whirlpools were created by the protruding rocks, and

11100-591: The total of 52 sculptures). When the location was flooded, the study envisioned that the "flood line" would cross right through this house, which would have allowed for further explorations, but the suggestion was ignored and the flood line was breached when the reservoir was formed. The most representative sculptures were discovered in this house, such as the Praroditeljka ("Foremother"), Danubius, Praotac ("Forefather"), Rodonačelnik ("Progenitor"), and Vodena vila ("Water fairy"). The interior of each house includes

11211-562: The towns of the Iron Gates, revealing that large herbivores such as red and roe deers, pigs and aurochs were hunted for meat. Other animals were also hunted for their fur or feathers, however from the Romanian-British excavations at these sites, it was discovered that fish bones still outnumbered the bones from these other animals suggesting that this was a large part of their diet. Like many hunter-gatherer societies, winter provided challenges with food availability. The solution for this in

11322-408: The transition from tent structure to house. All the houses share a very distinct shape, built according to a complex geometric pattern. The basis of each of the houses is a circle segment of exactly 60 degrees, constructed in the manner of an equilateral triangle . The tip of the trapezoid base, a shape previously unknown in human settlements, faces into the wind ( košava ). The shape of the house base

11433-468: The triangles, which he claimed represented the ancient archetype of a writing system . This is not supported by recent science, and they are still being considered as symbols, not proto-letters. Pešić also concluded, since the symbols spread from the fireplace in a sequence that can't be deciphered, that it was actually a sacrificial altar and called the entire complex of artifacts a "fire altar". Archaeologist Ljubinka Babović accepted Srejović's theory that

11544-418: Was U5 , typical of European hunter-gatherers, but they also carried haplogroups U4 , K1 , and a single case of H13 . Their paternal haplogroups were I and R , which predominated in other European hunter-gatherers as well. Where a finer classification was possible, the R was specifically R1b1a-L754 (not belonging to subclade R1b1a1a-P297), and the I belonged to I2a-L460. In 2022 studies was considered that

11655-430: Was built on the most elevated section of the settlement's terrain and was positioned almost in the center of it, had the largest furnace, 1.5 m × 1.4 m × 0.5 m (4 ft 11 in × 4 ft 7 in × 1 ft 8 in). Some researchers believe that due to its size and position, it was probably built for communal use, but they have also pointed out that its proportions equal those of

11766-440: Was only in 1967, after the discovery of the first Mesolithic sculptures, that the site's importance was fully understood. These findings were publicly announced on 16 August 1967. The excavations ended in 1971 when the whole site was relocated 29.7 m (97 ft) higher to avoid flooding from the newly formed Đerdap Lake, created by the construction of the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station. The main exploration of this site

11877-532: Was some easily degradable material or was similar to the surrounding loess , making it indistinguishable from the loess found during the excavations. The plaster, a reddish muddy clay, is still abundant in the region. In the village of Boljetin there are still several houses plastered with it. The material is called lep , hence the name of the locality, Lepenski Vir , or literally "red clay whirlpool". Even today, brandy-producing cauldrons, called lepenac , are still being used. They are made of wood, but plastered with

11988-413: Was strongly influenced by the topology of the surrounding area. It sat on a narrow promontory on the bank of the river, hemmed between cliffs and the flow of the Danube. As such it offered only limited resources in terms of food, raw materials and living space. This is reflected in the findings from the earliest layer. Proto-Lepenski Vir represents only a small settlement of perhaps four or five families with

12099-499: Was the heads consisting of eyebrows, eyes, ears, noses and mouths and containing Ichthyoid influences, shown from the scales some of these sculptures had, supporting the importance of the Danube River on these cultures. The people of the Iron Gates Mesolithic have been found to wear decorative adornments sewn onto their clothes. The adornments consisted of shells, animal teeth and bones, and antler. Shells from local aquatic life such as snails and molluscs, were sewn on clothes by putting

12210-479: Was the work of professor Dragoslav Srejović of the University of Belgrade . Exploring up to the depth of 3.5 m (11 ft), 136 or 138 buildings, settlements and altars were found in the initial excavations in 1965–1970. A necropolis was discovered in 1968. The main site comprises several archeological phases starting with Proto-Lepenski Vir, then Lepenski Vir Ia through Ie, Lepenski Vir II and Lepenski Vir III, whose occupation spanned 1,500 to 2,000 years, from

12321-418: Was used a grindstone was rejected as this was still in the pre-harvesting period. However, it may have been used for grinding wild seeds or aromatic herbs. The stones have curious engravings in the lower section. As the stones were "cemented" into the floor, the engravings couldn't be observed by the living from above ground, so it is suggested that they were meant for the dead, which were sometimes buried under

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